Commutative Algebra

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar

December 4, 2024

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 1 / 21

Introduction

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 2 / 21

Module

Definition (Module)
Let A be a commutative ring. An A-module is an abelian group (M, +) together with a map
(scalar multiplication)
µ : A × M → M , (a, m) 7→ am ≡ µ(a, m)
satisfying the following axioms:
(∀a ∈ A) (∀x, y ∈ M) a(x + y ) = ax + ay ;
(∀a, b ∈ A) (∀x ∈ M) (a + b)x = ax + bx;
(∀a, b ∈ A) (∀x ∈ M) (ab)x = a(bx);
(∀x ∈ M) 1x = x.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 3 / 21

Modules continued

Examples
M = {0} is an A-module for any ring A.
All abelian groups are Z-module.
If I is an ideal of A, then A/I is an A-module.
If A is a field,then A-modules are precisely vector spaces over A.

Remark
End(M) is a ring with respect to pointwise addition, i.e ,
for ϕ , ψ ∈ End(M) , (ϕ + ψ) (x) = ϕ(x) + ψ(x) (∀x ∈ M)
and multiplication being composition of mappings.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 4 / 21

Module homomorphism

Theorem
A-modules correspond to ring homomorphisms from A into endomorphism rings of abelian
group.

Definition (module homomorphism)

A mapping f : M → N between A-modules M, N is called A-module homomorphism if it
respects addition and scalar multiplication, i.e , for all x, y ∈ M and for all a ∈ A,
f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) and f (ax) = af (x).

Example
If M and N are two A-modules , then zero map is a A-module homomorphism.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 5 / 21

Module homomorphism continued

Example
Let f : Z2 → Z is defined by f (x, y ) = x + y , ( ∀x, y ∈ Z). Then f is an A-module
homomorphism.

Remark
If A is a field, then an A-module homomorphism is just a linear transformation.

Definition
Let HomA (M, N) = {A-module homomorphisms : M → N}. Define pointwise addition and
scalar multiplication on HomA (M, N):
∀ f , g ∈ HomA (M, N) , (∀a ∈ A),
(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) and (af )(x) = af (x).

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 6 / 21

Submodule

Remark
HomA (M, N) is an A-module.

Proposition
For any A-module M, HomA (M, N) ∼
= M.

Definition (submodule)
A subset N of M is called a submodule if N is an A-module with respect to same addition
and scalar multiplication on M.

Example
The set N = {(n, 2n) | n ∈ Z} is a submodule of Z2 .

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 7 / 21

Quotient module

Definition (quotient module)

Let M be an A-module and N be a submodule of M. Consider M/N= { x + N | x ∈ M} and
define the operation for x, y ∈ M and a ∈ A as ,
(x + N) + (y + N) = (x + y ) + N and a(x + N) = ax + N.
Then M/N is an A-module called quotient module.

Remark
Any submodule of M/N is of the form M1 /N , where M1 is a submodule of M ⊃ N.

Example
Z/2Z is a quotient module , where 2Z is a submodule of Z.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 8 / 21

Module homomorphism continued

Remark
Let f : M → N be an A-module homomorphism.Then
ker f is a submodule of M.
Im f is a submodule of N.

Proposition
The natural map M → M/N , x 7→ x + N is a surjective module homomorphism with
kernel N, which induces a one-one correspondence between submodules of M/N and
submodules of M which contain N.

Theorem
Let f : M → N be an A-module homomorphism.Then M/ker f ∼
= Im f .

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 9 / 21

Sum and intersection of submodules

Definition (sum of submodules)

If Mi, s (i=1,2, · · · n) are the sub A-modules of M , then ni=1 Mi = {
P Pn
i=1 xi | xi ∈ Mi }
is the sumPof submodules, which is again a A-module by a map,
A × ( ni=1 Mi ) → ni=1 Mi is given by a( ni=1 xi ) = ni=1 axi , ∀a ∈ A.
P P P
,

Definition (intersection of submodules)

If Mi, s (i=1,2, · · · n) are the sub A-modules of M , then
Tn
i=1 Mi = { x | x ∈ Mi ∀ i } is
again A-module by the map ,
A × ni=1 Mi → ni=1 Mi
T T
is given by , (a, x) 7→ ax ∀ a ∈ A.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 10 / 21

Submodules continued

Examples
2Z + 3Z = gcd(2,3) Z = Z is a Z-module.
2Z ∩ 3Z = lcm(2,3) Z = 6Z is a Z-module.

Theorem
1 If N ⊆ M ⊆ L are the chain of A-submodules then ,
(L/N)/(M/N) ∼ = L/M.
2 If M1 , M2 are the submodules of an A-module M then ,
(M1 + M2 )/M1 ∼= M2 /M1 ∩ M2 .

