FORM FOUR CHEMISTRY UPDATED

NOTES

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 TOPIC 1:
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
A. ACIDS AND BASES
At a school laboratory:
(i)An acid may be defined as a substance that turn litmus red.
(ii)A base may be defined as a substance that turn litmus blue.

Litmus is a lichen found mainly in West Africa. It changes its colour depending on whether the solution
it is in, is basic/alkaline or acidic.It is thus able to identify/show whether

1. An acid is a substance that dissolves in water to form H+/H3O+ as the only positive ion/cation. This is
called the Arrhenius definition of an acid. From this definition, an acid dissociate/ionize in water
releasing H+ thus:
HCl(aq) -> H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HNO3(aq) -> H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
CH3COOH(aq) -> H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)
H3PO4(aq) -> 3H+ (aq) + PO43-(aq)

2. A base is a substance which dissolves in water to form OH- as the only negatively charged ion/anion.
This is called Arrhenius definition of a base.
From this definition, a base dissociate/ionize in water releasing OH- thus:
KOH(aq) -> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaOH(aq) -> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Ca(OH/)2(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Mg(OH)2(aq) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

3. An acid is a proton donor.

A base is a proton acceptor.
This is called Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases.
From this definition, an acid donates H+ .
H+ has no electrons and neutrons .It contains only a proton.

Examples
I. From the equation:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) === H3O+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

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(a)
(i) For the forward reaction from left to right, H2O gains a proton to form H3O+ and thus H2O is a
proton acceptor .It is a Bronsted-Lowry base
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, H3O+ donates a proton to form H2O and thus H3O+ is
an ‘opposite’ proton donor. It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate acid

(b)
(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, HCl donates a proton to form Cl- and thus HCl is a proton
donor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry acid
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, Cl- gains a proton to form HCl and thus Cl- is an
‘opposite’ proton acceptor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate base.
Every base /acid from Bronsted-Lowry definition thus must have a conjugate product/reactant.

II. From the equation:

HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) === NH4+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(a)
(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, NH3 gains a proton to form NH4+ and thus NH3 is a proton
acceptor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry base
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, NH4+ donates a proton to form NH3 and thus NH4+ is
an ‘opposite’ proton donor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate acid

(b)
(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, HCl donates a proton to form Cl- and thus HCl is a proton
donor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry acid

(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, Cl- gains a proton to form HCl and thus Cl- is an
‘opposite’ proton acceptor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate base.

4. Acids and bases show acidic and alkaline properties/characteristics only in water but not in other
solvents e.g.

(a) Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid
dissociates/ionizes in water to free H+(aq)/H3O+(aq) ions.

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The free H3O+(aq) / H+(aq) ions are responsible for:
(i)turning blue litmus paper/solution red.
(ii)show pH value 1/2/3/4/5/6
(iii)are good electrolytes/conductors of electricity/undergo electrolysis.
(iv)react with metals to produce /evolve hydrogen gas and a salt. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: 2M(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a divalent metal: M(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a trivalent metal: 2M(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2M3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
Examples:

-For a monovalent metal: 2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)

-For a divalent metal: Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a trivalent metal: 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)

(v)react with metal carbonates and hhydrogen carbonates to produce /evolve carbon(IV)oxide gas
,water and a salt. i.e.

Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: M2CO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MHCO3(s)+ H+(aq) -> M+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

-For a divalent metal: MCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
M(HCO3) 2(aq)+2H+(aq) ->M2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+2CO2(g)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: K2CO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
NH4HCO3(s)+ H+(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
-For a divalent metal: ZnCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq)+2H+(aq) ->Mg2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+2CO2(g)

(vi)neutralize metal oxides/hydroxides to salt and water only. i.e.

Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: M2O(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2O (l)
MOH(aq) + H+(aq) -> M+(aq) + H2O (l)
-For a divalent metal: MO(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2O (l)
M(OH) 2(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

-For a trivalent metal: M2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2M3+(aq) + 3H2O (l)

M(OH) 3(s) + 3H+(aq) -> M3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: K2O(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + H2O (l)
NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)

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-For a divalent metal: ZnO (s) + 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH) 2(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

(b)Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in methylbenzene /benzene but does not dissociate /ionize into free
ions.
It exists in molecular state showing none of the above properties.

(c)Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia which dissociate/ionize to free NH4+ (aq)
and OH-(aq) ions.
This dissociation/ionization makes aqueous ammonia to:
(i)turn litmus paper/solution blue.
(ii)have pH 8/9/10/11
(iii)be a good electrical conductor
(iv)react with acids to form ammonium salt and water only.
NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

(d)Ammonia gas dissolves in methylbenzene/benzene /kerosene but does not dissociate into free ions
therefore existing as molecules

6. Solvents are either polar or non-polar.

A polar solvent is one which dissolves ionic compounds and other polar solvents.

Water is polar solvent that dissolves ionic and polar substance by surrounding the free ions as below:

Note:Water is polar .It is made up of :

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 Oxygen atom is partially negative and two hydrogen atoms which are partially positive.

They surround the free H+ and Cl- ions.

A non-polar solvent is one which dissolved non-polar substances and covalent compounds.

If a polar ionic compound

ionize/dissociate is dissolved
into free in non-polar solvent ,it does not ionize/dissociate into free ions as
ions as below:
below:
H-Cl

H-Cl
methyl
. benzene
H-Cl
H-Cl

Covalent bond

7.Some
7. Someacids
acidsand
and bases
bases are are strong
strong whilewhile
othersothers are weak.
are weak.
(a)A strong acid/base is one which is fully/wholly/completely dissociated / ionized into many free H+
/OH- ions i.e.

I. Strong acids exists more as free H+ ions than molecules. e.g.

HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)

HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

II. Strong bases/alkalis exists more as free OH- ions than molecules. e.g.
KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH- (aq)
. (molecules) (cation) (anion)
+
NaOH(aq) Na (aq) + OH-(aq)
. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

(b) A weak base/acid is one which is partially /partly dissociated /ionized in water into free OH- (aq) and
H+(aq) ions.
I. Weak acids exists more as molecules than as free H+ ions. e.g.
CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

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 H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

II. Weak bases/alkalis exists more as molecules than free OH- ions. e.g.
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
. (molecules) (cation) (anion)

Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

(molecules) (cation) (anion)

Mg(OH)2(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

(molecules) (cation) (anion)

8. The concentration of an acid/base/alkali is based on the number of moles of acid/bases dissolved in a

decimeter(litre)of the solution.
An acid/base/alkali with more acid/base/alkali in a decimeter(litre) of solution is said to be
concentrated while that with less is said to be dilute.

9. (a) (i)strong acids have pH 1/2/3 while weak acids have high pH 4/5/6.
(ii)a neutral solution have pH 7
(iii)strong alkalis/bases have pH 12/13/14 while weak bases/alkalis have pH 11/10 /9 / 8.

(b) pH is a measure of H+(aq) concentration in a solution.

The higher the H+(aq)ions concentration ;
-the higher the acidity
-the lower the pH
-the lower the concentration of OH-(aq)
-the lower the alkalinity

At pH 7 , a solution has equal concentration of H+(aq) and OH-(aq).

Beyond pH 7,the concentration of the OH-(aq) increases as the H+(aq) ions decreases.

10.
(a) When acids /bases dissolve in water, the ions present in the solution conduct electricity.
The more the dissociation the higher the yield of ions and the greater the electrical conductivity of the
solution.

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A compound that conducts electricity in an electrolyte and thus a compound showing high electrical
conductivity is a strong electrolyte while a compound showing low electrical conductivity is a weak
electrolyte.

(b) Practically, a bright light on a bulb ,a high voltage reading from a voltmeter high ammeter
reading from an ammeter, a big deflection on a galvanometer is an indicator of strong
electrolyte(acid/base) and the opposite for weak electrolytes(acids/base)

11. Some compounds exhibit/show both properties of acids and bases/alkalis.

A substance that reacts with both acids and bases is said to be amphotellic.

The examples below show the amphotellic properties of:

(a) Zinc (II)oxide(ZnO) and Zinc hydroxide(Zn(OH)2)

(i)When ½ spatula full of Zinc(II)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M
nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the
alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.

(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by reacting with an acid to form a
simple salt and water only.

Basic oxide + Acid -> salt + water

Examples:
Chemical equation
ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation
ZnO(s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn 2+ (aq) + H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by reacting with a base to
form a complex salt.

Basic oxide + Base/alkali + Water -> Complex salt

Examples:

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Chemical equation

1.When Zinc oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium tetrahydroxozincate(II)
complex salt.
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)

2.When Zinc oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
ZnO(s) + 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> K2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
ZnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) -> 2[Zn(OH) 4]2- (aq)

(ii)When Zinc(II)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or

2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a
colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It reacts with an acid to form
a simple salt and water only.

Basic hydroxide + Acid -> salt + water

Examples:
Chemical equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn 2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties by reacting with a base
to form a complex salt.
Basic hydroxide + Base/alkali -> Complex salt

Examples:
Chemical equation
1.When Zinc hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)

2.When Zinc hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) -> K2Zn(OH) 4(aq)

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Ionic equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) -> 2[Zn(OH) 4]2- (aq)

(b) Lead (II)oxide(PbO) and Lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)2)

(i)When ½ spatula full of Lead(II)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M
nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the
alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.

(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by reacting with an acid to form a
simple salt and water only. All other Lead salts are insoluble.

Chemical equation
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation
PbO(s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Pb 2+ (aq) + H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by reacting with a base to
form a complex salt.

Chemical equation
1.When Lead(II) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
PbO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na2Pb(OH) 4(aq)

2.When Lead(II) oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
PbO(s) + 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> K2Pb(OH) 4(aq)

Ionic equation
PbO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) -> 2[Pb(OH) 4]2- (aq)

(ii)When Lead(II)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or

2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a
colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It reacts with the acid to
form a simple salt and water only.
Chemical equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

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Ionic equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Pb 2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties. It reacts with a base to
form a complex salt.

Chemical equation
1.When Lead(II) hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Pb(OH) 4(aq)

2.When Lead(II) hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) -> K2Pb(OH) 4(aq)

Ionic equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) -> 2[Pb(OH) 4]2- (aq)

(c)Aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) and Aluminium(III)hydroxide(Al(OH)3)

(i)When ½ spatula full of Aluminium(III)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either
2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the
alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by reacting with an acid to form a
simple salt and water only.
Chemical equation
Al2O3 (s) + 6HNO3(aq) -> Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl(aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al2O3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) -> Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

Ionic equation
Al2O3 (s) + 3H+ (aq) -> Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by reacting with a base to
form a complex salt.

Chemical equation
1.When Aluminium(III) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2NaAl(OH) 4(aq)

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2.When Aluminium(III) oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(II) complex salt.
Al2O3 (s) + 2KOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2NaAl(OH) 4(aq)

Ionic equation
Al2O3 (s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2[Al(OH) 4]- (aq)

(ii)When Aluminium(III)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M

nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the
alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.

(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It reacts with the acid to
form a simple salt and water only.
Chemical equation
Al(OH) 3 (s) + 3HNO3(aq) -> Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al(OH)3 (s) + 3HCl(aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) -> Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

Ionic equation
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H+ (aq) -> Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties. It reacts with a base to
form a complex salt.
Chemical equation

1.When aluminium(III) hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al(OH) 3 (s) + NaOH(aq) -> NaAl(OH) 4(aq)

2.When aluminium(III) hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al(OH) 3 (s) + KOH(aq) -> KAl(OH) 4(aq)

Ionic equation
Al(OH) 3 (s) + OH-(aq) -> [Al(OH) 4]- (aq)

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Summary of amphotellic oxides/hydroxides

Oxide Hydroxide Formula of simple salt Formula of complex salt

from nitric (V)acid from sodium hydroxide
ZnO Zn(OH)2 Zn(NO3)2 Na2Zn(OH)4
[Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxozincate(II)

PbO Pb(OH)2 Pb(NO3)2 Na2Pb(OH)4

[Pb(OH)4]2-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II)

Al2O3 Al(OH) 3 Al(NO3)3 NaAl(OH)4

[Al(OH)4]-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate(II)

12.(a) A salt is an ionic compound formed when the cation from a base combine with the anion derived
from an acid.

A salt is therefore formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced wholly/fully or partially/partly
,directly or indirectly by a metal or ammonium radical.
(b) The number of ionizable/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is called basicity of an acid.
Some acids are therefore:
(i)monobasic acids generally denoted HX e.g.
HCl, HNO3,HCOOH,CH3COOH.

