CASE STUDY

HALLUCINATION
S

Name: Shailja Thakur

Class: XII CBSE INT

School: Christ Academy Junior College

(ACKNOWLEDGEMENT)
(CERTIFICATE)
 INDEX

[Link]. Particular Page No. Signature

1. Introduction to
Case study
2. Tools and
techniques used
3. Objective of a case
study
4. Identification of
Data
5. Family History
6. Medical History
7. Habits, interests
and talents
8. Interview with the
subject
9. Interview with
Significant Others

10. Maudsley`s
Personality
Inventory
11. Sinha`s
Comprehensive
Anxiety test
12. Self Concept
Questionnaire
13. Adjustment
Inventory for
School Students
14. Conclusion and
suggestions
15. Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION

"Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes, experiences, and behavior in different
contexts."
It focuses on understanding how people think, feel, and behave, considering both biological and
environmental influences.

1. MENTAL PROCESSES
We use our mental processes when we think or try to solve a problem, to know or remember
something.
One level at which these mental processes are reflected is the brain activity. As we think or solve
a mathematical problem, our brain activities can be observed using different techniques of brain
imaging.
However, we cannot say that brain activities and mental processes are the same, although they
are interdependent.
Mental activities and neural activities are mutually overlapping processes, but they are not
identical.
Unlike the brain, the mind does not have a physical structure or has a location. Mind emerges
and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically organized in the
form of a system, which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes.
Brain activities provide important clues to how our mind functions. But the consciousness of our
own experiences and mental processes are much more than the neural or brain activities. Even
when we sleep, some mental activities go on.

2. EXPERIENCES
Experiences are subjective in nature. We cannot directly observe or know someone else's
experience. Only the experiencing person can be aware or be conscious of her or his experience.
Thus, experiences are embedded in our awareness or consciousness. Psychologists have focused
on experiences of pain being undergone by terminally ill patients or of psychological pain felt in
bereavement, besides experiences which lead to positive feelings, such as in romantic
encounters.
Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the experiencer. If you are
traveling in a crowded bus during a hot summer day, you may not experience the usual
discomfort if you are going for a picnic with some close friends.

3. BEHAVIOUR
Are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. When something is hurled at you,
your eyes blink in a simple reflex action. You are taking an examination and can feel your heart
pounding.
You decide to go for a particular movie with a friend. Behaviours may be simple or complex,
short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt. They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an
observer.
Some are internal or covert. When you are in a difficult situation while playing a game of chess,
you almost feel your hand muscles twitching, trying to experiment with a move. All behaviours,
covert or overt, are associated with or triggered by some stimulus in the environment or changes
that happen internally.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
A psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to measure objectively one or more
aspects of total personality by means of verbal or non-verbal responses. Standardization means
the test is objective, reliable, and valid.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

Standardisation – The procedures are specified precisely so that different testers will follow the
same procedures when they administer the same test to different subjects. This means that test
performance of different people or the same person at different occasions can be compared
directly.
Objectivity – It refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test
on the same group of people, both of them would come up with the same values for each person
in the group. The items convey the same meaning to everyone. Specific instructions and the
procedure for administering the test are specified. The impact of personal bias is controlled.

NORMS
Norm is an average score on a particular test made by a specific population. Reference to a test
table of norms enables us to rank an individual’s performance relative to an age group.

RELIABILITY
It refers to the consistency of the scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two
different occasions.
Types of Reliability-
Test-Retest Reliability – It is computed by finding the coefficient of correlation between the two
sets of scores on the same set of persons. It indicates the temporal stability of test scores.
Split-Half Reliability – It gives an indication about the degree of internal consistency of the test.
The test is divided into two equal halves employing the odd-even method.

VALIDITY
The type of test being administered must measure what it is intended to measure.

STANDARDISED INSTRUCTIONS
Standardized instructions are given in the manual. The tester gives these instructions only to
maintain uniformity.

UNIFORMITY IN CONDUCTION
The tester conducts the test in a uniform way irrespective of their culture.
A case study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of his/her psychological attributes,
psychological history in the context of his/her psycho-social and physical environment. Case
studies are analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other
systems that are studied holistically by one or more method. The case that is the subject of the
inquiry will be an instance of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame — an
object — within which the study is conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates.

CASE STUDY:
Case studies are widely used by clinical psychologists, case analyses of the lives of great people
can also be highly illuminating for those willing to learn from their life experiences.
The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the
case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific
social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic
in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of
research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection
and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies such as qualitative techniques
(unstructured interviews, participant observation, diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters,
photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).