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 11 / 21

Direct product and direct sum of an arbitrary collection of A−modules

Definition (direct product)

Let { Mα | α ∈ Λ } be an arbitrary collection of A-modules. Then the direct product is
defined as,
Y
Mα = { (xα )α∈Λ | xα ∈ Mα }
α∈Λ

and it is an A-module with (xα )α∈Λ + (xα )α∈Λ = (xα + yα )α∈Λ and for
a ∈A, a(xα )α∈Λ = (axα )α∈Λ .

Definition (direct sum)

The direct sum is defined as, ⊕α∈Λ Mα = { (xα )α∈Λ | xα ∈ Mα such that all but finitely
many are zero}.
Q Q
It is a submodule of α∈Λ Mα , as ⊕α∈Λ Mα ⊆ α∈Λ Mα .
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Relation between direct sum and usual sum

Proposition
Let N1 , N2 · · · , Nk be submodules of M. Then the following conditions are equivalent:
1 The map π : N1 ⊕ N2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Nk → N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk defined as
π(x1 , · · · , xk ) = x1 + · · · + xk is an isomorphism.
Pk
2 Nj ∩ i=1,i̸=j Ni = 0 ∀1 ≤ j ≤ k.

3 Each x ∈ N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk can be written uniquely in the form x1 + · · · + xk with

xi ∈ N i

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Generating sets of a module

Definition
Let M be an A−Module. Elements m1 , m2 , ......, mn ∈ M form a generating set if every
m ∈ M can be expressed in the form
n
X
m= ai m i
i=1

for some (not necessarily unique) ai ∈ A.

If such a finite generating set exists , then we say that M is finitely generated.

Example
The A-module M = A[x]/ < x 3 > is generated by {1̄, x̄, x̄ 2 }.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 14 / 21

Linearly independent subset of an A-module

Definition
A subset X of M is said to be linearly independent over A if for any finite subset
{x
P1r , · · · , xr } ⊆ X ,
i=1 ai xi = 0 with ai ∈ A =⇒ ai = 0 for all i.

The subset X is said to be linearly dependent if X is not linearly independent ,

Pr if there exists {x1 , · · · , xr } ⊆ X such that
i.e.,
i=1 ai xi = 0 with ai ∈ A not all zero.

Examples
In the A-Module M = A[x], the subset {1, x, x 2 , · · · } is linearly independent over A .
For a non zero ideal I of A , in the A-Module B = A/I , the subset {1 + I } is linearly
dependent over A .

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Free A-modules

Let M be an A-module and X ⊆ M .

Definition (basis)
A subset X ⊆ M is called a basis of M if it satisfies the following conditions −
The A-module M is spanned by X .
X is linearly independent over A .

Definition (free module)

An A-module M is called a free module if M has a basis.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 16 / 21

Free A-module continued

Examples
For n≥1, the direct product Rn is a free R-module with the standard basis:
{(1,0,· · · ,0),(0,1,0,· · · ,0),· · · (0,0,· · · ,1)}.
{u}, where u is unit of A gives a basis of the module A over itself.
Vector spaces over a field are free modules as they have bases.

Theorem
A module M is free iff M ∼
= ⊕i∈Λ Mi , where each Mi ∼
,
=A and Mi s are A-modules.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 17 / 21

Free A-module continued

Example of non-free module

The Z-module Q is not a free module.

Rank of a free module

The number of elements in any basis of a free module M over a commutative ring A with
unity is called rank of M.
In particular, if A is a field , then rank of M is known as dimension of the vector space M and
is denoted by dim M.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra December 4, 2024 18 / 21

Vector space vs free module :

Unlike vector spaces, in a free module,a linearly independent subset need not be extended to a
basis.

Example
Z is a free Z-module with a basis {1} or {-1} (only bases of Z).
The set {2} is linearly independent over Z.
But {2} cannot be extended to a basis of Z.

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Vector space vs free module :

Unlike vector spaces , in a free module,

a spanning set does not necessarily contain a basis.
Moreover, a minimal spanning set need not be a basis.

Example
Consider Z as a Z-module.
Here {2,3} is a spanning set, which does not contain a basis.
Moreover,{2,3} is a minimal spanning set which is not a basis.

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Finitely generated free A-module

Definition (finitely generated free A-module)

A module M is said to be finitely generated free A-module if M is isomorphic to finitely
many copies of A i.e M ∼
= A ⊕ A ⊕ · · · ⊕ A = An , for some n .

Theorem
Let M be an A -module. Then M is finitely generated A-module iff M is the quotient of the
free module An for some n.

Counter-example
The Z-module M = Z/2Z is finitely generated, but it is not a free module.

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