(ii)dibasic acids ; generally denoted H2X e.g.

H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3,HOOCOOH.

(iii)tribasic acids ; generally denoted H3X e.g. H3PO4.

(c) Some salts are normal salts while other are acid salts.
(i)A normal salt is formed when all the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a
metal or metallic /ammonium radical.

(ii)An acid salt is formed when part/portion the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid is replaced
by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.

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 Table showing normal and acid salts derived from common acids

Acid name Chemical Basicity Normal salt Acid salt

formula
Hydrochloric HCl Monobasi Chloride(Cl-) None
acid c
Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobasi Nitrate(V)(NO3-) None
c
Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobasi Nitrate(III)(NO2-) None
c
Sulphuric(VI)aci H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate(VI) (SO42- Hydrogen
d ) sulphate(VI)
(HSO4-)

Sulphuric(IV)aci H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate(IV) (SO32- Hydrogen

d ) sulphate(IV)
(HSO3-)

Carbonic(IV)aci H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate(IV)(CO3 Hydrogen

2-
d ) carbonate(IV)
(HCO3-)

Phosphoric(V) H3PO4 Tribasic Phosphate(V)(PO43- Dihydrogen

acid ) phosphate(V)
(H2PO42-)

Hydrogen
diphosphate(V)
(HP2O42-)

The table below show shows some examples of salts.

Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts

+ -
NaOH Na HCl Cl NaCl Sodium(I)chloride

2+ 2-
Mg(OH)2 Mg H2SO4 SO4 MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate(VI)
Mg(HSO4)2 Magnesium hydrogen
sulphate(VI)
2+ -
Pb(OH)2 Pb HNO3 NO3 Pb(NO3)2 Lead(II)nitrate(V)

2+ -
Ba(OH)2 Ba HNO3 NO3 Ba(NO3)2 Barium(II)nitrate(V)

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 Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts
2+ 2-
Ca(OH)2 Ba H2SO4 SO4 MgSO4 Calcium sulphate(VI)

+ 3-
NH4OH NH4 H3PO4 PO4 (NH4 )3PO4 Ammonium phosphate(V)
(NH4 )2HPO4 Diammonium phosphate(V)
Ammonium diphosphate(V)
NH4 H2PO4
+ 3-
KOH K H3PO4 PO4 K3PO4 Potassium phosphate(V)

3+ 2-
Al(OH)3 Al H2SO4 SO4 Al2(SO4)2 Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)

2+ 2-
Fe(OH)2 Fe H2SO4 SO4 FeSO4 Iron(II)sulphate(VI)

3+ 2-
Fe(OH)3 Fe H2SO4 SO4 Fe2(SO4)2 Iron(III)sulphate(VI)

d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.

(i) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere but do not form a
solution.
Some salts which are hygroscopic include anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI), anhydrous
cobalt(II)chloride, potassium nitrate(V) common table salt.

(ii)Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere and form a solution.
Some salts which are deliquescent include: Sodium nitrate(V),Calcium chloride, Sodium hydroxide,
Iron(II)chloride, Magnesium chloride.

(iii)Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere.

Some salts which effloresces include: sodium carbonate decahydrate, Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate,

sodium sulphate (VI)decahydrate.

(e)Some salts contain water of crystallization.They are hydrated.Others do not contain water of
crystallization. They are anhydrous.

Table showing some hydrated salts.

Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Calcium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate CaSO4.7H2O

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 Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Magnesium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium sulphate(VI)decahydrate Na2SO4.10H2O
Sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
Potassium carbonate(IV)decahydrate K2CO3.10H2O
Potassium sulphate(VI)decahydrate K2SO4.10H2O

(f)Some salts exist as a simple salt while some as complex salts. Below are some complex salts.

Table of some complex salts

Name of complex salt Chemical formula Colour of the complex salt
Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate(VI) Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 H2O Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate(V) Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Colourless solution
Tetraamminecopper(II) nitrate(V) Cu(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)sulphate(VI) Zn(NH3) 4 SO4 Colourless solution

(g)Some salts exist as two salts in one. They are called double salts.

Table of some double salts

Name of double salts Chemical formula
Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate) Na2CO3 NaHCO3.2H2O
Ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) FeSO4(NH4) 2SO4.2H2O
Ammonium aluminium(III)sulphate(VI) Al2(SO4) 3(NH4) 2SO4.H2O

(h)Some salts dissolve in water to form a solution. They are said to be soluble. Others do not dissolve in
water. They form a suspension/precipitate in water.

Table of solubility of salts

Soluble salts Insoluble salts

All nitrate(V)salts
All sulphate(VI)/SO42- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(VI)/BaSO4
Calcium(II) sulphate(VI)/CaSO4
Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4
All sulphate(IV)/SO32- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
Calcium(II) sulphate(IV)/CaSO3
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3

All chlorides/Cl- except Silver chloride/AgCl

Lead(II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in hot water)

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 All phosphate(V)/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and ammonium salts
All hydrogen carbonates/HCO3-
All hydrogen sulphate(VI)/ HSO4-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3
All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases

13 Salts can be prepared in a school laboratory by a method that uses its solubility in water.

(a) Soluble salts may be prepared by using any of the following methods:

(i)Direct displacement/reaction of a metal with an acid.

By reacting a metal higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen with a dilute acid,a salt is formed and
hydrogen gas is evolved.

Excess of the metal must be used to ensure all the acid has reacted.
When effervescence/bubbling /fizzing has stopped ,excess metal is filtered.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate then allowed to crystallize.

Washing with distilled water then drying between filter papers produces a sample crystal of the salt. i.e.
M(s) + H2X -> MX(aq) + H2(g)

Examples
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)

Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)

(ii)Reaction of an insoluble base with an acid

By adding an insoluble base (oxide/hydroxide )to a dilute acid until no more dissolves, in the acid,a salt
and water are formed. Excess of the base is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to concentrate ,allowed to
crystallize then washed with distilled water before drying between filter papers e.g.

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PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)

CaO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)

MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)

MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)

ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)

Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)

CuO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)

CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)

Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)

(iii)reaction of insoluble /soluble carbonate /hydrogen carbonate with an acid.

By adding an excess of a soluble /insoluble carbonate or hydrogen carbonate to adilute acid,

effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of carbon(IV)oxide gas shows the reaction is taking place. When
effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of the gas is over, excess of the insoluble carbonate is filtered off.

The filtrate is heated to concentrate ,allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water before
drying between filter paper papers e.g.
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq)-> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq)-> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

MgCO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

Cu CO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq)-> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
KHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

(iv)neutralization/reaction of soluble base/alkali with dilute acid

By adding an acid to a burette into a known volume of an alkali with 2-3 drops of an indicator, the
colour of the indicator changes when the acid has completely reacted with an alkali at the end point.

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The procedure is then repeated without the indicator .The solution mixture is then heated to concentrate
, allowed to crystallize ,washed with distilled water before drying with filter papers. e.g.

NaOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)

KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l)

2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)

2 NH4OH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NH4NO3(aq) + H2O (l)

(iv)direct synthesis/combination.
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a non metal , the two directly combine to form a salt. e.g.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> Mg Cl2 (s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) -> Ca Cl2 (s)

Some salts once formed undergo sublimation and hydrolysis. Care should be taken to avoid
water/moisture into the reaction flask during their preparation.Such salts include
aluminium(III)chloride(AlCl3) and iron (III)chloride(FeCl3)

1. Heated aluminium foil reacts with chlorine to form aluminium(III)chloride that sublimes away from
the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3 (s/g)

Once formed aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour / moisture present to form
aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
AlCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)

2. Heated iron filings reacts with chlorine to form iron(III)chloride that sublimes away from the source
of heating then deposited as solid again
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)

Once formed , aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour / moisture present to form
aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)

(b)Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form one soluble and one
insoluble. This is called double decomposition or precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the
residue is washed with distilled water then dried.

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CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) -> CuCO3 (s) + Na2 SO4(aq)

BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2 (aq) -> 2AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2 (aq)

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2NH4NO 3(aq)

BaCl2(aq) + K2SO3 (aq) -> BaSO3 (s) + 2KCl (aq)

14. Salts may lose their water of crystallization , decompose ,melt or sublime on heating on a Bunsen
burner flame.
The following shows the behavior of some salts on heating gently /or strongly in a laboratory school
burner:

(a)effect of heat on chlorides

All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not affected by laboratory
heating except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes on gentle heating.

It dissociate into the constituent ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases on strong heating.

NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)

(sublimation) (dissociation)

(b)effect of heat on nitrate(V)

(i) Potassium nitrate(V)/KNO3 and sodium nitrate(V)/NaNO3 decompose on heating to form Potassium
nitrate(III)/KNO2 and sodium nitrate(III)/NaNO2 and producing Oxygen gas in each case.

2KNO3 (s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)

2NaNO3 (s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

(ii)Heavy metal nitrates(V) salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and a mixture of brown acidic
nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca(NO3)2 (s) -> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

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 2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(iii)Silver(I)nitrate(V) and mercury(II) nitrate(V) are lowest in the reactivity series. They decompose on
heating to form the metal(silver and mercury)and the Nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2AgNO3(s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Hg(NO3)2 (s) -> 2Hg (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(iv)Ammonium nitrate(V) and Ammonium nitrate(III) decompose on heating to

Nitrogen(I)oxide(relights/rekindles glowing splint) and nitrogen gas respectively.Water is also
formed.i.e.

NH4NO3(s) -> N2O (g) + H2O(l)

NH4NO2(s) -> N2 (g) + H2O(l)

(c) effect of heat on nitrate(V)

Only Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Iron(III)sulphate(VI) and copper(II)sulphate(VI) decompose on heating.

They form the oxide, and produce highly acidic fumes of acidic sulphur(IV)oxide gas.

2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)

Fe2(SO4) 3(s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g)

CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)

(d) effect of heat on carbonates(IV) and hydrogen carbonate(IV).

(i)Sodium carbonate(IV)and potassium carbonate(IV)do not decompose on heating.
(ii)Heavy metal nitrate(IV)salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and produce carbon(IV)oxide
gas. Carbon (IV)oxide gas forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water. The white precipitate
dissolves if the gas is in excess. e.g.

CuCO3 (s) -> CuO(s) + CO2(g)

CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO(s) + CO2(g)
FeCO3 (s) -> FeO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

(iii)Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV)decompose on heating to

give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i.e.

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2NaHCO 3(s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2KHCO 3(s) -> K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(iii) Calcium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating
to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i. e.

Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) -> CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) -> MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

15. Salts contain cation(positively charged ion) and anions(negatively charged ion).When dissolved in
polar solvents/water.

The cation and anion in a salt is determined/known usually by precipitation of the salt using a
precipitating reagent.

The colour of the precipitate is a basis of qualitative analysis of a compound.

16.Qualitative analysis is the process of identifying an unknown compound /salt by identifying the
unique qualities of the salt/compound.

It involves some of the following processes.

(a)Reaction of cation with sodium/potassium hydroxide solution.

Both sodium/potassium hydroxide solutions are precipitating reagents.

The alkalis produce unique colour of a precipitate/suspension when a few/three drops is added and then
excess alkali is added to unknown salt/compound solution.

NB: Potassium hydroxide is not commonly used because it is more expensive than sodium hydroxide.

The table below shows the observations, inferences / deductions and explanations from the following
test tube experiments:

Procedure
Put about 2cm3 of MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3, NaCl, KCl, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4) 3, CuSO4, ZnSO4NH4NO3,
Pb(NO3) 2, Ba(NO3) 2 each into separate test tubes.

Add three drops of 2M sodium hydroxide solution then excess (2/3 the length of a standard test tube).