The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative
phenomenological analysis, text interpretation (e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches
mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their
approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried
out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his
patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CASE STUDY:

1. A descriptive study
a. (I.e. the data collected constitute descriptions of psychological processes and events, and of the
contexts in which they occurred (qualitative data).
b. The main emphasis is always on the construction of verbal descriptions of behaviour or
experience but quantitative data may be collected.

c. High levels of detail are provided.

2. Narrowly focused.
a. Typically a case study offers a description of only a single individual, and sometimes about
groups.
b. Often the case study focuses on a limited aspect of a person, such as their psychopathological
symptoms.

3. Combines objective and subjective data

a. i.e. the researcher may combine objective and subjective data: All are regarded as valid data
for analysis, and as a basis for inferences within the case study.
i. The objective description of behaviour and its context
ii. Details of the subjective aspect, such as feelings, beliefs, impressions or interpretations. In
fact, a case study is uniquely able to offer a means of achieving an in-depth understanding of the
behaviour and experience of a single individual.

4. Process-oriented.
a. The case study method enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes,
which occur over time.
b. In contrast to the experimental method, which basically provides a stilled ‘snapshot’ of
processes, which may be continuing over time like for example the development of language in
children over time.
STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDY:
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies give psychological researchers the possibility to investigate cases, which could not
possibly be engineered in research laboratories. For example, the Money Case Study.
Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that
might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can
help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each other. The method is
therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic
psychologists).

LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDIES:

• Can’t generalize the results to the wider population.
• Researchers own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time consuming.
Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure whether
conclusions drawn from this particular case apply elsewhere. The results of the study are not
generalizable because we can never know whether the case we have investigated is
representative of the wider body of "similar" instances
Because they are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot depends on the
interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired.

TYPES OF CASE STUDIES:

1. On the basis of number of individuals:

Person/individual: The study of one single individual, generally using several different research
methods. Since there is only one individual, it emphasizes analysis in depth. Such individual case
study is a time honoured procedure in the field of medicine and medical researchers.
Group/Community: The study of a single distinctive set of people, such as a family or small
group of friends. Such a case study is a thorough observation and analysis of a group of people
who are living together in a particular geographical territory. It tries to deal with various
elements of the community life such as economic activity, climatic and natural resources,
historical development, social life values, health and education etc.

2. On the basis of purpose:

Deviant Case analysis: The researchers starts with difference already found between two people
or groups and his/her task is to read backwards, to deduce the condition that might have
produced the differences.
Isolated Clinical Case Analysis: Related to individual units with respect to some analytical
problems, such studies have become popular in psychoanalysis.

3. Methods used in Case study

 Observation of behaviour, characteristics and social qualities of the unit by the researcher

 Use of questionnaires, opinions, inventories, checklists and other psychological tests

 Analysis of recorded data from schools, clinics, courts, newspapers and similar sources
 Interviewing the subject`s friends, relatives and significant others.
 Participant observation: Involves the researcher actually serving as a participant in events
and observing the actions and outcomes.
 TOOLS AND
TECHNIQUES:
[Link]. Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages
1. Observation the observation method is . the observation the observation
a research technique in method provides method can be
which behaviour is direct, real-time time-consuming,
systematically watched, data on behaviour subject to
recorded, and analysed in in natural or observer bias, and
natural or controlled controlled may not always
settings settings, reducing reveal the
reliance on self- underlying causes
reports and of behaviour.
enhancing
accuracy.
2. Experimental the experimental method the experimental the experimental
method is a research technique method allows method may lack
used to establish cause- precise control real-world
and-effect relationships by over variables, applicability due
manipulating independent helping establish to artificial
variables and observing cause-and-effect settings, and
their effects on dependent relationships with ethical or practical
variables under controlled high reliability and constraints can
conditions. validity. limit variable
manipulation.
3. Psychological the psychological testing psychological the psychological
Testing method is a standardized testing provides a testing method
and objective technique standardized, may be influenced
used to assess an objective, and by cultural bias,
individual’s mental reliable measure test anxiety, and
abilities, personality traits, of individual the possibility of
attitudes, or behaviours. differences in inaccurate or
mental abilities, misleading results
personality traits, if not standardized
and behaviours. properly.
4. Survey the survey method is a the survey method the survey method
research technique used to allows the may be affected by
gather information about collection of data response biases,
 people's attitudes, from a large inaccurate self-
opinions, or behaviours population reporting, and
through questionnaires, efficiently, making limited depth of
interviews, or rating scales.
it useful for information
studying attitudes, compared to
opinions, and qualitative
behaviours. methods.
5 . Case the case study method is the case study the case study
study an in-depth investigation method provides method may lack
of an individual, group, or an in-depth and generalizability, be
event to understand detailed time-consuming,
various psychological understanding of and be influenced
aspects in a real-life an individual, by researcher bias
context. group, or due to its
situation, offering subjective and
rich qualitative detailed nature.
insights.
6 . the correlation method is a the correlation the correlation
Correlation research technique used to method helps method cannot
measure the relationship identify establish cause-
between two or more relationships and-effect
variables without between variables, relationships and
establishing cause-and- allowing may be influenced
effect. predictions by extraneous
without variables that
manipulating affect the
them, making it observed
useful for real- association.
world research.
OBJECTIVE OF THE CASE
STUDY:
The case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of
a subject of study, as well as its related contextual conditions. It involves assessment of
individual`s psychological, physical, social, and emotional dimensions with the help of specific
psychological tools and techniques.