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Observation Inference Explanation
No white Na+ and K+ Both Na and K ions react with OH- from 2M
+ +

precipitate sodium hydroxide solution to form soluble

colourless solutions
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> NaOH(aq)
K+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> KOH(aq)
No white NH4+ ions NH4+ ions react with 2M sodium hydroxide
precipitate then solution to produce pungent smelling ammonia
pungent smell of gas
ammonia /urine NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> NH3 (g) + H2O(l)
White precipitate Ba2+ ,Ca2+, Ba2+ ,Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions react with OH- from
insoluble in Mg2+ ions 2M sodium hydroxide solution to form
excess insoluble white precipitate of their hydroxides.
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ba(OH) 2(s)
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ca(OH) 2(s)
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Mg(OH) 2(s)
White precipitate Zn2+ ,Pb2+, Pb2+ ,Zn2+ and Al3+ ions react with OH- from
soluble in excess Al3+ ions 2M sodium hydroxide solution to form
insoluble white precipitate of their hydroxides.
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Zn(OH) 2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Pb(OH) 2(s)
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Al(OH) 3(s)
The hydroxides formed react with more OH-
ions to form complex salts/ions.
Zn(OH) 2(s) + 2OH(aq) -> [ Zn(OH) 4]2-(aq)
Pb(OH) 2(s) + 2OH(aq) -> [ Pb(OH) 4]2-(aq)
Al(OH) 3(s) + OH(aq) -> [ Al(OH) 4]-(aq)
Blue precipitate Cu2+ Cu2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
insoluble in hydroxide solution to form insoluble blue
excess precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide.
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Cu(OH) 2(s)
Green precipitate Fe2+ Fe2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
insoluble in hydroxide solution to form insoluble green
excess precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
On adding 3cm3
of hydrogen Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 2(s)
peroxide, Fe2+ oxidized Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that
brown/yellow to Fe3+ oxidizes green Fe2+ oxidized to brown Fe3+
solution formed Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2H+ -> Fe(OH) 3(aq)
Brown precipitate Fe3+ Fe3+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
insoluble in hydroxide solution to form insoluble brown
excess precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 3(s)

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(b)Reaction of cation with aqueous ammonia
Aqueous ammonia precipitating reagent that can be used to identify the cations present in a salt.
Like NaOH/KOH the OH- ion in NH4OH react with the cation to form a characteristic hydroxide .
Below are the observations ,inferences and explanations of the reactions of aqueous ammonia with salts
from the following test tube reactions.
Procedure
Put about 2cm3 of MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3, NaCl, KCl, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4) 3, CuSO4, ZnSO4NH4NO3,
Pb(NO3) 2, Ba(NO3) 2 each into separate test tubes.
Add three drops of 2M aqueous ammonia then excess (2/3 the length of a standard test tube).
Observation Inference Explanation
+ +
No white Na and K NH4 ,Na and K ions react with OH- from 2M
+ + +

precipitate aqueous ammonia to form soluble colourless

solutions
NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> NH4+OH(aq)
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> NaOH(aq)
K+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> KOH(aq)
White precipitate Ba2+ ,Ca2+, Ba2+ ,Ca2+,Mg2+ ,Pb2+ and Al3+, ions react with
insoluble in Mg2+ ,Pb2+, OH- from 2M aqueous ammonia to form
excess Al3+, ions insoluble white precipitate of their hydroxides.
Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Pb(OH) 2(s)
Al3+ (aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Al(OH) 3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ba(OH) 2(s)
Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ca(OH) 2(s)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Mg(OH) 2(s)
White precipitate Zn2+ ions Zn2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
soluble in excess ammonia to form insoluble white precipitate of
Zinc hydroxide.
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Zn(OH) 2(s)
The Zinc hydroxides formed react NH3(aq) to
form a complex salts/ions.
Zn(OH) 2(s) + 4NH3(aq)
->[ Zn(NH3) 4]2+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq)
Blue precipitate Cu2+ Cu2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
that dissolves in ammonia to form blue precipitate of copper(II)
excess ammonia hydroxide.
solution to form a
deep/royal blue Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Cu(OH) 2(s)
solution The copper(II) hydroxide formed react NH3(aq)
to form a complex salts/ions.

Cu(OH) 2 (s) + 4NH3(aq)

->[ Cu(NH3) 4]2+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq)

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 Observation Inference Explanation
Green precipitate Fe2+ Fe ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
2+

insoluble in ammonia to form insoluble green precipitate of

excess. Iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 2(s)
On adding 3cm3
of hydrogen Fe2+ oxidized Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that
peroxide, to Fe3+ oxidizes green Fe2+ oxidized to brown Fe3+
brown/yellow Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2H+ -> Fe(OH) 3(aq)
solution formed
Brown precipitate Fe3+ Fe3+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
insoluble in ammonia to form insoluble brown precipitate of
excess Iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 3(s)

Note
(i) Only Zn2+ ions/salts form a white precipitate that dissolve in excess of both 2M sodium hydroxide
and 2M aqueous ammonia.
(ii) Pb2+ and Al3+ ions/salts form a white precipitate that dissolve in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide
but not in 2M aqueous ammonia.
(iii) Cu2+ ions/salts form a blue precipitate that dissolve to form a deep/royal blue solution in excess
of 2M aqueous ammonia but only blue insoluble precipitate in 2M sodium hydroxide

(c)Reaction of cation with Chloride (Cl-)ions

All chlorides are soluble in water except Silver chloride and Lead (II)chloride
(That dissolve in hot water).
When a soluble chloride like NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl is added to about 2cm3 of a salt containing Ag+ or
Pb2+ions a white precipitate of AgCl or PbCl2 is formed. The following test tube reactions illustrate the
above.
Experiment

Put about 2cm3 of silver nitrate(V) andLead(II)nitrate(V)solution into separate test tubes. Add five
drops of NaCl /KCl / NH4Cl/HCl. Heat to boil.
Observation Inference Explanation
+
(i)White precipitate Ag ions Ag ions reacts with Cl- ions from a
+

does not dissolve on soluble chloride salt to form a white

heating precipitate of AgCl
(ii)White precipitate Pb2+ ions Pb2+ ions reacts with Cl- ions from a
dissolve on heating soluble chloride salt to form a white
precipitate of PbCl2. PbCl2 dissolves
on heating.

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Note
Both Pb2+ and Al3+ ions forms an insoluble white precipitate in excess aqueous ammonia. A white
precipitate on adding Cl- ions/salts shows Pb2+.

No white precipitate on adding Cl- ions/salts shows Al3+.

Adding a chloride/ Cl- ions/salts can thus be used to separate the identity of Al3+ and Pb2+.

(d)Reaction of cation with sulphate(VI)/SO42- and sulphate(IV)/SO32- ions

All sulphate(VI) and sulphate(IV)/SO32- ions/salts are soluble/dissolve in water except Calcium
sulphate(VI)/CaSO4, Calcium sulphate(IV)/CaSO3, Barium sulphate(VI)/BaSO4, Barium
sulphate(IV)/BaSO3, Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4 and Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3.When a soluble
sulphate(VI)/SO42- salt like Na2SO4, H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4 or Na2SO3 is added to a salt containing Ca2+,
Pb2+, Ba2+ ions, a white precipitate is formed.

The following test tube experiments illustrate the above.

Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Ca(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2, BaCl2 and Pb(NO3)2, in separate boiling tubes. Add six
drops of sulphuric(VI)acid /sodium sulphate(VI)/ammonium sulphate(VI)solution. Repeat with six
drops of sodium sulphate(IV).

Observation Inference Explanation

White Ca2+, Ba2+, CaSO3 and CaSO4 do not form a thick precipitate as
precipitate Pb2+ ions they are sparingly soluble.
Ca2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> CaSO3(s)
Ca2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> CaSO4(s)

Ba2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> BaSO3(s)

Ba2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4(s)

Pb2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> PbSO3(s)

Pb2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> PbSO4(s)

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(e)Reaction of cation with carbonate(IV)/CO32- ions

All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium/potassium carbonate(IV) and ammonium carbonate(IV).

They dissociate /ionize to release CO32- ions. CO32- ions produce a white precipitate when the soluble
carbonate salts is added to any metallic cation.

Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Ca(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2, MgCl2 ,Pb(NO3)2 andZnSO4 in separate boiling tubes.
Add six drops of Potassium /sodium carbonate(IV)/ ammonium carbonate (IV)solution.

Observation Inference Explanation

Green precipitate Cu2+ ,Fe2+,ions Copper(II)carbonate(IV) and Iron(II)
carbonate (IV) are precipitated as insoluble
green precipitates.
2-
CO3 (aq)

Cu2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) -> CuCO3(s)

Fe2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) -> FeCO3(s)

When sodium carbonate(IV)is added to

CuCO3(s) the CO32-(aq) ions are first
hydrolysed to produce CO2(g) and OH-
(aq)ions.
CO32-(aq) + H2O (l) -> CO2 (g) + 2OH- (aq)
The OH-(aq) ions further react to form basic
copper(II) carbonate(IV). Basic copper(II)
carbonate(IV) is the only green salt of copper.
Cu2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)+2OH- (aq)
->CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 (s)
White precipitate CO32- White ppt of the carbonate(IV)salt is
precipitated
Ca2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> CaCO3(s)
Mg2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
Pb2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> PbCO3(s)
Zn2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> ZnCO3(s)

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Note
(i)Iron(III)carbonate(IV) does not exist.
(ii)Copper(II)Carbonate(IV) exist only as the basic CuCO3.Cu(OH) 2
(iii)Both BaCO3 and BaSO3 are insoluble white precipitate. If hydrochloric acid is added to the white
precipitate;

I. BaCO3 produces CO2 gas. When bubbled/directed into lime water solution,a white precipitate is
formed.
II. I. BaSO3 produces SO2 gas. When bubbled/directed into orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution, it turns to green/decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII).

(f) Reaction of cation with sulphide / S2- ions

All sulphides are insoluble black solids/precipitates except sodium sulphide/ Na2S/ potassium
sulphide/K2S.When a few/3drops of the soluble sulphide is added to a metal cation/salt, a black
precipitate is formed.
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Cu(NO3)2, FeSO4, MgCl2,Pb(NO3)2 and ZnSO4 in separate boiling tubes.
Add six drops of Potassium /sodium sulphide solution.
Observation Inference Explanation
Black ppt S2- ions CuS, FeS,MgS,PbS, ZnS are black insoluble
precipitates
Cu2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> CuS(s)
Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> PbS(s)
Fe2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> FeS(s)
Zn2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> ZnS(s)

Sample qualitative analysis guide

You are provided with solid Y(aluminium (III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate).Carry out the following tests
and record your observations and inferences in the space provided.

1(a) Appearance
Observations inference (1mark)
White crystalline solid Coloured ions Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent

(b)Place about a half spatula full of the solid into a clean dry boiling tube. Heat gently then strongly.
Observations inference (1mark)
Colourless droplets formed on the cooler Hydrated compound/compound
part of the test tube containing water of crystallization
Solid remains a white residue

Page 29 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 (c)Place all the remaining portion of the solid in a test tube .Add about 10cm3 of distilled water. Shake
thoroughly. Divide the mixture into five portions.
Observation Inference (1mark)
Solid dissolves to form Polar soluble compound
a colourless solution Cu , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent
2+

(i)To the first portion, add three drops of sodium hydroxide then add excess of the alkali.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt, soluble in excess Zn , Pb2+ , Al3+
2+

(ii)To the second portion, add three drops of aqueous ammonia then add excess of the alkali.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt, insoluble in excess Pb2+ , Al3+

(iii)To the third portion, add three drops of sodium sulphate(VI)solution.

Observation Inference (1mark)
3+
No white ppt Al

(iv)I.To the fourth portion, add three drops of Lead(II)nitrate(IV)solution. Preserve

Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt CO32-, SO42-, SO32-, Cl-,

II.To the portion in (iv) I above , add five drops of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Observation Inference (1mark)
2- -
White ppt persist/remains SO4 , Cl ,

III.To the portion in (iv) II above, heat to boil.

Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt persist/remains SO42-,

Note that:
(i)From test above, it can be deduced that solid Y is hydrated aluminium(III)sulphate(VI) solid
(ii)Any ion inferred from an observation below must be derived from previous correct observation and
inferences above. e.g.
Al3+ in c(iii) must be correctly inferred in either/or in c(ii) or c(i)above
SO42- in c(iv)III must be correctly inferred in either/or in c(iv)II or c(iv)I above
(iii)Contradiction in observations and inferences should be avoided.e.g.
“White ppt soluble in excess” to infer presence of Al3+ ,Ba2+ ,Pb3+

Page 30 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(iv)Symbols of elements/ions should be correctly capitalized. e.g.
“SO4-2” is wrong, “sO42-” is wrong, “cu2+” is wrong.

Sample solutions of salt were labeled as I,II, III and IV. The actual solutions, not in that order are
lead nitrate, zinc sulphate potassium chloride and calcium chloride.

a)When aqueous sodium carbonate was added to each sample separately, a white precipitate was
formed in I, III and IV only. Identify solution II.

b)When excess sodium hydroxide was added to each sample separately, a white precipitate was
formed in solutions III and I only.
Identify solution I

17.When solids/salts /solutes are added to a solvent ,some dissolve to form a solution.
Solute + Solvent -> Solvent
If a solution has a lot of solute dissolved in a solvent ,it is said to be concentrated.
If a solution has little solute dissolved in a solvent ,it is said to be dilute.

There is a limit to how much solute can dissolve in a given /specified amount of solvent/water at a given
/specified temperature.
The maximum mass of salt/solid/solute that dissolve in 100g of solvent/water at a specified
temperature is called solubility of a salt.

When no more solute can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature, a
saturated solution is formed.
For some salts, on heating, more of the salt/solid/solute dissolve in the saturated solution to form a super
saturated solution.

The solubility of a salt is thus calculated from the formula

Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100
Mass/volume of water/solvent

Practice examples
(a)Calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate(V) if 5.0 g of the salt is dissolved in 50.0cm3 of
water.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 5.0 x 100 ) = 10.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 50.0

(b)Calculate the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) if 50.0 g of the salt is dissolved in 250.0cm3 of
water.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 50.0 x 100 ) = 20.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 250.0

Page 31 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(c)If the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) is 5g/100g H2O at 80oC,how much can dissolve in
5cm3 of water at 80oC .
Mass of solute/salt/solid = Solubility x Mass/volume of water/solvent
100
=> 5 x 5 = 0.25g of KClO3 dissolve
100

(d)If the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) is 72g/100g H2O at 20oC,how much can saturate 25g
of water at 20oC .
Mass of solute/salt/solid = Solubility x Mass/volume of water/solvent
100
=> 72 x 25 = 18.0g of KClO3 dissolve/saturate
100
(e) 22g of potassium nitrate(V) was dissolved in 40.0g of water at 10oC. Calculate the solubility of
potassium nitrate(V) at 10oC.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 22 x 100 ) = 55.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 40.0.

(f)What volume of water should be added to 22.0g of water at 10oC if the solubility of KNO3 at
10oC is 5.0g/100g H2O?
Solubility is mass/100g H2O => 22.0g + x = 100cm3/100g H2O
X= 100 – 22 = 78 cm3 of H2O

18. A graph of solubility against temperature is called solubility curve.

It shows the influence of temperature on solubility of different substances/solids/salts.
Some substances dissolve more with increase in temperature while for others dissolve less with increase
in temperature
KNO3

KClO3

Saturated solution of KClO3

Solubility
/100g A
water unsaturated solution of KClO
KClO3 NaCl
B
KClO3

Note: Temperature (0C)

Page 32 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 (i)solubility of KNO3 and KClO3 increase with increase in temperature.
(ii)solubility of KNO3 is always higher than that of KClO3 at any specified temperature.
(iii)solubility of NaCl decrease with increase in temperature.
(iv)NaCl has the highest solubility at low temperature while KClO3 has the lowest solubility at low
temperature.
(v)At point A both NaCl and KNO3 are equally soluble.
(vi)At point B both NaCl and KClO3 are equally soluble.
(vii) An area above the solubility curve of the salt shows a saturated /supersaturated solution.
(viii) An area below the solubility curve of the salt shows an unsaturated solution.

19.(a) For salts whose solubility increases with increase in temperature, crystals form when the salt
solution at higher temperatures is cooled to a lower temperature.
(b) For salts whose solubility decreases with increase in temperature, crystals form when the salt
solution at lower temperatures is heated to a higher temperature.

The examples below shows determination of the mass of crystals deposited with changes in
temperature.
1.The solubility of KClO3 at 100oC is 60g/100g water . What mass of KClO3 will be deposited at:
(i)75 oC if the solubility is now 39g/100g water.
At 100oC = 60.0g
Less at 75oC = - 39.0g
Mass of crystallized out 21.0g

(i)35 oC if the solubility is now 28 g/100g water.

At 100oC = 60.0g
o
Less at 35 C = - 28.0.0g
Mass of crystallized out 32.0g

2. KNO3 has a solubility of 42 g/100g water at 20oC.The salt was heated and added 38g more of
the solute which dissolved at100oC. Calculate the solubility of KNO3 at 100oC.
Solubility of KNO3 at 100oC = solubility at 20oC + mass of KNO3 added
=> 42g + 38g = 80g KNO3 /100g H2O

3. A salt solution has a mass of 65g containing 5g of solute. The solubility of this salt is 25g per
100g water at 20oC. 60g of the salt are added to the solution at 20oC.Calculate the mass of the
solute that remain undissolved.
Mass of solvent at 20oC = mass of solution – mass of solute
=> 65 - 5 = 60g
Solubility before adding salt = mass of solute x 100
Volume of solvent
=> 5 x 100 = 8.3333g/100g water
60

Page 33 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Mass of solute to equalize with solubility = 25 – 8.3333g = 16.6667g
Mass of solute undissolved = 60.0 - 16.6667g = 43.3333 g

4. Study the table below

Salt Solubility in gram at
50oC 20oC
KNO3 90 30
KClO3 20 6

(i)What happens when the two salts are dissolved in water then cooled from 50oC to 20oC.
(90 – 30) = 60.0 g of KNO3 crystals precipitate
(20 – 6) = 14.0 g of KClO3 crystals precipitate

(ii)State the assumption made in (i) above.

Solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other.
5. 10.0 g of hydrated potassium carbonate (IV) K2CO3.xH2O on heating leave 7.93 of the hydrate.

(a)Calculate the mass of anhydrous salt obtained.

Hydrated on heating leave anhydrous = 7.93 g

(b)Calculate the mass of water of crystallization in the hydrated salt

Mass of water of crystallization = hydrated – anhydrous
=> 10.0 - 7.93 = 2.07 g

(c)How many moles of anhydrous salt are there in 10of hydrate? (K= 39.0,C=12.0.O= 16.0)
Molar mass K2CO3= 138
Moles K2CO3 = mass of K2CO3 => 7.93 = 0.0515 moles
Molar mass K2CO3 138

(d)How many moles of water are present in the hydrate for every one mole of K2CO3 ?
(H=1.0.O= 16.0)
Molar mass H2O = 18
Moles H2O = mass of H2O => 2.07 = 0.115 moles
Molar mass H2O 18
Mole ratio H2O : K2CO3 = 0.115 moles 2 = 2
0.0515 moles 1

(e)What is the formula of the hydrated salt?

K2CO3 .2 H2O

Page 34 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
6. The table below shows the solubility of Potassium nitrate(V) at different temperatures.
Temperature(oC) 5.0 10.0 15.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
mass KNO3/ 100g 15.0 20.0 25.0 50.0 65.0 90.0 120.0
water

(a)Plot a graph of mass of in 100g water(y-axis) against temperature in oC

(b)From the graph show and determine

(i)the mass of KNO3 dissolved at:
I. 20oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 32g
II. 35oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 57g
III. 55oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 104g
(ii)the temperature at which the following mass of KNO3 dissolved:
I. 22g
From a correctly plotted graph =13.0oC
II. 30g
From a correctly plotted graph =17.5oC
III.100g
From a correctly plotted graph =54.5oC

Page 35 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(c)Explain the shape of your graph.
Solubility of KNO3 increase with increase in temperature/More KNO3 dissolve as temperature rises.
(d)Show on the graph the supersaturated and unsaturated solutions.
Above the solubility curve write; “supersaturated”
Below the solubility curve write; “unsaturated”
(e)From your graph, calculate the amount of crystals obtained when a saturated solution of
KNO3 containing 180g of the salt is cooled from 80oC to:
I. 20oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 32 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 148 g

II. 35oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 58 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 122 g

III. 55oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 102 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 78 g
7. The table below shows the solubility of salts A and B at various temperatures.

Temperature(oC) 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0

Solubility of A 28.0 31.0 34.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 45.0 48.0 51.0
Solubility of B 13.0 21.0 32.0 46.0 64.0 85.0 110.0 138.0 169.0

(a)On the same axis plot a graph of solubility (y-axis) against temperature for each salt.

(b)At what temperature are the two salts equally soluble.

The point of intersection of the two curves = 24oC

(c)What happens when a mixture of 100g of salt B with 100g if water is heated to 80oC
From the graph, the solubility of B at 80oC is 169g /100g water. All the 100g crystals of B dissolve.

(d)What happens when the mixture in (c) above is then cooled from 50oC to 20oC.
Method I.
Total mass before cooling at 50oC = 100.0 g
(From graph) Solubility/mass after cooling at 20oC = 32.0 g
Mass of crystals deposited 68.0 g

Page 36 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Method II.
Mass of soluble salt crystals at 50oC added = 100 g
o
(From graph)Solubility/mass before cooling at 50 C = 85.0 g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at 50oC 15.0 g
o
(From graph) Solubility/mass before cooling at 50 C = 85.0 g
o
(From graph) Solubility/mass after cooling at 20 C = 32.0 g
Mass of crystals deposited after cooling 53.0 g
Total mass of crystals deposited = 15.0 + 53.0 = 68.0 g

(e)A mixture of 40g of A and 60g of B is added to 10g of water and heated to 70oC.The solution is
then allowed to cool to 10oC.Describe clearly what happens.
I.For salt A
Solubility of A before heating = mass of A x 100
Volume of water added
=> 40 x 100 = 400g/100g Water
10

(Theoretical)Solubility of A before heating = 400 g

Less (From graph ) Solubility of A after heating at 70oC = 48g
o
Mass of crystals that can not dissolve at70 C = 352 g
(From graph ) Solubility of A after heating at 70oC = 48g
o
Less (From graph ) Solubility of A after cooling to 10 C = 31g
o
Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 C = 17 g
Mass of crystals that can not dissolve at70oC = 352 g
o
Add Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 C = 17 g
Total mass of A that does not dissolve/crystallize/precipitate = 369 g

I.For salt B
Solubility of B before heating = mass of B x 100
Volume of water added
=> 60 x 100 = 600g/100g Water
10
(Theoretical)Solubility of B before heating = 600 g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of B after heating at 70oC = 138g
o
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at70 C = 462 g
o
(From graph ) Solubility of B after heating at 70 C = 138g
o
Less (From graph ) Solubility of B after cooling to 10 C = 21g
o
Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 C = 117 g
o
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at70 C = 462 g
o
Add Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 C = 117 g
Total mass of A that does not dissolve/crystallize/precipitate = 579 g

Page 37 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(f)State the assumption made in (e)above
Solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other

8. When 5.0 g of potassium chlorate (V) was put in 10cm3 of water and heated, the solid dissolves.
When the solution was cooled , the temperature at which crystals reappear was noted. Another
10cm3 of water was added and the mixture heated to dissolve then cooled for the crystals to
reappear .The table below shows the the results obtained

Total volume of water added(cm3) 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Mass of KClO3 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Temperature at which crystals appear 80.0 65.0 55.0 45.0 30.0
Solubility of KclO3 50.0 25.0 16.6667 12.5 10.0

(a)Complete the table to show the solubility of KclO3 at different temperatures.

(b)Plot a graph of mass of KClO3 per 100g water against temperature at which crystals form.
(c)From the graph, show and determine ;
(i)the solubility of KClO3 at

I. 50oC

From a well plotted graph = 14.5 g KClO3/100g water

II. 35oC

From a well plotted graph = 9.0 g KclO3/100g water

(ii)the temperature at which the solubility is:
I.10g/100g water
From a well plotted graph = 38.0 oC
II.45g/100g water
From a well plotted graph = 77.5 oC

(d)Explain the shape of the graph.

Solubility of KClO3 increase with increase in temperature/more KclO3dissolve as temperature rises.

(e)What happens when 100g per 100g water is cooled to 35.0 oC

Solubility before heating = 100.0
(From the graph) Solubility after cooling = 9.0
Mass of salt precipitated/crystallization = 91.0 g

Page 38 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
9. 25.0cm3 of water dissolved various masses of ammonium chloride crystals at different
temperatures as shown in the table below.

Mass of ammonium chloride(grams) 4.0 4.5 5.5 6.5 9.0

Temperature at which solid dissolved(oC) 30.0 50.0 70.0 90.0 120.0
Solubility of NH4Cl 16.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 36.0

(a)Complete the table

(b)Plot a solubility curve
(c)What happens when a saturated solution of ammonium chloride is cooled from 80oC to 40oC.
(From the graph )Solubility at 80oC = 24.0 g
Less (From the graph )Solubility at 40oC = 16.8 g
Mass of crystallized/precipitated = 7.2 g

20. Solubility and solubility curves are therefore used

(i) to know the effect of temperature on the solubility of a salt
(ii)to fractional crystallize two soluble salts by applying their differences in solubility at different
temperatures.
(iii)determine the mass of crystal that is obtained from crystallization.