CASE PROFILE-
Hallucinations are false sensory perceptions that occur without any external stimulus and can
affect various senses, including vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Hallucinations are often
linked to psychological disorders such as schizophrenia, severe depression, substance abuse, or
neurological conditions. These perceptual disturbances can significantly impact an individual’s
thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.
In the context of case profiling, hallucinations are analysed based on their nature, frequency,
intensity, and underlying psychological or neurological causes. A well-documented case study
approach includes a thorough assessment of the individual’s personal history, medical
background, environmental factors, and cognitive patterns. For example, in schizophrenia,
auditory hallucinations—such as hearing voices—are among the most common symptoms.
Patients may report hearing commands, threats, or conversations that are not actually present,
leading to distress and impaired functioning.
Visual hallucinations, on the other hand, are more frequently observed in neurological disorders
such as dementia or Parkinson’s disease. Individuals may see non-existent people, objects, or
shadows, often misinterpreting their surroundings. Tactile hallucinations, such as feeling insects
crawling on the skin (formication), are associated with substance withdrawal or delusional
disorders.
The NCERT Psychology textbook emphasizes the role of clinical assessment tools,
psychological testing, and neuroimaging techniques in diagnosing hallucinations. Treatment
approaches typically involve a combination of antipsychotic medication, cognitive-behavioural
therapy (CBT), and psychosocial interventions. Case profiling in clinical settings helps mental
health professionals develop tailored intervention strategies, ensuring better management and
improved quality of life for affected individuals.
Understanding hallucinations through psychological case studies enhances diagnostic accuracy,
facilitates early intervention, and contributes to effective mental health care.
The subject has reported experiencing mainly visual hallucinations for a few months.

Identification OF DATA:
Biographical data :

• Name
• Age
• Date of birth
• Place of birth
• Gender
• Height
• Weight
• Religion
• Caste
• Educational Qualification
• Institute associated with
• Place of education

Personal History:

[Paragraph about the subject`s general life, talk about school/college life, what she/he wants to
do in future, any particular change in life, attitude about life, schooling, friends etc.]
Family History:
Family Tree:
Family arrangement: Joint family/ nuclear family with its advantages and disadvantages.
Family details:
• Name of the father:
• Age:
• Qualification:
• Occupation:
• Designation:
• Name of the mother:
• Age:
• Qualification:
• Occupation:
• Designation:

Medical History
Subject:
Father:
Mother:
Siblings:

Habits, interests and talents

[One Page]
Interview with the Father
How are you feeling at this moment?
How much time do you spend interacting with your child?
Have there been any recent major changes or stressful events in your child’s life?
Does your child have a history of any medical conditions, psychological issues, or
substance use?
Have you observed any changes in your child’s daily routine, such as sleep disturbances,
appetite loss, or social withdrawal?
Has she ever mentioned about the hallucinations to you?
Has anyone else in the family experienced similar symptoms or any mental health
concerns?
Does she rely on you or other family members for reassurance frequently?