21.Natural fractional crystallization takes place in Kenya/East Africa at:

(i) Lake Magadi during extraction of soda ash(Sodium carbonate) from Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate)
(ii) Ngomeni near Malindi at the Indian Ocean Coastline during the extraction of common salt(sodium
chloride).

22.Extraction of soda ash from Lake Magadi in Kenya

Rain water drains underground in the great rift valley and percolate underground where it is heated
geothermically.
The hot water dissolves underground soluble sodium compounds and comes out on the surface as
alkaline springs which are found around the edges of Lake Magadi in Kenya.
Temperatures around the lake are very high (30-40oC) during the day.
The solubility of trona decrease with increase in temperature therefore solid crystals of trona grows on
top of the lake (upto or more than 30metres thick)

A bucket dredger mines the trona which is then crushed ,mixed with lake liquor and pumped to washery
plant where it is further refined to a green granular product called CRS.
The CRS is then heated to chemically decompose trona to soda ash(Sodium carbonate)

Page 39 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 Chemical equation
2Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O(s) -> 3Na2CO3 (s) + CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)

Soda ash(Sodium carbonate) is then stored .It is called Magadi Soda. Magadi Soda is used :
(i) make glass
(ii) for making soapless detergents
(iii) softening hard water.

Common salt is collected at night because its solubility decreases with decrease in temperature. It is
used as salt lick/feed for animals.

Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona
Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona

Sodium chloride and Trona

dissolved in the sea

Carbon(IV) oxide

Natural fractional crystallization

Crystals of Trona Dredging Crushing Furnace

(Day time) /scooping/ (Heating)
digging

Crystals of sodium
Soda ash
chloride(At night)

Bagging Bagging
Na2CO3 (s)
NaCl(s)

23.Extraction
23.Extraction of common
of common salt from
salt from Indian Indian
Ocean Ocean
at Ngomeni in at Ngomeni in Kenya
Kenya
Oceans are salty.They contain a variety of dissolved salts (about 77% being sodium chloride).
During high tide ,water is collected into shallow pods and allowed to crystallize as evaporation takes
place.The pods are constructed in series to increase the rate of evaporation.
At the final pod ,the crystals are scapped together,piled in a heap and washed with brine (concentrated
sodium chloride).
It contains MgCl2 and CaCl2 . MgCl2 and CaCl2are hygroscopic. They absorb water from the
atmosphere and form a solution.
This makes table salt damp/wet on exposure to the atmosphere.

Page 40 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
24.Some water form lather easily with soap while others do not.
Water which form lather easily with soap is said to be “soft”
Water which do not form lather easily with soap is said to be “hard”
Hardness of water is caused by the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions react with soap to form an insoluble grey /white suspension/precipitate called
Scum/ curd. Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in water come from the water sources passing through rocks
containing soluble salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+ e.g. Limestone or gypsum
There are two types of water hardness:
(a)temporary hardness of water
(b)permanent hardness of water

(a)temporary hardness of water

Temporary hardness of water is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium hydrogen
carbonate/Ca(HCO3)2 and magnesium hydrogen carbonate/Mg(HCO3)2

When rain water dissolve carbon(IV) oxide from the air it forms waek carbonic(IV) acid i.e.

CO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2CO3(aq)

When carbonic(IV) acid passes through limestone/dolomite rocks it reacts to form soluble salts i.e.
In limestone areas; H2CO3(aq) + CaCO3(s) -> Ca(HCO3)2 (aq)
In dolomite areas; H2CO3(aq) + MgCO3(s) -> Mg(HCO3)2 (aq)

(b)permanent hardness of water

Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium sulphate(VI)/CaSO4 and
magnesium sulphate(VI)/Mg SO4 Permanent hardness of water is caused by water dissolving CaSO4
and MgSO4 from ground rocks.

Hardness of water can be removed by the following methods:

(a)Removing temporary hardness of water

(i)Boiling/heating.
Boiling decomposes insoluble calcium hydrogen carbonate/Ca(HCO3)2 and magnesium hydrogen
carbonate/Mg(HCO3)2 to insoluble CaCO3 and MgCO3 that precipitate away. i.e

Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -> CaCO3 (s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Mg(HCO3)2(aq) -> MgCO3 (s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Page 41 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(ii)Adding sodium carbonate (IV) /Washing soda.
Since boiling is expensive on a large scale ,a calculated amount of sodium carbonate decahydrate
/Na2CO3.10H2O precipitates insoluble Ca2+(aq) and Mg2+(aq) ions as carbonates to remove both
temporary and permanent hardness of water .This a double decomposition reaction where two soluble
salts form an insoluble and soluble salt. i.e.

(i)with temporary hard water

Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) + Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> NaHCO3(aq) + CaCO3 (s)
Na2CO3 (aq) + Mg(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> NaHCO3(aq) + MgCO3 (s)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) -> CaCO3 (s)
CO32- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3 (s)

(ii)with permanent hard water

Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3 (s)
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3 (s)

Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) -> CaCO3 (s)
CO32- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3 (s)

(iii)Adding calcium (II)hydroxide/Lime water

Lime water/calcium hydroxide removes only temporary hardness of water from by precipitating
insoluble calcium carbonate(IV).
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> 2H2O(l) + 2CaCO3 (s)
Excess of Lime water/calcium hydroxide should not be used because it dissolves again to form soluble
calcium hydrogen carbonate(IV) causing the hardness again.

(iv)Adding aqueous ammonia

Aqueous ammonia removes temporary hardness of water by precipitating insoluble calcium
carbonate(IV) and magnesium carbonate(IV)
Chemical equation
2NH3 (aq) + Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> (NH4) 2CO3(aq) + CaCO3 (s)
2NH3 (aq) + Mg(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> (NH4) 2CO3(aq) + MgCO3 (s)

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(v)Use of ion-exchange permutit
This method involves packing a chamber with a resin made of insoluble complex of sodium salt called
sodium permutit.
The sodium permutit releases sodium ions that are exchanged with Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water
making the water to be soft. i.e.
Na2X(aq) + Ca2+ (aq) -> Na+ (aq) + CaX(s)
2+ +
Na2X(aq) + Mg (aq) -> Na (aq) + MgX(s)

Hard water containing Mg2+ and Ca2+

Ion exchange resin as

Sodium permutit

------- Na+ ions replace Mg2+

and Ca2+ to make the water soft.

When all the Na+ ions in the resin is fully exchanged with Ca2+ and Ng2+ ions in the permutit column
,it is said to be exhausted.
Brine /concentrated sodium chloride solution is passed through the permutit column to regenerated
/recharge the column again.

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Hard water containing Mg2+ and Ca2+

Ion exchange resin as

Sodium permutit

------- Na+ ions replace Mg2+ and Ca2+ to make the water soft.

(vi)Deionization /demineralization
This is an advanced ion exchange method of producing deionized water .Deionized water is extremely
pure water made only of hydrogen and oxygen only without any dissolved substances.

Deionization involve using the resins that remove all the cations by using:
(i)A cation exchanger which remove /absorb all the cations present in water and leave only H+ ions.

(ii)An anion exchanger which remove /absorb all the anions present in water and leave only OH- ions.

The H+(aq) and OH- (aq) neutralize each other to form pure water.
Chemical equation
H+(aq) + OH- (aq) -> H2O(l)

When exhausted the cation exchanger is regenerated by adding H+(aq) from

sulphuric(VI)acid/hydrochloric acid.

When exhausted the anion exchanger is regenerated by adding OH-(aq) from sodium hydroxide.

Page 44 of 78
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Advantages of hard water
Hard water has the following advantages:
(i)Ca2+(aq) in hard water are useful in bone and teeth formation
(ii) is good for brewing beer
(iii)contains minerals that cause it to have better /sweet taste
(iv)animals like snails and coral polyps use calcium to make their shells and coral reefs respectively.
(v)processing mineral water

Disadvantages of hard water

Hardness of water:
(i)waste a lot of soap during washing before lather is formed.
(ii)causes stains/blemishes/marks on clothes/garments
(iii)causes fur on electric appliances like kettle ,boilers and pipes form decomposition of
carbonates on heating .This reduces their efficiency hence more/higher cost of power/electricity.

Sample revision questions

In an experiment, soap solution was added to three separate samples of water. The table below shows
the volumes of soap solution required to form lather with 1000cm3 of each sample of water before and
after boiling.
Sample I Sample Sample
II III
Volume of soap before water is boiled (cm3) 27.0 3.0 10.0
Volume of soap after water is boiled(cm3) 27.0 3.0 3.0

a) Which water sample is likely to be soft? Explain. (2mks)

Sample II: Uses little sample of soap .
c)Name the change in the volume of soap solution used in sample III (1mk)
On heating the sample water become soft bcause it is temporary hard.

2.Study the scheme below and use it to aanswer the questions that follow:

Page 45 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 (a)Write the formula of:
(i)Cation in solution K
Al3+

(ii)white ppt L
Al(OH)3

(iii) colourless solution M

[Al(OH)4]-

(iv) colourless solution N

AlCl3

(v)white ppt P
Al(OH)3

(b)Write the ionic equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i)white ppt L
Al3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq) -> Al(OH)3(s)

(v)white ppt P
Al3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq) -> Al(OH)3(s)

(c)What property is illustrated in the formation of colourless solution M and N.

Amphotellic

Page 46 of 78
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 TOPIC 2:
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
PROCESS (THERMOCHEMISTRY)
1.Introduction to Energy changes
Energy is the capacity to do work. There are many/various forms of energy like heat, electric,
mechanical, and/ or chemical energy. There are two types of energy:
(i)Kinetic Energy(KE) ;the energy in motion.
(ii)Potential Energy(PE); the stored/internal energy.

Energy like matter , is neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed /changed from one form
to the other/ is interconvertible. This is the principle of conservation of energy. e.g. Electrical energy
into heat through a filament in bulb.

Chemical and physical processes take place with absorption or evolution/production of energy mainly
in form of heat

The study of energy changes that accompany physical/chemical reaction/changes is called

Thermochemistry. Physical/chemical reaction/changes that involve energy changes are called
thermochemical reactions. The SI unit of energy is the Joule(J).Kilo Joules(kJ)and megaJoules(MJ)
are also used. The Joule(J) is defined as the:
(i) quantity of energy transferred when a force of one newton acts through a distance of one metre.
(ii) quantity of energy transferred when one coulomb of electric charge is passed through a potential
difference of one volt.

All thermochemical reactions should be carried out at standard conditions of:

(i) 298K /25oC temperature
(ii)101300Pa/101300N/m2 /760mmHg/1 atmosphere pressure.

2.Exothermic and endothermic processes/reactions

Some reactions / processes take place with evolution/production of energy. They are said to be
exothermic while others take place with absorption of energy. They are said to be endothermic.

Practically exothermic reactions / processes cause a rise in temperature (by a rise in thermometer
reading/mercury or alcohol level rise)
Practically endothermic reactions / processes cause a fall in temperature (by a fall in thermometer
reading/mercury or alcohol level decrease)

Page 47 of 78
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To demonstrate/illustrate exothermic and endothermic processes/reactions
a) Dissolving Potassium nitrate(V)/ammonium chloride crystals
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of water in a beaker. Determine and record its temperature T1.Put about 1.0g of
Potassium nitrate(V) crystals into the beaker. Stir the m’/ixture carefully and note the highest
temperature rise /fall T2.Repeat the whole procedure by using ammonium chloride in place of Potassium
nitrate (V) crystals.

Sample results
Temperture (oC) Using Potassium Using Ammonium
nitrate(V) crystals chloride crystals
T2(Final temperature) 21.0 23.0
T1 (Initial temperature) 25.0 26.0
Change in temperature(T2 –T1) 4.0 3.0

Note:
(i)Initial(T1) temperature of dissolution of both potassium nitrate(V) crystals and ammonium chloride
crystals is higher than the final temperature(T2)
(ii) Change in temperature(T2 –T1) is not a mathematical “-4.0” or “-3.0”.
(iii)Dissolution of both potassium nitrate(V) and ammonium chloride crystals is an endothermic
process because initial(T1) temperature is higher than the final temperature(T2) thus causes a fall/drop
in temperature.

b) Dissolving concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid/sodium hydroxide crystals

Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of water in a beaker. Determine and record its temperature T1.Carefully put about
1.0g/four pellets of sodium hydroxide crystals into the beaker. Stir the mixture carefully and note the
highest temperature rise /fall T2.Repeat the whole procedure by using 2cm3 of concentrated
sulphuric(VI) acid in place of sodium hydroxide crystals.

CAUTION:
(i)Sodium hydroxide crystals are caustic and cause painful blisters on contact with skin.
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is corrosive and cause painful wounds on contact with skin.

Sample results
Temperture (oC) Using Sodium Using Concentrated
hydroxide pellets sulphuric(VI) acid
T2(Final temperature) 30.0 32.0
T1 (Initial temperature) 24.0 25.0
Change in temperature(T2 –T1) 6.0 7.0

Page 48 of 78
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Note:
(i) Initial (T1) temperature of dissolution of both concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid and sodium hydroxide
pellets is lower than the final temperature (T2).
(ii) Dissolution of both Sodium hydroxide pellets and concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is an exothermic
process because final (T2) temperature is higher than the initial temperature (T1) thus causes a rise
in temperature.
The above reactions show heat loss to and heat gain from the surrounding as illustrated by a rise and
fall in temperature/thermometer readings.
Dissolving both potassium nitrate(V) and ammonium chloride crystals causes heat gain from the
surrounding that causes fall in thermometer reading.
Dissolving both Sodium hydroxide pellets and concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid causes heat loss to the
surrounding that causes rise in thermometer reading.

At the same temperature and pressure ,heat absorbed and released is called enthalpy/ heat content
denoted H.
Energy change is measured from the heat content/enthalpy of the final and initial products. It is denoted
∆H(delta H).i.e.

Enthalpy/energy/ change in heat content ∆H = Hfinal – Hinitial

For chemical reactions:
∆H = Hproducts – Hreactants
For exothermic reactions, the heat contents of the reactants is more than/higher than the heat contents
of products, therefore the ∆H is negative (-∆H)
For endothermic reactions, the heat contents of the reactants is less than/lower than the heat contents of
products, therefore the ∆H is negative (+∆H)

Graphically, in a sketch energy level diagram:

(i)For endothermic reactions the heat content of the reactants should be relatively/slightly lower than the
heat content of the products
(ii)For exothermic reactions the heat content of the reactants should be relatively/slightly higher than
the heat content of the products
Sketch energy level diagrams for endothermic dissolution

Energy
(kJ) H2 KNO3(aq)

+∆H = H2 – H1

H1 KNO3(s)

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Reaction path/coordinate/progress

Energy
(kJ) H2 NH4Cl (aq)

+∆H = H2 – H1

H1 NH4Cl (s)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress
Sketch energy level diagrams for exothermic dissolution

H2 NaOH (s)

Energy(kJ)
-∆H = H2 – H1

H1 NaOH (aq)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress

H2 H2SO4 (l)
Energy
(kJ)
-∆H = H2 – H1

H1 H2SO4 (aq)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress

Page 50 of 78
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3.Energy changes in physical processes

Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification and boiling/vaporization/evaporation are the two physical

processes. Melting /freezing point of pure substances is fixed /constant. The boiling point of pure
substance depend on external atmospheric pressure.

Melting/fusion is the physical change of a solid to liquid. Freezing is the physical change of a liquid to
solid.
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification are therefore two opposite but same reversible physical
processes. i.e
A (s) ========A(l)

Boiling/vaporization/evaporation is the physical change of a liquid to gas/vapour.

Condensation/liquidification is the physical change of gas/vapour to liquid.
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation and condensation/liquidification are therefore two opposite but same
reversible physical processes. i.e

B (l) ========B(g)

Page 51 of 78
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 TOPIC:3
REACTION RATES AND
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
A.THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
(CHEMICAL KINETICS)

1.Introduction
The rate of a chemical reaction is the time taken for a given mass/amount of products to be formed. The
rate of a chemical reaction is also the time taken for a given mass/amount of reactant to be consumed
/used up.
Some reactions are too slow to be determined. e.g rusting ,decomposition of hydrogen peroxide and
weathering.

Some reactions are too fast and instantaneous e.g. neutralization of acid and bases/alkalis in aqueous
solution and double decomposition/precipitation.
Other reactions are explosive and very risky to carry out safely e.g. reaction of potassium with water
and sodium with dilute acids.
The study of the rate of chemical reaction is useful in knowing the factors that influence the reaction so
that efficiency and profitability is maximized in industries.

Theories of rates of reaction.

The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the rate of change of concentration/amount of reactants in
unit time. It is also the rate of formation of given concentration of products in unit time. i.e.
Rate of reaction = Change in concentration/amount of reactants
Time taken for the change to occur

Rate of reaction = Change in concentration/amount of products formed

Time taken for the products to form

For the above, therefore the rate of a chemical reaction is rate of decreasing reactants to form an
increasing product.
The SI unit of time is second(s) but minutes and hours are also used.
(a)The collision theory
The collision theory is an application of the Kinetic Theory of matter which assumes matter is made up
of small/tiny/minute particles like ions atoms and molecules.

The collision theory proposes that

(i)for a reaction to occur, reacting particles must collide.

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(ii)not all collisions between reacting particles are successful in a reaction. Collisions that initiate a
chemical reaction are called successful / fruitful/ effective collisions
(iii)the speed at which particles collide is called collision frequency.
The higher the collision frequency the higher the chances of successful / fruitful/ effective collisions to
form products.
(iv)the higher the chances of successful collisions, the faster the reaction.
(v)the average distance between solid particles from one another is too big for them to meet and collide
successfully.
(vi)dissolving substances in a solvent ,make the solvent a medium for the reaction to take place.
The solute particle distance is reduced as the particle ions are free to move in the solvent medium.
(vii)successful collisions take place if the particles colliding have the required energy and right
orientation which increases their vibration and intensity of successful / fruitful/ effective collisions to
form products.

(b)The Activation Energy(Ea) theory

The Enthalpy of activation(∆Ha) /Activation Energy(Ea) is the minimum amount of energy which the
reactants must overcome before they react.
Activation Energy(Ea) is usually required /needed in bond breaking of the reacting particles.
Bond breaking is an endothermic process that require an energy input.
The higher the bond energy the slower the reaction to start of.
Activation energy does not influence whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
The energy level diagrams below shows the activation energy for exothermic and endothermic
processes/reactions.
Energy level diagram showing the activation energy for exothermic processes /reactions.

The activated complex is a mixture of many intermediate possible products which may not exist under
normal physical conditions ,but can theoretically exist.

Exothermic reaction proceeds without further heating /external energy because it generates its own
energy/heat to overcome activation energy.

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Endothermic reaction cannot proceed without further heating /external energy because it does not
generates its own energy/heat to overcome activation energy. It generally therefore requires continuous
supply of more energy/heat to sustain it to completion.

3. Measuring the rate of a chemical reaction.

The rate of a chemical reaction can be measure as:
(i)Volume of a gas in unit time;
- if reaction is producing a gas as one of the products.
- if reaction is using a gas as one reactants

(ii)Change in mass of reactants/products for solid products/reactants in unit time.

(iii)formation of a given mass of precipitate in unit time

(iv)a certain mass of reactants to completely form products/diminish.

Reactants may be homogenous or heterogenous.

-Homogenous reactions involve reactants in the same phase/state e.g. solid-solid,gas-gas,liquid-liquid.
-Heterogenous reactions involve reactants in the different phase/state e.g. solid-liquid,gas-
liquid,solid-gas.

4. Factors influencing/altering/affecting/determining rate of reaction

The following factors alter/influence/affect/determine the rate of a chemical reaction:
(a)Concentration
(b)Pressure
(c) Temperature
(d)Surface area
(e)Catalyst

a) Influence of concentration on rate of reaction

The higher the concentration, the higher the rate of a chemical reaction. An increase in concentration of
the reactants reduces the distance between the reacting particles increasing their collision frequency to
form products.
Practically an increase in concentration reduces the time taken for the reaction to take place.

Practical determination of effect of concentration on reaction rate

Method 1(a)
Reaction of sodium thisulphate with dilute hydrochloric acid
Procedure:

Page 54 of 78
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Measure 20cm3 of 0.05M sodium thisulphate into a 50cm3 glass beaker. Place the beaker on a white
piece of filter paper with ink mark ‘X’ on it. Measure 20cm3 of 0.1M hydrochloric acid solution using
a 50cm3 measuring cylinder. Put the acid into the beaker containing sodium thisulphate. Immediately
start off the stop watch/clock. Determine the time taken for the ink mark ‘X’ to become invisible
/obscured when viewed from above.
Repeat the procedure by measuring different volumes of the acid and adding the volumes of the distilled
water to complete table 1.

Sample results:Table 1.

Volume of Volume of Volume of sodium Time taken for mark ‘X’ to be Reciprocal
acid(cm3) water(cm3) thiosulphate(cm3) invisible/obscured(seconds) of time
1
t
20.0 0.0 20.0 20.0 5.0 x 10-2
18.0 2.0 20.0 23.0 4.35 x 10-2
16.0 4.0 20.0 27.0 3.7 x 10-2
14.0 6.0 20.0 32.0 3.13 x 10-2
12.0 8.0 20.0 42.0 2.38 x 10-2
10.0 10.0 20.0 56.0 1.78 x 10-2

For most examining bodies/councils/boards the above results score for:

(a) complete table as evidence for all the practical work done and completed.

(b) (i)Consistent use of a decimal point on time as evidence of understanding/knowledge of the degree
of accuracy of stop watches/clock.
(ii)Consistent use of a minimum of four decimal points on inverse/reciprocal of time as evidence
of understanding/knowledge of the degree of accuracy of scientific calculator.

(c) accuracy against a school value based on candidate’s teachers-results submitted.

(d) correct trend (time increase as more water is added/acid is diluted) in conformity with expected
theoretical results.
Sample questions

1. On separate graph papers plot a graph of:

(i)volume of acid used(x-axis) against time. Label this graph I
(ii) volume of acid used(x-axis) against 1/t. Label this graph II

Page 55 of 78
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2. Explain the shape of graph I
Diluting/adding water is causes a decrease in concentration.
Decrease in concentration reduces the rate of reaction by increasing the time taken for reacting particle
to collide to form products.
Sketch sample Graph I

Time

(seconds)

Volume of acid(cm3)

Sketch sample Graph II

Page 56 of 78
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3.From graph II ,determine the time taken for the cross to be obscured/invisible when the volume of the
acid is:
(i) 13cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 13cm3 on the graph => 2.75 x 10-2
t = 1 / 2.75 x 10-2 = 36.3636 seconds

(ii) 15cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 15cm3 on the graph => 3.35 x 10-2
t = 1 / 3.35 x 10-2 = 29.8507 seconds

(iii) 15cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 17cm3 on the graph => 4.0 x 10-2
t = 1 / 4.0 x 10-2 = 25.0 seconds

(iv) 19cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 19cm3 on the graph => 4.65 x 10-2
t = 1 / 4.65 x 10-2 = 21.5054 seconds
4.From graph II ,determine the volume of the acid used if the time taken for the cross to be
obscured/invisible is:
(i)25 seconds
1/t => 1/25 = 4.0 x 10-2
Reading from a correctly plotted graph;
4.0 x 10-2 correspond to 17.0 cm3

(ii)30 seconds
1/t => 1/30 = 3.33 x 10-2
Reading from a correctly plotted graph;
3.33 x 10-2 correspond to 14.7 cm3

(iii)40 seconds
1/t => 1/40 = 2.5 x 10-2
Reading from a correctly plotted graph;
2.5 x 10-2 correspond to 12.3 cm3

4. Write the equation for the reaction taking place

Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2NaCl (aq)+ SO2 (g) + S(s) + H2O(l)

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Ionically:
S2O32- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) -> SO2 (g) + S(s) + H2O(l)

5.Name the yellow precipitate

Colloidal Sulphur

Method 1(b)
Reaction of sodium thisulphate with dilute hydrochloric acid
You are provided with
2.0M Hydrochloric acid
0.4M sodium thiosulphate solution

Page 58 of 78
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 TOPIC 4:
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry can be defined as the study of the effects of electricity on a substance/ compound and
how chemical reactions produce electricity.