[Subject`s relation with his/her father [observation]]

Interview with the Mother

How are you feeling at this moment?
How much time do you spend interacting with your child?
Have you noticed how she usually reacts when experiencing hallucinations? Does she
seem scared, confused, or unaware?
Have you noticed any changes in their sleep patterns, appetite, academic performance, or
social interactions?
Has your child ever mentioned feeling stressed, anxious, or depressed before these
hallucinations began?
Is there any history of psychological disorders, neurological conditions, or substance use
in the family?
How has your family responded to these experiences? Have you sought medical or
psychological help?
Does she rely on you or other family members for reassurance frequently?

[Subject`s relation with his/her mother [your observation]]

Interview with Sibling
How are you feeling at this moment?
Do you spend a lot of time with your sister?
Can you describe any specific incidents where your sister mentioned or reacted to things
that weren’t actually present?
Do you stay in the same room? Are you comfortable with this arrangement?
Have they ever spoken to you about their hallucinations? If so, how does she describe her
experiences?
Have you ever found yourself relating to the hallucination incidents narrated?
Have you noticed any triggers that seem to make their hallucinations more frequent or
intense?
How does it make you feel when your sister talks to you about her mental health?

[Subject`s relation with his/her sibling [your observation]]

Interview with the subject

Can you describe the hallucinations you experience? Do you see, hear, or feel things that
others don’t?
When did you first start experiencing these hallucinations, and how often do they occur?
How do these hallucinations make you feel? Do they frighten, comfort, or confuse you?
Do you notice any specific situations or emotions that trigger these experiences?
Have you told anyone about your hallucinations? How did they respond?
Have you noticed any changes in your mood, sleep patterns, or ability to focus on
schoolwork since they started?
Do the hallucinations interfere with your daily activities, relationships, or personal life?
Is there anything that helps reduce or stop these experiences, such as certain activities,
people, or environments?

Summary of the interview: [your observation and conclusion of the interview]

Interview with Significant others:
[One friend and one teacher]

How long have you known the subject, and what is the nature of your
relationship(classmate, teammate etc)?
Have you ever noticed the subject behaving in an unusual or concerning manner?If so,
can you describe specific incidents?
Has the subject ever mentioned seeing, hearing, or feeling things that others don’t? How
did they describe these experiences?
Have you observed any changes in their personality, social interactions, or academic
performance?
Do they ever appear distracted, talk to themselves, or react to things that don’t seem to
be there?
Have they shown signs of distress, fear, or confusion during conversations or group
activities?
Has the subject shared any personal struggles, stress, or emotional issues with you?
Do you think their experiences have affected their relationships with peers, teachers, or
family? If so, how?

Summary of the interview: [your observation and conclusion of the interview]

 Psychological TESTS
CONDUCTED ON THE SUBJECT:

[Link]`s Personality Inventory

[Link]`s Comprehensive Anxiety test
[Link] Concept Questionnaire
[Link] Inventory for School Students

Note: Just write the score and result of the test

For e.g.
[My subject scored a total of 50 in Sinha`s Comprehensive Anxiety test, her scores relates to 99
percentile on the scoring table of the SCAT scoring manual. This indicates an extremely high
level of anxiety which leads to development of emotional and even physical consequential issues
like feelings of disturbance and lack of attention in situations of stress. The subject is unable to
deal with highly stressful situations with a calm attitude and ends up in high anxiety and
physically fatigued.]
 Conclusion AND
SUGGESTIONS:
[atleast two pages]
For e.g.
I conducted my Case profile on _____________________ [Name] aged _________ years
from _______________[School/College Name]. It was a wonderful experience and taught
me a great deal in terms of knowing the subject and applying the techniques of assessment
learned in psychology class. I conducted the following tests on him/her:
[Link]`s Personality Inventory
[Link]`s Comprehensive Anxiety test
3. Self Concept Questionnaire
[Link] Inventory for School Students

Assessment was done on the basis of behavioral observation,

psychometric testing based on self report, interview with the
subject and significant others from his/her life and two projective
tests.

My subject score _____________ in MPI which indicates

__________________. [interpretation with test score]

My subject score _____________ in SCAT which indicates

_________________. [interpretation with test score]

My subject score _____________ in AISS which indicates

__________________. [interpretation with test score]

My subject score _____________ in SCQ which indicates

__________________. [interpretation with test score]

Also write about the behavioural observation that you have done
through interview with the subject and significant others.
If there is discrepancy in test scores and your observation, then
write it and the reasons. Suggest strategies if the subject has high
anxiety or emotionally unstable.

Bibliography

• NCERT Class XII Psychology Book

• NCERT Class XI Psychology book

• [Link]
• [Link]
• Psychology Test manuals
• General Psychology by Dr. [Link]