Electrochemistry therefore deals mainly with:

i) Reduction and oxidation
ii) Electrochemical (voltaic) cell
iii) Electrolysis (electrolytic) cell

(i)REDUCTION AND OXIDATION (REDOX)

1. In teams of oxygen transfer:

i) Reduction is removal of oxygen.
ii) Oxidation is addition of oxygen.
iii) Redox is simultaneous addition and removal of oxygen.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore gains oxygen.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore looses/donates oxygen.

e.g. When hydrogen is passed through heated copper (II) oxide, it is oxidised to copper metal as in the
equation below:
CuO (s) + H2 (g) -> Cu (s) + H2O (l)
(Oxidising agent) (Reducing agent)

2. In terms of hydrogen transfer:

i) Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen.
ii) Reduction is the addition of hydrogen.
iii) Redox is simultaneous addition and removal of hydrogen.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore looses/ donates hydrogen.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore gains hydrogen.

e.g. When hydrogen sulphide gas is bubbled into a gas jar containing chlorine gas it is oxidized (loose
the hydrogen) to sulphur (yellow solid).
The chlorine is reduced (gain hydrogen) to hydrogen chlorine gas.
Cl2 (g) + H2S (g) -> S(S) + 2HCl (g)
(Oxidizing agent) (Reducing agent)

3. In terms of electron transfer:

i) Oxidation is donation/ loss/ removal of electrons.
ii) Reduction is gain/ accept/ addition of electrons.

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 iii) Redox is simultaneous gain/ accept/ addition and donation/ loss/ removal of electrons.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore looses/ donates electrons.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore gains/ accepts electrons.

Example
a) Displacement of metals from their solutions:
Place 5cm3 each of Iron (II) sulphate (VI) solution into three different test tubes. Add about 1g of
copper tunings / powder into one test tube then zinc and magnesium powders separately into the other
test tubes. Shake thoroughly for 2 minutes each. Record any colour changes in the table below.

Metal added to Iron (II) sulphate (VI) Colour changes

solution
Copper Solution remains green
Zinc Green colour fades
Magnesium Green colour fades

Explanation
-When a more reactive metal is added to a solution of less reactive metal, it displaces it from its
solution.
-When a less reactive metal is added to a solution of a more reactive metal, it does not displace it from
its solution.
-Copper is less reactive than iron therefore cannot displace iron its solution.
-Zinc is more reactive than iron therefore can displace iron from its solution.
-Magnesium is more reactive than iron therefore can displace iron from its solution.

In terms of electron transfer:

- the more reactive metal undergoes oxidation (reducing agent) by donating/loosing electrons to form
ions
-the less reactive metal undergoes reduction (oxidizing agent) by its ions in solution gaining
/accepting/acquiring the electrons to form the metal.
-displacement of metals involves therefore electron transfer from a more reactive metal to ions of
another less reactive metal.
Examples
1. Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
2+
Fe (aq) + 2e -> Fe(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Fe (aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s) (redox/both donation and gain of electrons)
2+

2. Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)

2+
Fe (aq) + 2e -> Fe(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Fe2+(aq) + Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s) (redox/both donation and gain of electrons)

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3. Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
2+
Cu (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Cu (aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (redox/both donation and gain of electrons)
2+

4. Fe(s) -> Fe2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)

+
2Ag (aq) + 2e -> 2Ag(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
+ 2+
2Ag (aq) + Fe(s) -> Fe (aq) + 2Ag(s) (redox/both donation and gain of electrons)

5. Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)

Cl2(g) + 2e -> 2Cl-(aq) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Cl2(g) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) (redox/both donation and gain of electrons)

6. 2Mg(s) -> 2Mg2+(aq) + 4e (oxidation/donation of electrons)

2-
O2(g) + 4e -> 2O (aq) (reduction/gain of electrons)
O2(g) + 2Mg(s) -> 2Mg2+(aq) + 2O2-(aq) (redox/both donation and gain of electrons)

Note
(i)The number of electrons donated/lost MUST be equal to the number of electrons gained/acquired.
(i)During displacement reaction, the colour of ions /salts fades but does not if displacement does not
take place. e.g

a)Green colour of Fe2+(aq) fades if Fe2+(aq) ions are displaced from their solution. Green colour of
Fe2+(aq) appear if Fe/iron displaces another salt/ions from their solution.

b)Blue colour of Cu2+(aq) fades if Cu2+(aq) ions are displaced from their solution and brown copper
deposits appear. Blue colour of Cu2+(aq) appear if Cu/copper displaces another salt/ions from their
solution.

c)Brown colour of Fe3+(aq) fades if Fe3+(aq) ions are displaced from their solution. Brown colour of
Fe3+(aq) appear if Fe/iron displaces another salt/ions from their solution to form Fe3+(aq).
(iii)Displacement reactions also produce energy/heat. The closer/nearer the metals in the
reactivity/electrochemical series the less energy/heat of displacement.

(iv)The higher the metal in the reactivity series therefore the easier to loose/donate electrons and thus
the stronger the reducing agent.

4. (a)In terms of oxidation number:

i) Oxidation is increase in oxidation numbers.
ii) Reduction is decrease in oxidation numbers.
iii) Redox is simultaneous increase in oxidation numbers of one species/substance and a decrease
in oxidation numbers of another species/substance.

Page 61 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore increases its oxidation
number.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore increases its oxidation
number.

(b)The idea/concept of oxidation numbers uses/applies the following simple guideline rules:
Guidelines /rules applied in assigning oxidation number
1.Oxidation number of combined Oxygen is always -2 except in peroxides (Na2O2/H2O2) where its
Oxidation number is -1
2.Oxidation number of combined Hydrogen is always +1except in Hydrides (NaH/KH) where its
Oxidation number is -1
3.All atoms and molecules of elements have oxidation number 0 (zero)

Atom Oxidation number Molecule Oxidation number

Na 0 Cl2 0
O 0 O2 0
H 0 H2 0
Al 0 N2 0
Ne 0 O3 0
K 0 P3 0
Cu 0 S8 0

4.All combined metals and non-metals have oxidation numbers equal to their valency /oxidation state
e.g.

Metal/non-metal ion Valency Oxidation state Oxidation number

Fe2+ 2 -2 -2
Fe3+ 3 -3 -3
Cu2+ 2 -2 -2
Cu+ 1 +1 +1
Cl- 1 -1 -1
O2- 2 -2 -2
Na+ 1 +1 +1
Al3+ 3 +3 +3
P3- 3 -3 -3
Pb2+ 2 +2 +2

5.Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms of elements making a compound is equal zero(0) e.g.
Using this rule ,an unknown oxidation number of an atom in a compound can be determined as below:

Page 62 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
a) CuSO4 has-
-one atom of Cu with oxidation number +2( refer to Rule 4)
-one atom of S with oxidation number +6 ( refer to Rule 4)
-six atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 4)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in CuSO4 = (+2 + +6 + (-2 x 6)) = 0

b) H2SO4 has-
-two atom of H each with oxidation number +1( refer to Rule 2)
-one atom of S with oxidation number +6 ( refer to Rule 4)
-four atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 4)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in H2SO4 = (+2 + +6 + (-2 x 4)) = 0

c) KMnO4 has-
-one atom of K with oxidation number +1( refer to Rule 4)
-one atom of Mn with oxidation number +7 ( refer to Rule 4)
-four atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 4)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in KMnO4 = (+1 + +7 + (-2 x 4)) = 0

Page 63 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 TOPIC: 5
METALS
a) Introduction to metals
The rationale of studying metals cannot be emphasized.Since ages, the world over, metals like gold and
silver have been used for commercial purposes.
The periodicity of alkali and alkaline earth metals was discussed in year 2 of secondary school
education. This topic generally deals with:
(a)Natural occurrence of the chief ores of the most useful metals for industrial /commercial purposes.
(b)Extraction of these metals from their ores for industrial/ commercial purposes.
(c)industrial/ commercial uses of these metals.
(d)main physical and chemical properties /characteristic of the metals.
The metals given detailed emphasis here are; Sodium, Aluminium, Iron, Zinc, Lead and Copper.
The main criteria used in extraction of metals is based on its position in the electrochemical/reactivity
series and its occurrence on the earth’s crust..

1. SODIUM
a) Natural occurrence
Sodium naturally occurs as:
(i)Brine-a concentrated solution of sodium chloride(NaCl(aq)) in salty seas and oceans.
(ii)Rock salt-solid sodium chloride(NaCl(s)
(iii)Trona-sodium sesquicarbonate(NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O) especially in lake Magadi in Kenya.
(iv)Chile saltpeter-sodium nitrate(NaNO3)

Page 64 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
b)(i)Extraction of Sodium from brine/Manufacture of Sodium hydroxide/The flowing mercury
cathode cell/ TheCaster-Keller process
I.Raw materials
(i) Brine-concentrated solution of sodium chloride (NaCl (aq)) from salty seas and oceans.
(ii)Mercury
(iii)Water from river/lakes
II. Chemical processes
Salty lakes, seas and oceans contain large amount of dissolved sodium chloride (NaCl (aq)) solution.
This solution is concentrated to form brine which is fed into an electrolytic chamber made of suspended
Carbon graphite/titanium as the anode and a continuous flow of Mercury as the cathode
.Note
Mercury is the only naturally occurring known liquid metal at room
temperature and pressure

Questions
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolyte during the electrolytic process.
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

II. Name the ions present in brine that moves to the:

(i)Mercury cathode; H+(aq) , Na+(aq)
(ii)Titanium/graphite; OH-(aq), Cl-(aq)

III. Write the equation for the reaction that take place during the electrolytic process at the;
Cathode; 2Na+(aq) + 2e 2Na(s)
-
Anode; 2Cl (aq) Cl2(g) + 2e
Note
(i)Concentration of 2Cl-(aq) ions is higher than OH- ions causing overvoltage thus blocking OH- ions
from being discharged at the anode.
(ii)Concentration of Na+(aq) ions is higher than H+ ions causing overvoltage thus blocking H+ ions from
being discharged at the cathode.
IV. Name the products of electrolysis in the flowing mercury-cathode cell.
(i)Mercury cathode; Sodium metal as grey soft metal/solid
(ii)Titanium/graphite; Chlorine gas as a pale green gas that turns moist blue/red litmus papers
red then bleaches both.
Chlorine gas is a very useful by-product in;
(i) making (PVC)polyvinylchloride(polychloroethene) pipes.
(ii) chlorination/sterilization of water to kill germs.
(iii) bleaching agent
(iv) manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

Page 65 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Sodium produced at the cathode immediately reacts with the mercury at the cathode forming sodium
amalgam(NaHg) liquid that flow out of the chamber.
Na(s) + Hg(l) Na Hg (l)
Sodium amalgam is added distilled water and reacts to form sodium hydroxide solution, free mercury
and Hydrogen gas.
2Na Hg (l) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH (aq) + 2Hg(l) + H2(g)
Hydrogen gas is a very useful by-product in;
(i) making ammonia gas in the Haber process
(ii) manufacture of hydrochloric acid
(iii) in weather balloons to forecast weather
(iv) as rocket fuel
As the electrolysis of brine continues, the concentration of Cl-ions decreases and oxygen gas start being
liberated. Continuous feeding of the electrolyte is therefore very necessary.

III.Uses of sodium hydroxide

The sodium hydroxide produced is very pure and is used mainly in:
(i)Making soapy and soapless detergents.
(ii)making cellulose acetate/rayon
IV. Diagram showing the Manufacture of Sodium hydroxide from the flowing Mercury-cathode cell.

Page 66 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
V. Environmental effects of Manufacture of Sodium hydroxide from the flowing Mercury-cathode
cell.
1.Most of the Mercury used at the cathode is recycled ;
(i)to reduce the cost because mercury is expensive
(ii)to reduce pollution because mercury kills marine life.
(iii)because it causes chromosomal/genetic mutation to human beings.

2.Chlorine produced at the anode;

(i)has a pungent irritating smell that causes headache to human beings.
(ii)bleaches any wet substance.
(iii)dissolves water to form both hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid
Both cause marine pollution and stomach upsets.

b)(ii)
Extraction of sodium from rock salt/The Downs cell/process
I. Raw materials
(i)Rock salt/solid sodium chloride
(ii)calcium(II)chloride

II. Chemical processes.

Rock salt/ solid sodium chloride is heated to molten state in a chamber lined with fire bricks on the
outside.
Sodium chloride has a melting point of about 800oC. A little calcium (II) chloride is added to lower the
melting point of the electrolyte to about 600oC.
The molten electrolyte is the electrolyzed in a carbon graphite anode suspended at the centre and
surrounded by steel cathode.

Questions
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolyte during the electrolytic process.
NaCl(l) Na+(l) + Cl-(l)
Note: In absence of water, the ions are in liquid state.

II. Name the ions present in molten rock salt that move to the;
(i)Steel cathode -Na+(l)
(ii)Carbon graphite anode- Cl-(l)

III. Write the equation for the reaction that take place during the electrolytic process at the;
(i)Steel cathode
2Na+(l) + 2e 2Na(l)
(ii)Carbon graphite anode
2Cl-(l) Cl2(g) + 2e

Page 67 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
IV. Name the products of electrolysis in the Downs cell at;
(i)Cathode:

Grey solid Sodium metal is less dense than the molten electrolyte and therefore float on top of the
cathode to be periodically tapped off.
(ii)Anode:
Pale green chlorine gas that turns moist/damp/wet blue/red litmus papers red then bleaches/decolorizes
both. Chlorine gas is again a very useful by-product in;
(i)making (PVC)polyvinylchloride(polychloroethene) pipes.
(ii)chlorination/sterilization of water to kill germs.
(iii)bleaching agent
(iv)manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

A steel diaphragm/gauze is suspended between the electrodes to prevent recombination of sodium at

the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode back to sodium chloride.

III. Diagram showing the Downs cell/process for extraction of sodium

IV. Uses of sodium.

1.Sodium vapour is used as sodium lamps to give a yellow light in street lighting.
2.Sodium is used in making very useful sodium compounds like;
(i)Sodium hydroxide(NaOH)
(ii)Sodium cyanide(NaCN)
(iii)Sodium peroxide(Na2O2)
(iv)Sodamide(NaNH2)

3.An alloy of Potassium and Sodium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors.

Page 68 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
V. Environmental effects of Downs cell.
1.Chlorine produced at the anode;
(i)has a pungent irritating smell that causes headache to human beings.
(ii)bleaches any wet substance.
(iii)dissolves water to form both hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid
Both cause marine pollution and stomach upsets.

2.Sodium metal rapidly react with traces of water to form alkaline Sodium
hydroxide(NaOH(aq))solution. This raises the pH of rivers/lakes killing aquatic lifein case of leakages.

VI. Test for presence of Na.

If a compound has Na+ ions in solid/molten/aqueous state then it changes a non-luminous
clear/colourless flame to a yellow coloration but does not burn

Experiment
Scoop a portion of sodium chloride crystals/solution in a clean metallic spatula. Introduce it to a clear
/colourless Bunsen flame.

Observation Inference
Yellow coloration Na+
Practice
(i)Calculate the time taken in hours for 230kg of sodium to be produced in the Downs cell when a
current of 120kA is used.
(ii)Determine the volume of chlorine released to the atmosphere. (Na=23.0),Faraday
constant=96500C.I mole of a gas =24dm3 at r.t.p)
Working:
Equation at the cathode:
2Na+ (l) + 2e -> 2Na(l)
2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C deposits a mass = molar mass of Na = 23.0g thus;
23.0 g -> 2 x 96500 C
(230 x 1000)g -> 230 x 1000 x 2 x 96500
23
9
= 1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 C
Time(t) in seconds = Quantity of electricity
Current(I) in amperes
Substituting
= 1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 9C
120 x 1000A
= 16,083,3333seconds / 268.0556 minutes
= 4.4676hours

Page 69 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Volume of Chlorine
Method 1
Equation at the anode:
2 Cl- (l) -> Cl2(g) + 2e
From the equation:
2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays =2 x 96500C
2 x 96500C -> 24dm3
1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 9C->1,930,000,000 / 1.93x10 9C x 24
2 x 96500C
Volume of Chlorine = 240,000dm3 /2.4 x 105dm3

Page 70 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 TOPIC 6:
RADIOACTIVITY
A: INTRODUCTION / CAUSES OF RADIOCTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration/decay of an unstable nuclide.
A nuclide is an atom with defined mass number (number of protons and neutrons), atomic number and
definite energy.

Radioactivity takes place in the nucleus of an atom unlike chemical reactions that take place in the
energy levels involving electrons.
A nuclide is said to be stable if its neutron: proton ratio is equal to one (n/p = 1)

All nuclide therefore try to attain n/p = 1 by undergoing radioactivity.

Examples

(i)Oxygen nuclide with 168 O has 8 neutrons and 8 protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 1 thus
stable and do not decay/disintegrate.

(ii)Chlorine nuclide with 3517 Cl has 18 neutrons and 17 protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 1.0588
thus unstable and decays/disintegrates to try to attain n/p = 1.

(ii)Uranium nuclide with 23792 U has 206 neutrons and 92 protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p =
2.2391 thus more unstable than 23592 U and thus more readily decays / disintegrates to try to attain n/p =
1.

(iii) Chlorine nuclide with 3717 Cl has 20 neutrons and 17 protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p =
1.1765 thus more unstable than 3517 Cl and thus more readily decays / disintegrates to try to attain
n/p = 1.

(iv)Uranium nuclide with 23592 U has 143 neutrons and 92 protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p =
1.5543 thus more stable than 237 92U but also readily decays / disintegrates to try to attain n/p = 1.
All unstable nuclides naturally try to attain nuclear stability with the production of:

(i)alpha(α) particle decay

The alpha (α) particle has the following main characteristic:
i) is positively charged(like protons)
ii) has mass number 4 and atomic number 2 therefore equal to a charged Helium atom ( 42He2+)
iii) have very low penetrating power and thus can be stopped /blocked/shielded by a thin sheet of paper.
iv) have high ionizing power thus cause a lot of damage to living cells.
v) a nuclide undergoing α-decay has its mass number reduced by 4 and its atomic number reduced by 2

Page 71 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Examples of alpha decay
210 x 4 2+
84 Pb -> 82 Pb + 2He
210 206 4 2+
84 Pb -> 82 Pb + 2He

226 222 4 2+
Ra
88 -> Rn y + 2He
226 222 4 2+
88 Ra -> 86 Rn + 2He

x 234 4 2+
U y -> Th
90 + 2He
238 234 4 2+
92 U -> 90 Th + 2He

x 230
yU -> Ra
88 + 2 42He 2+
238 230
92 U -> 88 Ra + 2 42He 2+

210
U 84 -> x
yW + 10 α
210
84 U -> 170
64 W + 10 α

210
92U -> x
yW + 6α
210
92U -> 186
80W + 6α

(ii)Beta (β) particle decay

The Beta (β) particle has the following main characteristic:

i)is negatively charged(like electrons)

ii)has no mass number and atomic number negative one(-1) therefore equal to a fast moving electron
(0 -1e)

iii) have medium penetrating power and thus can be stopped /blocked/shielded by a thin sheet of
aluminium foil.

iv) have medium ionizing power thus cause less damage to living cells than the α particle.

v) a nuclide undergoing β -decay has its mass number remain the same and its atomic number increase
by 1

Examples of beta (β) decay

1.23 x Na -> 23
12Mg + 0
-1e
23 23 0
11 Na -> 12Mg + -1e

2. 234 x Th -> y
Pa
91 + 0
-1e
234 y 0
90 Th -> 91 Pa + -1e

Page 72 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
3. 20770Y -> x y Pb + 30 -1e
207 207
70Y -> 73Pb + 30 -1e

14 0
4. x y C -> 7N + -1e
14 0
14 6 C -> 7N + -1e

5. 1 x n -> y
1H + 0
-1e
1 1 0
0n -> 1H + -1e

6. 42He -> 41 1 H + x 0 -1e

4
2He -> 411H + 2 0 -1e

7. 22888Ra -> 228

90Th + xβ
228
88Ra -> 228
92Th + 4β

8. 232
90Th -> 212
82Pb + 2β + xα
232
90Th -> 212
82Pb + 2β + 5α

9. 238
92U -> 226
88 Ra + xβ + 3α
238
92U -> 226
88 Ra + 2β + 3α

10. 218
84Po -> 206
82Pb + xβ + 3α
218
84Po -> 206
82Pb + 4β + 3α

(iii) Gamma (y) particle decay

The gamma (y) particle has the following main characteristic:

i)is neither negatively charged(like electrons/beta) nor positively charged(like protons/alpha) therefore
neutral.
ii)has no mass number and atomic number therefore equal to electromagnetic waves.
iii) have very high penetrating power and thus can be stopped /blocked/shielded by a thick block of
lead..
iv) have very low ionizing power thus cause less damage to living cells unless on prolonged
exposure..
v) a nuclide undergoing y -decay has its mass number and its atomic number remain the same.
Examples of gamma (y) decay

• 37
17Cl -> 37
17Cl + y
• 14
6C -> 14
6C + y

Page 73 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
The sketch diagram below shows the penetrating power of the radiations from a radioactive nuclide.
radioactive nuclide sheet of paper aluminium foil thick block of lead
(radiation source) (block α-rays) (block β-rays) block y-rays)

α-rays β-rays y-rays

The sketch diagram below illustrates the effect of electric /magnetic field on the three radiations from a
radioactive nuclide

Radioactive disintegration/decay naturally produces the stable 20682Pb nuclide /isotope of lead.Below is
the 238 92 U natural decay series. Identify the particle emitted in each case

Write the nuclear equation for the disintegration from :

(i) 238 92 U to 234
90 T

238 234 4
92 U -> 90 T + 2 He 2+

238
92 U -> 234
90 T + α

Page 74 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
(ii)238 92 U to 222
84 Rn

238 222
92 U -> 84 Rn + 4 4 2 He 2+

238
92 U -> 222
84 Rn + 4α

230
Th undergoes alpha decay to 222 86 Rn. Find the number of α particles emitted. Write the nuclear
90
equation for the disintegration.

Working
230 222
90 Th -> 86 Rn + x 4 2 He
Method 1
Using mass numbers
230 = 222 + 4 x => 4 x = 230 - 222 = 8
x=8/4 =2α

Using atomic numbers

90 = 86 + 2 x => 2 x = 90 - 86 = 4
x=4/2 =2α

Nuclear equation
230 222
90 Th -> 86 Rn + 2 4 2 He
84 Rn. Find the number of β particles emitted. Write the nuclear
214 214
82 Pb undergoes beta decay to
equation for the disintegration.
Working
214 214
82 Pb -> 84 Rn + x 0 -1 e

Using atomic numbers only

82 = 84 - x => -x = 82 - 84 = -2
x =2β

Nuclear equation
214 214
82 Pb -> 84 Rn + 2 0 -1 e

238
U undergoes beta and alpha decay to 206 82 Pb. Find the number of β and α particles emitted. Write
92
the nuclear equation for the disintegration.
Working
238 206
92 U -> 82 Pb + x 0 -1 e + y 4 2 He

Page 75 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Using Mass numbers only
238 = 206 + 4y => 4y = 238 - 206 = 32
y = 32 = 8α
4

Using atomic numbers only and substituting the 8 α(above)

238 206
92 U -> 82 Pb + 8 4 2 He + x 0 -1 e

92 = 82 + 16 + -x
=> 92 – (82 + 16) = - x
x =6 β

Nuclear equation
238 206
92 U -> 82 Pb + 6 0 -1 e + 8 4 2 He
83 Bi. Find the number of α and β particles emitted. Write
298 214
92 U undergoes alpha and beta decay to
the nuclear equation for the disintegration.
Working
298
92 U -> 210 83 Bi + x 4 2 He + y 0 -1 e

Using Mass numbers only

298 = 214 + 4x => 4x = 298 - 214 = 84
y = 84 = 21 α
4

Using atomic numbers only and substituting the 21 α (above)

238 214
92 U -> 83Bi + 21 4 2 He + y 0 -1 e
92 = 83 + 42 + -y
=> 92 – (83 + 42) = - x

x = 33 β
Nuclear equation
298 210
92 U -> 83 Bi + 21 4 2 He + 33 0 -1 e

B: NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION

Radioactive disintegration/decay can be initiated in an industrial laboratory through two chemical
methods:
a) nuclear fission
b) nuclear fusion.

a) Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the process which a fast moving neutron bombards /hits /knocks a heavy unstable
nuclide releasing lighter nuclide, three daughter neutrons and a large quantity of energy.
Nuclear fission is the basic chemistry behind nuclear bombs made in the nuclear reactors.

Page 76 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
The three daughter neutrons becomes again fast moving neutron bombarding / hitting /knocking a
heavy unstable nuclide releasing lighter nuclides, three more daughter neutrons each and a larger
quantity of energy setting of a chain reaction

Examples of nuclear equations showing nuclear fission

1 235 90 c 1
0n + b U -> 38 Sr + 54Xe + 3 0 n + a

1 27 28
0n + 13 Al -> 13 Al + y + a

1 28 b 4
0n + a Al -> 11 Na + 2 He

a 14 14 1
0n + 7N -> bC + 1H

1
0n + 11 H -> 2
1H + a

1 235 95 139
0n + 92 U -> 42 Mo + 57 La + 210 n + 7 a

Page 77 of 78
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 Page 78 of 78
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes