V.S.B.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
QUESTION BANK
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

OMD551 – BASICS OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 1
BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES

1. What are resting and action potential & bio electric potential?
The membrane potential caused by the different concentration of ions is called resting potential. It is
caused by very rapid change of membrane permeability to sodium ions followed by recovery period.
The positive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called action potential. Certain
systems of the body generate their own monitoring signals conveying useful information about the
functions they represent. Such signals are bio electric potentials and are related to nerve conduction,
brain activity, heartbeat, etc.

2. What is meant by Resting Potential?

Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane such that negative on inside
and positive on outside. This membrane potential caused by the different concentration of irons is
called Resting Potential.

3. What is meant by Action Potential?

Cell has a slightly positive potential on the inside due to imbalance of potassium ions. This positive
potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called Action Potential and is about 20mV.

4. Give any 4 factors to be considered when we design any medical Instrument?

Accuracy, Frequency Response, Linearity, S/N ratio, Stability, Sensitivity.

5. What is Electrode Potential?

The voltage developed at an electrode-electrolyte interface is known as Electrode Potential.

6. Define conduction velocity?

Conduction velocity is defined as the rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber (or)
is propagated from cell to cell. It is also called as nerve conduction rate. Conduction velocity is used
to find the location and type of nerve lesion.

7. State all-or-nothing law?

It states that irrespective of the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stimulus, the
action potential is always the same for any given cell.

8. What are the types of electrodes used in bipolar measurements?

The types of electrodes used in bipolar measurements are
1. Limb electrodes
2. Floating electrodes
 3. Skin electrodes

9. Name the electrodes used for recording EMG and ECG?

Electrodes used for recording EMG are
(a) Needle electrodes
(b) Surface electrodes
Electrodes used for recording ECG are
(a) Limb electrodes
(b) Floating electrodes
(c) Pregelled disposable electrodes
(d) Pasteless electrodes
10. What is the purpose of electrode paste?
The electrode paste decreases the impedance of the contact the artifacts resulting from the
movement of the electrode or patient.

11. Give the different types of electrodes?

Microelectrodes, Depth and needle electrodes, Surface electrodes.

12. Give the different types of Surface electrodes?

 Metal Plate electrodes
 Suction cup electrodes
 Adhesive tape electrodes
 Multi point electrodes
 Floating electrodes
13. What are the types of microelectrodes?
 Metallic microelectrodes
 Non metallic or micropipette
14. What is the need of electrodes?
Electrodes make a transfer from the ionic conduction in the tissue to the electronic conduction
which is necessary for making measurement. Electrodes play an important part in the recording of
bioelectric signals.

15. What is the range of resting potential?

The resting potential ranges from -60 to -100 mV.

16. List the characteristics of resting potential?

 The value of the resting potential is maintained as a constant until some kind of disturbance
occurs.
 It is strongly depending on the temperature.
 Since the perm abilities of the different cell types vary, the corresponding resting potentials
vary.
17. Discuss about microelectrodes.
Microelectrodes are used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a single cell. These
are also called as intracellular electrodes. They are divided into metallic and non-metallic.
18. For what purpose depth and needle electrodes are used?
Depth and needle electrodes are used to measure the bioelectric potential of the highly localized extra
cellular regions in brain or bioelectrical potentials from a specific group of muscles.

19. List the uses of surface electrodes?

Surface electrodes are used to measure the potentials available from the surface of the skin and are
used to sense the potentials from heart, brain and nerves.

20. List the types of surface electrodes?

 Metal plate electrode
 Suction cup electrode
 Adhesive tape electrode
 Multipoint electrode
 Floating electrode
21. Define electro pointing.
Electrically etching the tip of a fine tungsten or stainless steel wire to a fine point is known as
electro pointing.

22. What is the major advantage of floating type skin surface electrodes?
Floating type skin surface electrodes eliminate movement artifact by avoiding any direct contact
of the metal with skin.

23. Give the uses of silver-silver chloride electrode.

Silver-Silver chloride electrodes are used in bio-medical instrumentation.

UNIT – II
BIO SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS

1. Define Electrooculogram.
A record of corneal-retinal potentials associated with eye movements is called
electrooculogram.

2. Define Electroretinography (ERG).

The recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye is called electroretinography.

3. What is Bronchospirometer?
A bronchospirometer is a dual Spirometer that measures the volumes and capacities of each lung
individually. The air-input device is a double lumen tube that divides for entry into the airway to each
lung, and thus provides isolation for differential measurement. The main function of the
bronchospirometer is preoperative evaluation of oxygen consumption of each lung.

4. Define pattern recognition.

Pattern recognition is the detection of specific waveforms by some means. Human beings are
often more efficient at recognizing specific waveforms in the bio-signals that electronic analyzers
designed for this people.

5. Define electrocardiogram (ECG).

The electrocardiogram is graphic recording or display of the time variant voltage display
produced by myocardium during cardiac cycle.

6. What is arrhythmia?
Arrhythmia is the disturbances in the heart rhythm.

7. What does the ECG reflect?

The ECG reflects the rhythmic electrical depolarization and repolarization of the myocardium
(heart muscle) associated with contractions of atria and ventricles.

8. List the types of electrodes systems for ECG lead configurations.

 Bipolar limb leads (or) standard leads
 Augumented unipolar limb leads
 Chest leads (or) pericardial leads
 Frank lead system (or) corrected orthogonal leads
Among these four systems, the first three are widely used.
9. How are leads taken in bipolar limb leads?
In standard leads, the potentials are tapped from 4 locations of our body. They are
 Right arm
 Left arm
 Right leg
 Left leg
Usually the right leg electrode is acting as ground reference electrode.

10. List the colour codes used for identifying ECG potentials
 White - right arm
 Black - left arm
 Green - right leg
 Red - left leg
 Brown - chest
11. Define phonocardiograph.
Phonocardiogram is an instrument used to measure the heart sounds. The basic aim
phonocardiogram is to pick up the different heart sounds, filter out the heart sounds and to display
them or record them.

12. List the three augumented lead connections.

The three augumented lead connections are
 Augumented voltage right arm (aVR)
 Augumented voltage left arm (aVL)
 Augumented voltage foot (aVF)
13. How many lead selections are required for electrocardiograms?
 Twelve lead selections are required to record the electrocardiogram. i.e 3 standard bipolar leads,
3 augumented leads and 6 chest leads.

14. List the practical considerations for ECG recording.

Artifacts , wandering of base line, solid base line, frequency response.

15. For what purpose condenser microscope is used in ECG recording setup?
The condenser microscope is used for conversion of the heart sounds into electrical signals.

16. List the applications of phonocardiogram.

 Fetal phonocardiogram
 Esophageal phonocardiogram
 Tracheal phonocardiogram
17. Define echocardiography.
Echocardiography is also a useful technique for diagnosis of heart diseases. Echocardiogram
displays the times verses motion information about the intra cardiac structures on slow speeds.

18. What is vectorcardiography?

In the case of electrocardiography , only the voltage is generated by the electrical activity of
the heart is recorded. But in vectorcardiography, the cardiac vector is displayed along with its
magnitude and spatial orientation.

19. What is EEG?

The abbreviation of electroencephalograph is called EEG. It deals with the recording and study
of electrical activity of the brain.

20. How EEG is recorded?

By means of electrode attracted to the skull of a patient the brain waves can be picked up and
recorded.

21. What are brain waves?

The brain waves are the summation of neutral depolarization in the brain due to stimuli from the
five senses as well as from the thought process.

22. What are graded potentials?

Graded potentials are variations around the average value of the resting potential. Thus the EEG
potentials originate within the dendrite.

23. List the parts of the brain.

The brain consists of three parts such as cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem.

24. Give the classification of the brain waves.

Brain waves are classified into four types. They are
 Alpha wave
 Beta wave
 Theta wave
  Delta wave
25. How many electrodes are used in modern EEG unit?
12 electrodes are used in modern EEG unit.

26. How the EEG can be recorded?

EEG may be recorded by picking up voltage difference between an active electrode on scalp
with respect to a reference electrode on the ear lobe or on the other part of the body. This type of
recording is called monopolar recording.

27. What are brain tumors?

The tumor displaces the cortex, and if it is large enough, the electrical activity is to be absent in
that part of hemisphere, since no electric potentials originate in the tumor itself. Thus an extinguished
or damped EEG over a certain part of cortex can bus be due to the brain tumors.

28. Define Epilepsy.

Epilepsy is a system for brain damage. This may be due to defects in the birth delivery or head
injury during accident or boxing. It may also be due to brain tumor.

29. In what way EEG helps physicians?

EEG helps physicians to diagnose the level of consciousness, sleep disorders brain death, brain
tumors, epilepsy and multiple sclerosis.

30. What is EMG?

EMG – electromyography is the science of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of
muscle’s action potentials.

31. How EMG is recorded?

EMG is usually recorded by using surface electrodes or more often needle electrodes may be
disposable adhesive types or the ones which can be used repeatedly.

32. List the diseases which affect the steady potential of the eye.
 The effects of certain drugs on the eye movement system can be determined.
 The state of semicircular canalizes analyzed by EOG.
 Diagnosis of the neurological disorders may be possible.
 The level of anesthesia can be indicated by characteristic eye movements.
33. Discuss about the electrodes for offline analysis.
The online recorders are directly connected with the input. Therefore one can get the live
recording at the spot itself. In the case of offline analysis, the input equipment system is used to
prepare data for further analysis using computers which may be located at the same location of the
input or remote.

34. What are the electrodes used for ECG?

 Limb electrodes
 Floating electrodes
 Paste less electrodes
35. What are the electrodes used for EEG?
 Silver chloride disc electrode
 Depth electrode
 Small needle electrode
 Silver ball or pellet electrodes
 Carbon cloth electrode
36. What are the electrodes used for EMG?
 Needle electrode
 Coaxial core electrode
 Capacitive type needle electrode
37. Define electrocardiograph and electroencephalograph.
The electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument which records the electrical activity of the heart.
It is the instrument used for recording electrical activity of the brain by suitably placing electrodes on
the scalp.

38. Define EOG and ERG.

The measure of corneal – retinal potential is called Electrooculargram (EOG)
The recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye is called Electro retinogram.

39. Give the disadvantage of using surface electrodes with EMG.

 Surface electrode can be used only for superficial muscles
 They are sensitive to electrical activity over too wide area.
40. What is the use of EMG?
EMG is used for measurement of action potentials, either directlyfrom the muscle or from the
surface of the body.

41. Define the term latency in EMG.

EMG is a medical technique for evaluating and recording physiologic properties of muscles at
rest and while constricting. For nerve conduction studies, a noninvasive stimulator applies brief
electrical impulses to a peripheral nerve transcutaneous, the nerve then transmits the impulse and a
response is recorded by electrodes at some distance away. The time it takes for the stimulus to reach
the recording electrodes is called as latency. It can be accurately measured and a velocity of
transmission calculated. Healthy nerves will transmit the electrical impulse faster than diseased ones.

42. Define Einthoven triangle.

The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called Einthoven triangle. According to
Einthoven the frontal plane of the body and cardiac electric field vector forms the two dimensional
plane.

UNIT – III
SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUIT

1. List the conditions satisfied by a bio-signal amplifer?

 The gain and the frequency response should be more than 100 [Link] as to amplify the
bio-signal property to drive the recorder.
  It should have 10W frequency respose from d.c. to required frequency of the particular
bio-signal.
 The gain and the frequency response should be uniform throughout the required
bandwidth.
 The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.
2. For What purpose isolation amplifier is used?
Isolation amplifier is used to increase the input impedance of the monitoring system in order to
isolate the patient from the biomedical instrument.

3. Define noise figure?

The amount of degradation of the signal can be defined in terms of the noise figure. (nj) defined
as Noise figure=signal to noise ratio at the input signal to the output signal.

4. For what purpose line driving amplifier is used?

Whenever a transducer has high impedance and its output voltage is so low and if want to
couple this transducer output to a load having low impedance ,we can use line driving amplifier.

5. Define CMRR.
The ability of the differential amplifier circuit to ingnore common mode inputs like 50HZ
interference from main is known as common mode rejection ratio(CMRR ) thus CMRR=
amplification of the differential voltage amplification of the common mode voltage.

6. What are the characteristics of DC amplifier?

It may need balanced differential inputs giving a high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).It
should have an extremely good thermal and long term stability.

7. Enumerate the merits and demerits of DC amplifiers?

 It is easy to calibrate at low frequencies.
 It is able to recover from an overload condition unlike its AC counterpart.
8. What is the importance of biological amplifier?
Bio signals such as ECG, EMG, EEG, EOG have low amplitude and low frequency. So,
amplifier is used to boost the amplitude level of bio signals.

9. What are the requirements of a biological amplifier?

 High input impedance
 Isolation and protection circuits
 High voltage gain
 Constant gain throughout required bandwidth
 Low output impedance
 High CMRR

10. List the characteristics needed for bio amplifier.

 Bio amplifiers must have high input impedance.
 Voltage gain of bio-amplifiers should be more than 100 dB CMRR of bio-amplifiers
should be more than 80 dB.
 Constant gain should be maintained throughout the required bandwidth.
11. What is the need for pre-amplifier?
Isolation amplifier is used as pre-amplifiers. It ios used to increase the input impedance of the
monitoring system, so that the stray currents can be reduced. The isolation amplifiers are used in ECG
measurement.

12. What are the characteristic of DC amplifier?

It may need balanced differential inputs giving a high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).It
should be extremely good thermal and long term stability.

13. What is a filter?

A filter is often a frequency selective circuit that passes a specified band of frequencies and
blocks or attenuated signal of frequencies outside this stand.

14. Give some of the amplifiers used with recorders.

 Differential amplifier
 AC coupled amplifiers
 Carrier amplifier
15. What are the advantages of instrumentation amplifier?
 Extremely high input impedance
 Low bias and offset current
 Very high CMRR
 High slew rate
 Low power consumption

16. Define Isolation amplifier.

Isolation amplifier is known as pre-amplifier isolation circuits. An isolation amplifier
increases the input impedance of a patient monitoring system. It also helps to isolate the patient
from device.
17. What is impedance matching circuit?
The term “impedance matching” is rather straight forward. It’s simply defined as the process
of making one impedance look like another. Frequently, it becomes necessary to match a load
impedance to the source or internal impedance of a driving source.
18. What are the types of impedance matching circuits?
 LC matching
 Transformer matching
 Transmission line matching

19. List out the types of chopper amplifier.

Chopper amplifier is classified into two types.

 Mechanical chopper amplifier

 Non-mechanical chopper amplifier
 Differential chopper amplifier
 20. Define chopper amplifier.
The name “chop” means to sample the data. The amplifier circuit samples the analog
signal. So it is known as chopper amplifier.

UNIT IV
MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL PARAMETER

1. What is haematocrit?
The volume of packed red cells is called haematocrit. It is expressed as a percentage of the
total blood volume. It can be used to calculate the mean cell volume (MCV).

2. What is fibrin?
One of the proteins, fibrinogen, participates in the process of blood clotting and forms thin
fibers called fibrin.

3. What is korotkoft sound?

When cuff is inflated to a pressure that only partially occludes, the brachial artery turbulence
is generated in the blood as it spurts through the tiny arterial opening during each systole. The sounds
generated by this turbulence are called korotkoft sounds.

4. What are the methods used to measure blood pressure directly?

In catheterization method involving the sensing of blood pressure through a liquid column
method, the transducers is external to the body and blood pressure is transmitted through a saline
solution column in a catheter to this transducers. This method also involves the placement of
transducers through a catheter at the actual site of measurement in the blood stream. Percutaneous
methods in which the blood pressure is sensed in the vessel just under the skin by the use of a needle
or catheter and implantation technique in which transducer is more permanently placed in blood
vessel are the other techniques in which the blood pressure is measured directly.

5. What is the principle of Plethysmography?

Principle of operation of plethysmography depends on Boyle’s Law. Boyle’s law states that at
a given Kelvin temperature, the pressure of given mass of the gas is inversely proportional to its
volume.

6. What is the principle of electromagnetic flow meter?

Electromagnetic blood flow meter is based on the principle of magnetic induction. A
permanent magnet or electromagnet positioned around the blood vessel generates magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of blood flow.

7. What is electrophoresis?
Electrophoresis is defined as the movement of a solid phase with respect to a liquid. It is used
in the clinical laboratory to measure quantities of the various types of proteins in plasma, urine and
CSF, to separate enzymes into their component isoenzymes, to identify antibodies.

8. What is myocardial infarct and angina pectoris?

An obstruction of the part of the coronary arteries that supply blood for the heart muscle is
called myocardial infarct or heart attack, whereas merely a reduced blood supply in the coronary
vessels can cause a severe chest pain called angina pectoris.

9. What is aging?
Apparent error on PO2 measurement is a gradual reduction of current with time, almost like
the polarization effect described for skin surface electrode. This effect is called aging, which has been
minimized in modern PO2electrodes.

10. What is Beer’s law?

The amount of the light absorbed depends only on the no. of molecules of the absorbing
substances that can interact with the light. The absorbance is the same if the cuvette has the path
length L, but concentration of the solution is doubled.
A=ABC (Beer’s law).
where
C=Path length of the cuvette,
B=Concentration of the absorbing substance,
A=Absorptivity, a factor that depends on the absorbing substance.

11. What is Fluorescence?

Certain chemicals when illuminated by light with a short wavelength in the ultraviolet (UV)
range emit light with a longer wavelength. This phenomenon is called fluorescence.

12. What is meant by Doppler effect?

The frequency of the reflected ultrasonic energy is increased or decreased by a moving
interface. The amount of frequency shift can be expressed as
Δf = 2V/λ
where
f = shift in frequency of the reflected wave,
V = velocity of the interface,
Λ = wavelength of the transmitted ultrasound
The frequency increases when interface moves towards the transducer and decreases when it moves
away.

13. Give the methods for measuring blood flow.

Indirect method - Sphygmomanometer
Direct method:
 Percutaneous insertion
 Catheterization (vessel cut down)
 Implantation of the transducer in a vessel or in the heart
14. What is cardiac output and its normal rate?
Blood flow is highest in the pulmonary artery and the aorta, where the blood vessels leave the
heart. The flow at these points is called cardiac output, and is between 3.5 and 5 liters/min in a
normal adult at rest.

15. What are the causes of Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)?

When the blood flow in a certain vessel is completely obstructed, the tissue in the area
supplied by this vessel may die. Such an obstruction in a blood flow of the brain is one of the causes
of CVA or stroke.

16. What are the methods involved in direct blood pressure measurement?
 Auscultator method
 Palpatory method

17. Give the principle of transduction of heart sounds.

The sounds of murmurs which originate from the heart can be picked up from the chest using
stethoscope or by transduction of heart sounds in to electrical signal.

18. Define mobility of a particle.

The mobility of a given particle is directly related to the net magnitude of the particle’s
charge. It is defined as the distance of centimetres a particle moves in unit time per unit field
strength, expressed as voltage drop per centimetre.

19. Discuss about the origin of heart sounds.

With each heartbeat, the normal heart produces two distinct sounds described as “Lub-Dub.”
The lub is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves, which permits flow of blood from the
atria into the ventricles, this is called the first heart sound, it occurs approximately at the time of the
QRS complex of the electrocardiogram. The dub part of the heart sounds is called the second heart
sound and is caused by the closing of the semilunar valves, occurs about the time of the end of the T
wave of the cardiogram. A third heart sound is heard especially in young adults. Atrial heart sounds
is not audible and it occurs when the atria do not contract.

20. What is auscultation?

The technique of listening to sounds produced by organs and vessels of the body is called
auscultation.

21. What are the demerits of electromagnetic blood flow meter?

The magnetic flux density is not uniform along the axis, which causes circulating currents to
flow in the axial direction. The magnetic flux density is not uniform in the transverse plane; this
accelerates the problem of circulating current. Fluid outside the wall of the vessel has a greater
conductivity than the wall.
22. Mention the methods of measurement of cardiac output.
 Indicator dilution method
 Fick’s method
 Dye dilution method
 Thermal dilution
 Impedance technique

UNIT V
BIO CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT

1. For what purpose flame photometer is used?

Flame photometer is used to analyse urine or blood in order to determine the concentration of
potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and lithium (Li).

2. What is flame photometer?

By measuring optical density or absorbance A, the concentration of given substance in the
sample can be determined. Calorimeters can be in the filter photometer or spectrometer. When an
interference filter is used to select a given wavelength, it is called filter photometer.

3. Give the uses of gas analysers.

Gas analysers are used to determine the quantitative composition of inspired and expired gas
to assess the lung function. These are mostly based on infrared absorption of carbon dioxide,
paramagnetic behaviour of oxygen, thermal conductivity of carbon dioxide.

4. Define systole.
Systole is defined as the period of contraction of heart muscles, specifically the ventricular
muscle at which time blood is pumped into pulmonary artery and the aorta.

5. Define diastole.
Diastole is defined as the period of dilation of the heart cavities as they fill with blood.
Diastole is followed by systole.

6. Define spirometer.
The instrument used to measure the lung capacity and volume is called a spirometer. The
record obtained from this device is called a spirogram.

7. What are the types of spirometers?

 Basic spirometers
 Wedge spirometers
 Ultrasonic spirometers
8. Define pneumotachometers.
Pneumotachometers are the devices used to measure the instantaneous rate of volume flow of
expired gases.

9. What is meant by blood gas analysers?

Blood gas paralyzers are used to measure the partial pressure of hydrogen and carbon dioxide
and oxygen present in the human body.

10. What are the different types of pneumotachometers?

 Fleisch pneumotachometers
 Venturi type pneumotachometers
 Turbine type pneumotachometers

11. Define minute volume.

The volume of gas exchanged per minute during quiet breathing is known as minute volume.
It is equal to the tidal volume multiplied by the breathing rate.

12. What is meant by invasive and non-invasive methods?

Invasive is the technique used for measuring the blood flow, heart rate, blood pressure etc.
through surgical method. Non-invasive is the technique used to measure the blood flow, heart rate,
blood pressure etc. through the external skin.

13. State the different types of test performed using auto analyser.
 Cholesterol test
 Phosphates test
 Protein test
 Calcium test
 Glucose test
 Albumin test
 Serum enzyme test
 Ammonia test

14. What is an auto analyser? What are the essential units in it?
An auto analyser is an instrument that sequentially measures the blood chemistry and displays
it on the graphic readout. The essential units of auto analyser are sampler, proportioning pump and
manifold, dialyzer, heating bath calorimeter and recorder.

15. How is auto analyser useful in medical field? (or) Mention the application of autoanalyser.
Auto analyser is used to measure chemical properties of various substances like urine and
blood. Auto analyser can be used to check the level of cholesterol, phosphates and proteins in dozens
of fluid samples at a time.

16. What is a colorimeter? (or) What is the use of colorimeter?

Many chemical compounds in solution appear colored. The saturation of the colour depends
on the concentration of the compound. By analysing the transmitted light through the sample or
emitted light by the sample, the concentration of the substance can be determined. Colorimeter is
used to determine blood protein and iron levels. It is used to measure the transmitted and absorbed
light as it passes through a sample.

17. What are the types of heart sound?

 Valve closure sounds
 Ventricular filling sounds
 Valve opening sounds
 Extra cardiac sounds

18. Write the equation to find pH value?

pH= -log10[H+]
It is the logarithm of the reciprocal value of H+ ion concentration.

19. What are two methods of pulse measurement?

 Transmittance and Reflectance.

20. For what purpose chemical electrodes are used?

Chemical electrodes are generally used to measure PH and PO2 of the blood. They are also
used to determine the oxygen tension or carbon dioxide tension in the blood.

21. For what purpose silver-silver chloride is used?

The silver – silver chloride is used as a reference electrode due to its smaller and stable half-
cell potential.

22. For what purpose PO2 electrode is used?

PO2 electrode is used to determine the oxygen tension in the blood. It is a piece ofplatinum
wire embedded in an insulating glass holder with the end of wire exposed to the electrolyte into which
the oxygen from the solution under measurement is allowed to diffuse through the membrane.

23. Define stroke volume.

Stroke volume is defined as the amount ofblood that is ejected during each heart beat. Stroke
volume=Cardiac output / number of beats/ min.

24. Define total lung capacity.

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the amount of gas contained in the lungs at the end of maximal
inspiration. It is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume.

25. Define vital capacity.

The vital capacity (VC) is the maximum volume of gas that can be expelled from the lungs
after a maximal inspiration.
26. Define residual volume.
The residual volume is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at the end of a maximal
expiration.

27. Define inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).

It is the extra volume of gas that can be inspired with maximal effort after reaching the normal
end of inspiratory level.

28. Define expiratory reserve volume (ERV).

It is the extra volume of gas that can be expired with maximum effort beyond reaching the
normal end of expiratory level.

29. Define mean velocity of blood.

Mean velocity=blood flow through a vessel cross sectional area of the vessel.

IMPORTANT 16 MARKS WITH KEY POINTS

UNIT 1
BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES
1. Discuss in detail about action potential and resting potential?
2. Draw equivalent of a biopotential electrode interface. Discuss in detail about various types of
biopotential electrodes.
3. Write a short notes on
i. Micro electrodes
ii. Needle electrodes
iii. Surface electrodes
4. Name three basic types of biopotential electrodes and explain their applications.
5. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit of a biopotential electrode interface.
6. (i) With the action potential waveform, summarize depolarization repolarization and absolute
and relative refractory periods.
(ii) How do you record the action potential?
7. (i) Describe the generation and features of action potential.
(ii) Explain the characteristics of resting potential with reference to Nernst equation.
8. Classify the various types of electrodes.
9. Point out any four types of surface electrodes.
10. Draw the electrode configuration of avg output.
11. (i) Define Half cell potential. What are polarizable and non-polarisable electrodes?
(ii) Describe the usuage of the various types of electrodes used to measure biopotentials.

UNIT – II
BIO SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS
1. Describe in detail about unipolar and bipolar limb lead system used for measuring ECG.
 2. Explain the working principle of a ECG machine with a neat block diagram.
3. State the basic elements of electro cardiograph and explain the working of each of these.
4. With a neat block diagram, explain the working principle of EEG machine.
5. With a neat diagram, explain the working principle of EMG.
6. Describe in detail about unipolar and bipolar limb lead system used for measuring ECG
signal.
7. Explain about a typical channel ECG recorder with proper justification for the inclusion of
each block of the system and give the normal ECG wave pattern.
8. Explain the working principle of ECG machine with a neat diagram
9. State the basic elements of electro cardiograph and explain the working of each of these.
10. What are the different ways in which ECG helps in riveting medical care to patients?
11. With neat diagram, explain the working principle of ERG.
12. Discuss various lead systems for ECG measurement.
13. Draw and explain the different ear configurations and its significance in ECG.
14. Draw the bipolar lead system used in ECG and give its significances.
15. Draw a typical ECG waveform and mark the important features and the associated
function of the heart.
16. With neat diagram, explain the formation of various lead systems used for recording ECG.
17. Write about 10 – 20 system of recording ECG. And draw the 12 lead systems used for
recording ECG.
18. Explain 10 – 20 electrodes placement system used in ECG.
19. Explain in detail about EMG recording system.
20. Explain the measurement of EMG.
21. With neat diagram, explain the schematic diagram of EEG machine. Also show the
recording method of unipolar and bipolar EEGs.
22. Discuss about the different EEG signal frequency bands.

UNIT – III
SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUIT

1. Explain the various types of amplifiers listed below, with a neat circuit diagram.
(i) Differential amplifier
(ii) Chopper amplifier
(iii)Isolation amplifier
2. What should be the characteristics of bio potential amplifier? Explain with proper justification.
3. Draw and explain the right leg drive ECG amplifier.
4. Distinguish a biological amplifier from a conventional amplifier with suitable equations and
circuits.
5. Explain the working principle of isolation amplifier with near sketch.
6. Describe the working principle of isolation amplifier with neat sketch.
7. Explain the working of chopper amplifier with neat diagram.
8. Write the short notes on following term.
(i) Power line interference
(ii) Impedance matching
9. Explain the concept of bandpass filtering with neat sketch.
10. Explain the operation of instrumentation amplifier with neat sketch.
 UNIT IV
MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL PARAMETER

1. Explain the working principle of an electromagnetic type blood flow meter.

2. Explain how the various physiological parameters listed below could be measured.
(i) To measure the blood pressure (any technique)
(ii) To measure the blood flow by electromagnetic blood flow meter
(iii)To measure the respiratory measurement
3. Explain the principle of operation of an ultrasound blood flow meter.
4. Explain the operation of ultrasound blood flow meter and state the applications of this device.
5. Discuss the working of digital pH meter.
6. Explain the working principle of a cardiac output and discuss a technique to determine the
cardiac output.
7. How will you measure blood pressure using sphygmomanometer?
8. Draw schematic diagram showing the essential components of U-V recorder. Explain the
operation of this recorder and state the applications of this device.
9. Explain with neat sketch a typical blood flow meter. Discuss working of digital pH meter.
(i) Explain the origin of different heart sounds.
(ii) Explain the measurement of cardiac output by indicator dilution method.
10. Discuss Fick’s method of determining cardiac output.
11. Define cardiac output. Discuss a technique to determine cardiac output.
12. Explain the working of a blood cell counter with a neat block diagram.
13. With a schematic diagram, describe the operation of the blood cell counter.

UNIT V
BIO CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT

1. Explain the working principle of auto analyser.

2. Discuss the working of a spirometer.
3. Explain in detail about blood gas analyser with a neat diagram.
4. Explain about filter photometer and flame photometer.
5. Write short notes on Auto analyser.
6. Write short notes on spectrophotometer.
7. Explain the operation of colorimeter with neat sketch.
8. Explain the operation of sodium potassium analysers.
9. Write short notes on Blood cell counter.
10. Explain the various types of Blood cell counter.
11. Explain the operation of Non-invasive blood gas monitoring.
12. Write short notes on:
 PO2 measurement
 PCO2 measurement
 pH measurement
13. Explain the operation of complex blood gas analyzer.
 *****

[Link] COLLEGE, KARUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC8552-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION
2 MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
UNIT I
Part A
1. List the major components of a computer system.(MAY 2017)(NOV/DEC 2017)
The basic functional units of a computer are input unit, output unit, memory unit, ALU unit and
control unit.
2. Define addressing modes and its various types. (NOV/DEC 2017)
The different ways in which the location of a operand is specified in an instruction is referred to as
addressing modes. The various types are Immediate Addressing, Register Addressing, Based or
Displacement Addressing, PC-Relative Addressing, Pseudo direct Addressing.
3. What is indirect addressing mode? (MAY 2017)
In this type of execution, multiple functional units are used to create parallel paths through which
different instructions can be executed in parallel. So it is possible to start the execution of several
instructions in every clock cycle. This mode of operation is called superscalar execution.
4. Define ALU. What are the various operations performed in ALU?
(MAY 2016)
ALU is a part of computer that performs all arithmetic and logical operations. It is a component of
central processing unit. Arithmetic operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
increment and decrement; Logical operations: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, compare, shift, rotate.
5. How to represent instruction in a computer system?(MAY-2016)
[Link] are kept in the computer as a series of high and low electronic signals and
may be represented as numbers.
[Link] piece of an instruction can be considered as an individual number, and placing these
numbers side by side forms the instruction. Since registers are referred to by almost all instructions,
there must be a convention to map register names into numbers
MIPS assembly language,
registers $s0 to $s7 map onto registers 16 to 23,
registers $t0 to $t7 map onto registers 8 to 15.

6. What is auto increment and auto decrement addressing mode? (MAY-2016)

In based or displacement mode addressing, the operand is in a memory location whose address is
the sum of a register and a constant in the instruction. Eg. lw $t0,32($s3).
7. What are the eight ideas in computer architecture? (MAY-2015)
[Link] for Moore’s Law
[Link] abstraction to simplify design
[Link] the common case fast
[Link] via Parallelism
[Link] via Pipelining
[Link] via Prediction
[Link] of Memory
 [Link] via Redundancy
8. Distinguish pipelining from parallelism. (MAY-2015)
Pipelining reduces speed and increases latency.
Parallel processing increases speed and reduces delay.
9. Define Relative mode addressing.(Nov 2014)
In PC-relative mode addressing, the branch address is the sum of the PC and a
constant in the instruction.
10. State Amdahl’s Law.(Nov 2014)
Amdahl’s Law tells us the improvement expected from specific enhancements. The performance
improvement or speedup due to improvement is calculated as follows
11. Define Little Endian arrangement. (Nov 2014)
Little-endian describes the order in which a sequence of bytes is stored in computer memory.
12. Define multiprogramming?([Link]/MAY 2013)
Multiprogramming is a technique in several jobs are in main memory at once and the processor is
switched from job as needed to keep several jobs advancing while keeping the peripheral devices in
use.
13. What is a bus? What are the different buses in a CPU? (APR/MAY 2011)
A group of lines that serve as a connecting path for several devices is called bus .The different
buses in a CPU are 1] Data bus 2] Address bus 3] Control bus.
14. What is meant by MAR and MDR? (APR/MAY 2011)
Memory Address Register (MAR) is a register that either stores the memory address from which
data will be fetched to the CPU or the address to which data will be sent and stored. MAR holds the
memory location of data that needs to be accessed. When reading from memory, data addressed by
MAR is fed into the MDR Used by the CPU.
15. What is meant by stored program concepts?
Stored program concept is an idea of storing the program and data in the memory.
16. What is meant by VLSI technology?
VLSI is the abbreviation for Very Large Scale Integration. In this technology millions of
transistors are put inside a single chip as tiny components. The VLSI chips do the function of millions
of transistors. These are Used to implement parallel algorithms directly in hardware.
17. Define multiprocessing?
Multiprocessing is the ability of an operating system to support more than one process at the
same time.
18. Define power wall.
[Link] conventional wisdom
[Link] is free
[Link] are expensive
[Link] conventional wisdom: “Power wall”
[Link] expensive
[Link] “free” (Can put more on chip than can afford to turn on)
19. What is uniprocessor?
A uniprocessor system is defined as a computer system that has a single central processing
unit that is used to execute computer tasks. As more and more modern software is able to
make use of multiprocessing architectures, such as SMP and MPP, the term uniprocessor is
therefore used to distinguish the class of computers where all processing tasks share a single
CPU.
20. What is multicore processor?
A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent
actual central processing units (called "cores"), which are the units that read and execute program
instructions. The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions such as add, move data, and branch,
but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, increasing overall speed for
programs amenable to parallel computing.
21. Differentiate between minicomputer and microcomputer.
Minicomputers are small and low cost computers are characterized by Short word size i.e.
CPU word sizes of 8 or 16 bits. They have limited hardware and software facilities. They are
physically smaller in size. Microcomputer is a smaller, slower and cheaper computer packing all
the electronics of the computer in to a handful of IC’s, including CPU and memory and IO chips.

22. What is workstation?

The more powerful desktop computers intended for scientific and engineering applications are
referred as workstations.
23. What is instruction register?
The instruction register (IR) holds the instruction that is currently being executed. Its output is
available to the control circuits which generate the timing signals that control the various
 processing elements involved in executing the instruction.
24. What is program counter?
The program counter (PC) keeps track of the execution of a program. It contains the memory
address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed.
25. What is processor time?
The sum of the periods during which the processor is active is called the processor time.
26. What are clock and clock cycles?
The timing signals that control the processor circuits are called as clocks. The clock defines regular
time intervals called clock cycles.
27. Give the CPU performance equation.
CPU execution time for a program =Instruction Count XClock cycles per instruction XClock
cycle time.
28. List out the methods used to improve system performance.
The methods used to improve system performance are
[Link] clock
[Link] Performance Equation
[Link]
[Link] rate
[Link] set
[Link]
29. Define register mode addressing.
In register mode addressing, the name of the register is used to specify the operand. Eg. Add $s3,
$s5,$s6.
30. Define Based or Displacement mode addressing.
In based or displacement mode addressing, the operand is in a memory location whose address is
the sum of a register and a constant in the instruction. Eg. lw $t0,32($s3).
31. Define immediate mode addressing.
In immediate mode addressing, the operand is given explicitly in the instruction. Eg. Add
$s0,$s1,20.
32. Define computer architecture.
It is defined as study of the structure, behavior, and design of computers. This is concerned with the
structure and behavior of computers. It includes the information formats, the instruction sets and
techniques for addressing memory.
33. Define computer organization.
It refers to the operational units and their interconnection that realize the architectural
specifications. The attributes in computer organization refers to,
i) Control signals
ii) Computer/ Peripheral interface
iii) Memory technology
PART – B
[Link] in detail the different Instruction types. Compare their merits and
demerits. (NOV/DEC 2017)
[Link] are the various logical operations and explain the instructions
supporting the logical operations? (NOV/DEC 2017)
[Link] Addressing mode and explain the basic addressing modes with an
example.(APRIL/MAY2015, APRIL/MAY 2016, MAY/JUNE 2017)
[Link] the important measures of the performance of a computer and
derive the basic performance equation. (MAY/JUNE 2017)
[Link] the various components of computer System with neat diagram.
(NOV/DEC2014) (MAY-2016)(APR/MAY 2018)
[Link] the ways to represent an instruction in a computer. (MAY-2015)
[Link] in detail about the eight ideas of computer architecture.
[Link] a note on register direct, indirect and immediate addressing modes
with examples. (APR/MAY 2018)
[Link] three different processors P1,P2 and P3 executing the same
instruction set. P1 has 4GHz clock rate and CPI of 1.5. P2 has 2.5GHz clock
rate and CPI f 1. P3 has 4GHz clock rate and has CPI of 2.2.
(a) Which Processor has highest performance expressed in instruction per second?
(b) If the processors each execute a program in 10seconds, find the number of cycles and number of
instructions.
(c) Reducing the execution time by 30% leads to increase in 20% of the CPI. What is the clock rate
needed to get this reduction?
10. Explain about power wall.
PART – C
[Link] the operation of analog computer and digital computer based on their applications.
2. Applications of power wall .
3. Enumerate in detail about uniprocessors to multiprocessors.
[Link] the history of computers.
5. State the CPU performance equation and discuss the factors that effect performance. (Nov/Dec
2015)
6. Elaborate the different types of addressing modes with a suitable example (May/June 2016)
7. Explain the components of computer system. (Nov/Dec 2017)

UNIT II
PART – A
1. Subtract (11011)2-(10011)2 using 2’s complement. (NOV/DEC-2017)
(01000)2
2. Divide (1001010)2 by (1000)2. (NOV/DEC-2017)
(000101)2
3. State the rule for floating point addition.(MAY-2017)
Choose the number with the smaller exponent and shift its mantissa right a number
of steps equal to the difference in exponents. Set the exponent of the result equal to
the larger exponent. Perform the addition on the mantissa and determine the sign of
the result. Normalize the resulting value if necessary.
4. Subtract (11010)2-(10000)2 using 1’s complement and 2’s
complement method.(MAY/JUNE-2017)
(001010)2
5. What is Subword Parallelism? (MAY-2015,2016)
Sub word parallelism is a technique that enables the full use of word-oriented data
paths when dealing with lower precision data. It is a form of low-cost, small-scale
SIMD parallelism.
6. Write the Add/subtract rule for floating point numbers. (MAY-2016)
1) Choose the number with the smaller exponent and shift its mantissa right a number of steps equal
to the difference in exponents.
2) Set the exponent of the result equal to the larger exponent.
3) Perform addition/subtraction on the mantissa and determine the sign of the result
4) Normalize the resulting value, if necessary.
7. How overflow occurs in subtraction? (MAY-2015)
Overflow occurs in subtraction when we subtract a negative number from a positive number and
get a negative result, or when we subtract a positive number from a negative number and get a
positive result.
8. What is half adder?
A half adder is a logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs, which adds two bits at a time,
producing a sum and a carry.
9. What is full adder?
A full adder is logic circuit with three inputs and two outputs, which adds three bits at a time
giving a sum and a carry.
10. What is signed binary?
A system in which the leading bit represents the sign and the remaining bits the magnitude of the
number is called signed binary. This is also known as sign magnitude.
11. What is a carry look-ahead adder?
The input carry needed by a stage is directly computed from carry signals obtained from all the
preceding stages i-1,i-2,…..0, rather than waiting for normal carries to supply slowly from stage to
stage. An adder that uses this principle is a called carry look-ahead adder.
12. Define Booth Algorithm.
Booth's multiplication algorithm is a multiplication algorithm that multiplies two signed binary
numbers in two's complement notation. Booth's algorithm can be implemented by repeatedly adding
(with ordinary unsigned binary addition) one of two predetermined values A and S to a product P,
then performing a rightward arithmetic shift on P.
13. What are the main features of Booth’s algorithm?
[Link] handles both positive and negative multipliers uniformly.
[Link] achieves some efficiency in the number of addition required when the multiplier has a few
large blocks of 1s.
14. Define Integer Division and give its rule.
Integers are the set of whole numbers and their opposites. The sign of an integer is positive if the
number is greater than zero, and the sign is negative if the number is less than zero. The set of all
integers represented by the set {... -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}Negative integers: {. . . -4, -3, -2, -1}
Positive integers: {1, 2, 3, 4 ...}{0} is neither positive nor negative, neutral. DIVISION RULE: The of
two integers with same sign is positive. The quotient of two integers with opposite signs is negative.
15. Define Truncation.
To retain maximum accuracy, all extra bits during operation (called guard bits) are kept (e.g.,
multiplication). If we assume bits are used in final representation of a number, extra guard bits are
kept during operation. By the end of the operation, the resulting bits need to be truncated to bits by
one of the three methods.
16. Explain how Boolean subtraction is performed?
Negate the subtrahend (i.e. in a-b, the subtrahend is b) then perform addition(2’s complement).
17. Define Chopping.
There are several ways to truncate. The simplest way is to remove the guard bits and make no
changes in the retained bits. This is called Chopping. Chopping discards the least significant bits and
retains the 24 most significant digits. This is easy to implement, and biased, since all values are
rounded to-wards a lower mantissa value. The maximum rounding error is 0≤e<+1 LSB.
18. Define Von Neumann Rounding.
If at least one of the guard bits is 1, the least significant bit of the retained bits is set to 1 otherwise
nothing is changed in retained bits and simply guard bits are dropped.
19. How can we speed up the multiplication process?
There are two techniques to speed up the multiplication process:
1) The first technique guarantees that the maximum number of summands that
must be added is n/2 for n-bit operands.
2) The second technique reduces the time needed to add the summand.
20. What is bit pair recoding? Give an example.
Bit pair recoding halves the maximum number of summands. Group the Booth-recoded multiplier
bits in pairs and observe the following: The pair (+1 -1) is equivalent to to the pair (0 +1). That is
instead of adding -1 times the multiplicand m at shift position i to +1 M at position i+1, the same
result is obtained by adding +1 M at position i.
Eg: 11010 – Bit Pair recoding value is 0 -1 -2
21. What are the two methods of achieving the 2’s complement?
a. Take the 1’s complement of the number and add 1.
b. Leave all least significant 0’s and the first unchanged and then complement the remaining bits.
22. What is the advantage of using Booth algorithm?
 1) It handles both positive and negative multiplier uniformly.
2) It achieves efficiency in the number of additions required when the multiplier has a few large
blocks of 1’s.
3) The speed gained by skipping 1’s depends on the data.
23. What is Carry Save addition?
Using carry save addition, the delay can be reduced further still. The idea is to take 3 numbers that
we want to add together, x+y+z, and convert it into 2 numbers c+s such that x+y+z=c+s, and do this
in O (1) time. The reason why addition cannot be performed in O (1) time is because the carry
information must be propagated. In carry save addition, we refrain from directly passing on the carry
information until the very last step.
24. Write the algorithm for restoring division.
Do the following for n times:
1) Shift A and Q left one binary position.
2) Subtract M and A and place the answer back in A.
3) If the sign of A is 1, set q0 to 0 and add M back to A. Where A- Accumulator, M- Divisor, Q-
Dividend.
Step 1: Do the following for n times:
1) If the sign of A is 0, shift A and Q left one bit position and subtract M from A; otherwise,
shift A and Q left and add M to A.
2) Now, if the sign of A is 0, set q0 to 1; otherwise, set q0 to0.
Step 2: if the sign of A is 1, add M to A.
25. Write the algorithm for restoring division.
Non- Restoring Division Algorithm
Step 1: Do the following n times: If the sign of A is 0, shift A and Q left one bit position and subtract
M from A; otherwise, shift A and Q left and add M to A. Now, if the sign of A is 0, set q0 to 1;
otherwise, set q0 to 0.
Step 2: If the Sign of A is 1, add M to A.
26. Give the IEEE standard for floating point numbers for single precision number.
27. Give the IEEE standard for floating point numbers for double precision number.
28. When can you say that a number is normalized?
When the decimal point is placed to the right of the first (nonzero) significant digit, the number is
said to be normalized.
 The end values 0 to 255 of the excess-127 exponent E are used to represent
special values such as:
a) When E = 0 and the mantissa fraction M is zero the value exact 0 is represented.
1. When E = 255 and M=0, the value is represented.
2. When E = 0 and M 0, denormal values are represented.
3. When E = 2555 and M 0, the value represented is called Not a number.

29. Write the multiply rule for floating point numbers.

1) Add the exponent and subtract 127.
2) Multiply the mantissa and determine the sign of the result
3) Normalize the resulting value, if necessary.
30. What is guard bit?
Although the initial operands are limited to 24 bits, it is important to retain extra bits, called as
guard bits.
31. What are the ways to truncate the guard bits?
There are several ways to truncate the guard its:
1) Chopping
2) Von Neumann rounding
3) Rounding
32. What are generate and propagate function?
The generate function is given by Gi=xiyi andThe propagate function is given as Pi=xi+yi.
33. What is excess-127 format?
Instead of the signed exponent E, the value actually stored in the exponent field is and unsigned
integer E. In some cases, the binary point is variable and is automatically adjusted as computation
proceeds. In such case, the binary point is said to float and the numbers are called floating point
numbers.
34. In floating point numbers when so you say that an underflow or overflow has occurred?
(MAY-2015)
In single precision numbers when an exponent is less than -126 then we say that an underflow has
occurred. In single precision numbers when an exponent is less than +127 then we say that an
overflow has occurred.
35. List the steps for addition.
i) Place the addend in register B and augend in AC
ii) Add the contents in B and AC and place the result in AC
iii)V regiater will hold the overflow bits
36. Define Mantissa.
It is calculated from the remaining 23 bits of the binary representation. It consists of ‘1’ and a
fractional part. This represents the precision bits of the number. It is composed of an implicit
leading bit and fraction bits.

PART – B
[Link] 0.510 and -0.437510 using floating point addition algorithm. (NOV/DEC-2017)
[Link] restoring division technique with example.(NOV/DEC-2017)
[Link] the sequential version of Multiplication algorithm in detail with diagram andexamples.
(APRIL/MAY2015,2016,2017)
4. (i) Explain Non – restoring division technique with example. (MAY-2017)
(ii) What is meant by sub word parallelism? Explain. (MAY-2017)
[Link] the block diagram for a floating point adder and subtractor unit and discuss its operation.
(MAY-2016, 2017)
6. Give a note on Signed and Unsigned numbers.
7. Brief about subword parallelism.
8. Explain Booth’s algorithm for the multiplication of signed 2’s complement numbers. (Nov/Dec
2016)
PART - C
[Link] in detail about floating point addition with example.
2.(i) Briefly explain Carry look ahead adder.
(ii) Multiply the following pair of signed [Link] Booth’s bit –pair recoding of the multiplier
A=+13 (multiplicand) and b= -6(multiplier)
[Link] the IEEE754 binary representation of the number -0.7510 in single and
double precision.
[Link] on carry look ahead layer and booth multiplier in detail.

UNIT III
PART – A
1. Mention the types of pipelining. (NOV/DEC2017)
[Link] pipeline
[Link] pipeline
[Link] the various phase in executing an instruction. (NOV/DEC 2017)
1. Fetch Instruction
2. Decode instruction and fetch operands
3. Perform ALU operation
4. Access memory
5. Write back result to register file
6. Update PC

3. What is meant by data hazard in pipelining? (Nov/Dec 2013)(May-2017)

Any condition in which either the source or the destination operands of an instruction are not
available at the time expected in the pipeline is called data hazard.
4. Define exception and interrupt. (May-2016)
Exception:
The term exception is used to refer to any event that causes an interruption.
Interrupt:
An exception that comes from outside of the processor. There are two types of interrupt.
1. Imprecise interrupt and [Link] interrupt
5. What is pipelining? (May-2016)
The technique of overlapping the execution of successive instruction for substantial improvement
in performance is called pipelining.
6. Why is branch prediction algorithm needed? Differentiate between the static and dynamic
techniques. (May 2013,2015)
The branch instruction will introduce branch penalty which would reduce the gain in performance
expected from pipelining. Branch instructions can be handled in several
ways to reduce their negative impact on the rate of execution of instructions. Thus the branch
prediction algorithm is needed.
Static Branch prediction
The static branch prediction, assumes that the branch will not take place and to continue to fetch
instructions in sequential address order.
Dynamic Branch prediction
The idea is that the processor hardware assesses the likelihood of a given branch being taken by
keeping track of branch decisions every time that instruction is executed. The execution history used
in predicting the outcome of a given branch instruction is the result of the most recent execution of
that instruction.
7. What is precise exception in R-type instruction? (May-2015)
A precise exception is one in which all instructions prior to the faulting instruction are complete
and instruction following the faulting instruction, including the faulty instruction; do not change the
state of the machine.
8. Define processor cycle in pipelining.
The time required between moving an instruction one step down the pipeline is a processor cycle.
9. What is meant by pipeline bubble?
To resolve the hazard the pipeline is stall for 1 clock cycle. A stall is commonly called a pipeline
bubble, since it floats through the pipeline taking space but carrying no useful work.
[Link] is pipeline register delay?
Adding registers between pipeline stages me adding logic between stages and setup and hold
times for proper operations. This delay is known as pipeline register delay.
[Link] are the major characteristics of a pipeline?
The major characteristics of a pipeline are:
1. Pipelining cannot be implemented on a single task, as it works by splitting
multiple tasks into a number of subtasks and operating on them
simultaneously.
2. The speedup or efficiency achieved by suing a pipeline depends on the
number of pipe stages and the number of available tasks that can be
subdivided.
[Link] is data path?(APR/MAY 2018)
As instruction execution progress data are transferred from one instruction to another, often
passing through the ALU to perform some arithmetic or logical operations. The registers, ALU, and
the interconnecting bus are collectively referred as the data path.
[Link] is a pipeline hazard and what are its types?
Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called hazard. They are also called as stalls or
bubbles. The various pipeline hazards are:
Data hazard Structural
Hazard Control Hazard.
[Link] is Instruction or control hazard?
The pipeline may be stalled because of a delay in the availability of an instruction. For example,
this may be a result of a miss in the cache, requiring the instruction to be fetched from the main
memory. Such hazards are often called control hazards or instruction hazard.
15. Define structural hazards.
This is the situation when two instruction require the use of a given hardware resource at the same
time. The most common case in which this hazard may arise is in access to memory.
16. What is side effect?
When a location other than one explicitly named in an instruction as a destination operand is
affected, the instruction is said to have a side effect.
17. What do you mean by branch penalty?
The time lost as a result of a branch instruction is often referred to as branch penalty.
18. What is branch folding?
When the instruction fetch unit executes the branch instruction concurrently with the execution of
the other instruction, then this technique is called branch folding.
19. What do you mean by delayed branching?
Delayed branching is used to minimize the penalty incurred as a result of conditional branch
instruction. The location following the branch instruction is called delay slot. The instructions in the
delay slots are always fetched and they are arranged such that they are fully executed whether or not
branch is taken. That is branching takes place one instruction later than where the branch instruction
appears in the instruction sequence in the memory hence the name delayed branching.
20. What is branch Target Address?
The address specified in a branch, which becomes the new program counter, if the branch is taken.
In MIPS the branch target address is given by the sum of the offset field of the instruction and the
address of the instruction following the branch.
21. Why pipelining is needed?
 Pipelining is a technique of decomposing a sequential process in to sub processes with each sub
process being executed in a special dedicated segment that operates concurrently with all other
program.
22. How do control instructions like branch, cause problems in a pipelined processor?
Pipelined processor gives the best throughput for sequenced line instruction. In branch instruction,
as it has to calculate the target address, whether the instruction jump from one memory location to
other. In the meantime, before calculating the larger, the next sequence instructions are got into the
pipelines, which are rolled back, when target is calculated.
23. What is meant by super scalar processor?
Super scalar processors are designed to exploit more instruction level
parallelism in user programs. This means that multiple functional units are used.
With such an arrangement it is possible to start the execution of several
instructions in every clock cycle. This mode of operation is called super scalar
execution.
24. Define pipeline speedup.
Speed up is the ratio of the average instruction time without pipelining to the
average instruction time with pipelining. Average instruction time without
pipelining Speedup=Average instruction time with pipelining
25. What is pipelined computer?
When hardware is divided in to a number of sub units so as to perform the sub operations in an
overlapped fashion is called as a pipelined computer.
26. List the various pipelined processors.
8086, 8088, 80286, 80386. STAR 100, CRAY 1 and CYBER 205 etc.
27. Classify the pipeline computers.
Based on level of processing → processor pipeline, instruction pipeline, arithmetic pipelines
Based on number of functions→ Uni-functional and multi functional [Link] on the
configuration → Static and Dynamic pipelines and linear and non linear pipelines Based on type of
input→ Scalar and vector pipelines.
28. Define Pipeline speedup.
The ideal speedup from a pipeline is equal to the number of stages in the pipeline.
29. What is Vectorizer?
The process to replace a block of sequential code by vector instructions is called
 vectorization. The system software, which generates parallelism, is called as
vectorizing compiler.
30. Write down the expression for speedup factor in a pipelined architecture.
The speedup for a pipeline computer is S = (k + n -1) tp
Where,K → number of segments in a pipeline,N → number of instructions to
be executed. Tp →cycle time.
31. What are the problems faced in instruction pipeline.
Resource conflicts → Caused by access to the memory by two at the same time. Most of the
conflicts can be resolved by using separate instruction and data memories.
Data dependency → Arises when an instruction depends on the results of the previous instruction
but this result is not yet available.
Branch difficulties → Arises from branch and other instruction that change the value of PC
(Program Counter).
32. What is meant by vectored interrupt?
An interrupt for which the address to which control is transferred is determined by the cause of the
exception.
33. What are Fine grained multithreading and Coarse grained multithreading?
(NOV/DEC 2017)(May-2016)(May-2017)
Fine grained multithreading
Switches between threads on each instruction, causing the execution of multiples threads to be
interleaved,- Usually done in a round-robin fashion, skipping any stalled threads-CPU must be able to
switch threads every clock
Coarse grained multithreading
Switches threads only on costly stalls, such as L2 cache misses

34. Define Strong scaling and weak scaling. (NOV/DEC-2017)(May-2015)

Strong scaling
Speed-up achieved on a multi-processor without increasing the size of the problem.
Weak scaling.
Speed-up achieved on a multi-processor while increasing the size of the problem proportionally to
the increase in the number of processors.
35. What is Instruction level parallelism? (May-2016)(May-2017)
ILP is a measure of how many of the operations in a computer program can be performed
simultaneously. The potential overlap among instructions is called instruction level parallelism.
[Link] UMA and NUMA multiprocessors. (May-2015)
UNIFORM MEMORY ACCESS (UMA)
A multiprocessor in which latency to any word in main memory is about the same no matter
which processor requests the access.
NONUNIFORM MEMORY ACCESS (NUMA)
A type of single address space multiprocessor in which some memory accesses are much faster
than others depending on which processor asks for which word. 7. Define Static multiple issue and
Dynamic multiple issue.
Static multiple issue -An approach to implementing a multiple-issue processor where many
decisions are made by the compiler before execution.
Dynamic multiple issue -An approach to implementing a multiple-issue processor where many
decisions are made during execution by the processor.
37. What is Speculation?
An approach whereby the compiler or processor guesses the outcome of an instruction to remove it
as dependence in executing other instructions.
38. Define Use latency.
Number of clock cycles between a load instruction and an instruction that can use the result of the
load with-out stalling the pipeline.
39. What is Loop unrolling?
A technique to get more performance from loops that access arrays, in which multiple copies of the
loop body are made and instructions from different iterations are scheduled together.
40. Define Register renaming.
The renaming of registers by the compiler or hardware to remove anti-dependences.
41. What is Superscalar and Dynamic pipeline schedule?
Superscalar-An advanced pipelining technique that enables the processor to execute more than
one instruction per clock cycle by selecting them during execution.
Dynamic pipeline schedule-Hardware support for reordering the order of instruction execution so
as to avoid stalls.
42. Define Commit unit.
 The unit in a dynamic or out-of-order execution pipeline that decides when it is safe to release the
result of an operation to programmer visible registers and memory.
43. What is Reservation station?
A buffer within a functional unit that holds the operands and the operation.
44. Define Reorder buffer?
The buffer that holds results in a dynamically scheduled processor until it is safe to store the results
to memory or a register.
45. Define Out of order execution.
A situation in pipelined execution when an instruction blocked from executing does not cause the
following instructions to wait.
[Link] between shared memory multiprocessor and message-passing multiprocessor.
1.A multiprocessor with a shared address space, that address space can be used to communicate
data implicitly via load and store operations is shared memory multiprocessor.
2.A multiprocessor with a multiple address space, communication of data is done by explicitly
passing message among processor is message-passing multiprocessor.
47. Define Single Instruction, Single Data stream (SISD)
A sequential computer which exploits no parallelism in either the instruction or data streams.
Single control unit (CU) fetches single Instruction Stream (IS) from memory.
The CU then generates appropriate control signals to direct single processing element (PE) to
operate on single Data Stream (DS) i.e. one operation at a time.
Examples of SISD architecture are the traditional uniprocessor machines like a PC.
[Link] Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data streams (MIMD) and Single program multiple
data streams .
Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data streams (MIMD)
Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously executing different instructions on different data.
Distributed systems are generally recognized to be MIMD architectures; either exploiting a single
shared memory space or a distributed memory space. A multi-coresuperscalar processor is an MIMD
processor.
Single program multiple data streams :
Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously executing the same program on different data.
49. Define multithreading.
Multiple threads to share the functional units of 1 processor via overlapping processor must
duplicate independent state of each thread e.g., a separate copy of register file, a separate PC, and for
running independent programs, a separate page table memory shared through the virtual memory
mechanisms, which already support multiple processes
PART – B
[Link] in detail about building a datapath. (NOV/DEC2014), (NOV/DEC 2017)
[Link] pipeline hazard in detail. (NOV/DEC 2017)
3.(i) Explain the hazards caused by unconditional branching statements. (May-2017)
(ii) Describe operand forwarding in a pipelined processor with diagram. (May-2017)
[Link] the modified data path to accommodate pipelined executions with diagram.(May-2017)
5. What is hazards? Explain the types of hazards.(NOV/DEC2014) (MAY-2015,2016)
6. Explain pipelined datapath and its control. (May 2016)(APR/MAY 2018)
7. Explain in detail hardware Multithreading. (NOV/DEC2014)
(May-2015,2016,2017)(NOV/DEC-2017)(APR/MAY 2018)
[Link] in detail about Flynn’s classification. (APR/MAY 2015,2016)(NOV/DEC 2017)
[Link] Instruction level parallelism& challenges of parallel processing.
(NOV/DEC2014)(May-2017)
[Link] Multicore processors. (NOV/DEC2014) (May-2016)
[Link] challenges in parallel processing.(APR/MAY 2018)
PART-C
1. How exceptions are handled in MIPS?
2. Describe the techniques for handling control hazard in pipelining.
3. Write short notes on exception handling.
4. Explain how the instruction pipeline works. What are the various situations where an instruction
pipeline can stall? How it can be resolved?
5. Dwell on the concept of instruction level parallelism with examples.
[Link] short note on: (i) SISD (ii) MIMD
[Link] about Implicit and Explicit multithreading. Compare and contrast with fine
grained and coarse grained multithreading.
[Link] on shared memory multiprocessor architecture.
 UNIT IV
PART – A
[Link] many total bits required for direct mapped cache with 16KB of data
and 4-word blocks, assuming 32-bit address. (Nov/Dec-2017)
4096
2. Define virtual memory. (Nov/Dec-2017)(May-2016)
The data is to be stored in physical memory locations that have addresses different from those
specified by the program. The memory control circuitry translates the address specified by the
program into an address that can be used to access the physical memory
3. How does a processor handle an interrupt?(May-2017)
Assume that an interrupt request arises during execution of instruction i. steps to handle interrupt by
the processor is as follow:
Processor completes execution of instruction I Processor saves the PC value, program status on to
stack.
It loads the PC with starting address of ISR After ISR is executed, the processor resumes the main
program execution by reloading PC with (i+1)th instruction address
4. Define memory interleaving. (May-2017)
In order to carry out two or more simultaneous access to memory, the memory must be partitioned
in to separate modules. The advantage of a modular memory is that it allows the interleaving i.e.
consecutive addresses are assigned to different memory module.
5. Define Memory Hierarchy. (May-2016,2015)
A structure that uses multiple levels of memory with different speeds and sizes. The faster
memories are more expensive per bit than the slower memories.
[Link] out how DMA can improve I/O speed. (May-2015)
DMA interface controller can take the control and responsibility of transferring data without
the intervention of CPU. The CPU and IO controller interacts with each other only when the
control of bus is requested.
7. What is principle of locality?
The principle of locality states that programs access a relatively small portion of their address
space at any instant of time.
8. Define temporal locality.
The principle stating that a data location is referenced then it will tend to be referenced again soon.
9. Define spatial locality.
The locality principle stating that if a data location is referenced, data locations with nearby
addresses will tend to be referenced soon.
10. Define hit ratio.
When a processor refers a data item from a cache, if the referenced item is in the cache, then such
a reference is called Hit. If the referenced data is not in the cache, then it is called Miss, Hit ratio is
defined as the ratio of number of Hits to number of references.
Hit ratio =Total Number of references
11. What is TLB? What is its significance?
Translation look aside buffer is a small cache incorporated in memory management unit. It consists
of page table entries that correspond to most recently accessed pages. Significance The TLB enables
faster address computing. It contains 64 to 256 entries
12. How cache memory is used to reduce the execution time.
If active portions of the program and data are placed in a fast small memory, the average memory
access time can be reduced, thus reducing the total execution time of the program. Such a fast small
memory is called as cache memory
13. In many computers the cache block size is in the range 32 to 128 bytes. What would be the
main Advantages and disadvantages of making the size of the cache blocks larger or smaller?
Larger the size of the cache fewer be the cache misses if most of the data in the block are actually
used. It will be wasteful if much of the data are not used before the cache block is moved from cache.
Smaller size means more misses
14. What is the function of a TLB? (Translation Look-aside Buffer)
A small cache, called the Translation Look aside Buffer (TLB) is interpolated into the memory
management unit, which consists of the page table entries that corresponding to the most recently
accessed paper.
15. Define locality of reference. What are its types?
During the course of execution of a program memory references by the processor for both the
instruction and the data tends to cluster. There are two types:
1. Spatial Locality 2. Temporal Locality
16. Define Hit and Miss?
 The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called hit ratio.
When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in cache, it is said to produce a hit. If the word is
not found in cache, then it is in main memory and it counts as a miss.
17. What is cache memory?
It is a fast memory that is inserted between the larger slower main memory and the processor. It
holds the currently active segments of a program and their data.

18. What is Direct mapped cache?

A cache structure in which each memory location is mapped to exactly one location in the cache.
19. Define write through and write buffer.
A scheme in which writes always update both the cache and the next lower level of the memory
hierarchy, ensuring the data is always consistent between the two.
Write buffer-A queue that holds data while the data is waiting to be written to memory.
20. What is write-back?
A scheme that handles writes by updating values only to the block in the cache, then writing
the modified block to the lower level of the hierarchy when the block is replaced.
21. What is memory system?
Every computer contains several types of devices to store the instructions and data required for its
operation. These storage devices plus the algorithm-implemented by hardware and/or software needed
to manage the stored information from the memory system of computer.
22. Give the classification of memory.
They can be placed into 4 groups.
• CPU registers • Main memory
• Secondary memory • Cache
23. What is Read Access Time?
A basic performance measure is the average time to read a fixed amount of information, for
instance, one word, from the memory. This parameter is called the read access time.
24. What is Serial Access Memory?
Memories whose storage locations can be accessed only in a certain predetermined sequence called
serial access time.
25. Define Random Access Memory.
It storage locations can be accessed in any order and access time is independent of the location
being accessed, the memory is termed a random-access memory.
26. What is Semi Random Access?
Memory devices such as magnetic hard disks and CD-ROMs contain many rotating storage tracks.
If each track has its own read write head, the tracks can be accessed randomly, but access within each
track is serial. In such cases the access mode is semi random.
27. What is the necessary of virtual memory?
Virtual memory is an important concept related to memory management. It is used to increase the
apparent size of main memory at a very low cost. Data are addressed in a virtual address space that
can be as large as the addressing capability of CPU.
28. Distinguish between memory mapped I/O and I/O mapped I/O.
When I/O devices and the memory share the same address space, the arrangement is called
memory mapped I/O. The machine instructions that can access memory is used to trfer data to or from
an I/O device.
I/O mapped I/O:
Here the I/O devices the memories have different address space. It has special I/O instructions.
The advantage of a separate I/O address space is that I/O devices deals with fewer address lines.
[Link] is SCSI?
Small Computer System Interface, a parallel interface standard. SCSI interfaces provide for faster
data transmission rates (up to 80 megabytes per second) than
standard serial and parallel ports. In addition, you can attach many devices to a single SCSI port,
so that SCSI is really an I/O bus rather than simply an interface.
[Link] USB.
Universal Serial Bus, an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. A single
USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems, and
keyboards .USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.
31. What are the units of an interface?
DATAIN, DATAOUT, SIN, SOUT
32. Distinguish between isolated and memory mapped I/O?
The isolated I/O method isolates memory and I/O addresses so that memory address values are not
affected by interface address assignment since each has its own address space.
In memory mapped I/O, there are no specific input or output instructions. The CPU can
manipulate
 I/O data residing in interface registers with the same instructions that are used to manipulate
memory words.
33. What is the use of DMA? .(APR/MAY 2018)
DMA (Direct Memory Access) provides I/O transfer of data directly to and from the memory unit
and the peripheral.
[Link] is meant by vectored interrupt?
Vectored Interrupts are type of I/O interrupts in which the device that generates the interrupt
request (also called IRQ in some text books) identifies itself directly to the processor.
[Link] Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.(APR/MAY 2018)
Static RAM is more expensive, requires four times the amount of space for a given amount of data
than dynamic RAM, but, unlike dynamic RAM, does not need to be power-refreshed and is therefore
faster to access. Dynamic RAM uses a kind of capacitor that needs frequent power refreshing to retain
its charge. Because reading a DRAM discharges its contents, a power refresh is required after each
read. Apart from reading, just to maintain the charge that holds its content in place, DRAM must be
refreshed about every 15 microseconds. DRAM is the least expensive kind of RAM.
PART – B
1..Discuss the various mapping schemes used in cache memory.
(NOV/DEC2014) (May-2016)(May-2017) (Nov/Dec-2017)(APR/MAY 2018)
[Link] in detail about memory Technologies. (APRIL/MAY2015) (Nov/Dec-2017)
[Link] is virtual memory? Explain the steps involved in virtual memory
address translation. (MAY2015)(May-2017)(APR/MAY 2018)
[Link] about DMA controller with neat block diagram. (MAY 2016)(May-2017)
5. What is an interrupt? Explain the different types of interrupts and the different ways of handling
the interrupts. (Dec 2012)
[Link] the standard input and output interfaces required to connect the I/O devices to the bus.
PART-C
[Link] in detail about programmed I/O and I/O mapped I/O with neat sketch.
[Link] a note on:
(i) Daisy chaining
(ii) Polling
(iii)Independent Priority.
[Link] the methods for improving performance in cache memory.
 UNIT V
PART – A
1. What is Flynn’s taxonomy?
Flynn’s taxonomy is a specific classification of parallel computer architectures that are based on
the number of concurrent instruction (single or multiple) and data streams available in the
architecture.
2. Classify the machine architecture based on Flynn’s taxonomy.
Flynn’s taxonomy based on the number of instruction streams and data streams are the following:
 Single instruction, single data (SISD)
 Multiple instruction, single data (MISD)
 Single instruction, Multiple data (SIMD)
 Multiple instruction, Multiple data (MIMD)
3. What is SISD?
Single instruction, single data (SISD) refers to an instruction set architecture in which a single
processor executes exactly one instruction stream. It also fetches or stores one item of data at a time to
operate on data stored in a single memory unit. it is a non pipelined architecture with general purpose
registers, program counter, instruction register, memory address registres and memory data registers.
4. What is SIMD?
Single instruction, Multiple data (SIMD) is an instruction set architecture that have a single
control unit and more than one processing unit that operates like a von Neumann machine by
executing a single instruction stream over PU’s handled through the CU. The
CU generates the control signals for all the PU’s and by which executes the same operation on
different data streams.
5. What is MISD?
Multiple instruction, single data (MISD) is an instruction set architecture for parallel computing
where many functional units perform different operations by executing different instructions on the
same data set. This type of architecture is common mainly in the fault tolerant computers executing
the same instructions redundantly in order to detect and mask errors.
6. What is MIMD?
Multiple instruction, Multiple data (MIMD) is an instruction set architecture for parallel
computing that is typical of the computers with multiprocessors. Using MIMD each processor in a
multiprocessor system can execute asynchronously different set of instruction independently on the
different set of data units. It can be used in simulation, modeling, communication switches etc.,

7. List the challenges in Parallelism

 Available parallelism
 Load balance: Some processors work while others wait due to insufficient
parallelism or unequal size tasks
 Extra work
 Managing parallelism
 Redundant computation
 Communication
8. What is multitasking, multiprocessing, multithreading?
Multitasking: It is the process of executing multiple tasks simultaneously. In multitasking, when a
new thread needs to be executed, old thread’s context in hardware written back to memory and new
thread’s context loaded.
Multiprocessing: It is using two or more CPU’s within a single computer system.
Multithreading: It is executing several parts of a program in parallel by dividing the specific
operations within a single application into individual threading.
9. Define granularity.
The threads are categorized based on the amount of work done by the thread. This is known as
granularity.
10. Distinguish between hardware and software multithreading.
Hardware Multithreading Software Multithreading
i) Execution of concurrent threads is i) Execution of concurrent threads is
supported by CPU supported by OS
ii) Very limited number of thread can ii) Large number of thread can span
span
iii) Light/immediate context switching iii) Context switching is heavy it
with limited operations involves more operations

11. Give the objectives of hardware multithreading.

 i) To tolerate latency of memory operations, dependent instructions, branch resolution by
utilizing processing resources more efficiently. When one thread encounters a long
latency operation, the processor can execute a useful operation from another thread.
ii) To improve system throughput.
iii) Too reduce context switch penalty
12. List the advantages of hardware multithreading.
i) Latency tolerance
ii) Better hardware utilization
iii) Reduced context switch penalty.
13. What are the disadvantages of hardware multithreading?
i) Requires multiple thread contexts to be implemented in hardware.
ii) Usually reduced single-thread performance
iii) Resource sharing, contention
iv) Switching penalty
14. What is fine grained multithreading?
It is a mechanism in which switching among threads happen despite the cache miss or stall caused
by the thread instruction.
15. Define coarse grained multithreading.
It is a mechanism in which the switch only happens when the thread in execution causes a stall,
thus wasting a clock cycle.
16. Define simultaneous multithreading.
Simultaneous multithreaded is a single computing component with two or more independent
processing units called cores, which read and execute program instructions. A shared memory
multiprocessor is a computer system composed of multiple independent processors that execute
different instruction streams.
17. What is GPU?
A Graphics Processing Unit is a single chip processor primarily used to manage and boost the
performance of video and graphics. It is a dedicated parallel processor for accelerating graphical and
deeper computations.
18. What is cluster computing?
A cluster is a collection of desktop computers or servers connected together by a local area
network to act as a single larger computer. A ware house scale computer is a cluster comprised of tens
of thousands of servers.
19. Give the difference between CPU and GPU
CPU GPU
i) This supports serial execution of i) They facilitate highly parallel
programs. operations
ii) This has less number of cores ii)This has more number of cores
iii) No such special interfaces are iii)They need special faster interfaces to
required. facilitate faster data transfer
iv) They have comparatively shallow iv)They have deeper pipelines
pipelines

20. Define RLP

Request Level parallelism is a way of representing tasks which are set of requests which are to be
run in parallel.
PART B
1. Explain in detail about the parallel processing architectures.
2. Describe about hardware multithreading
3. Brief about multicore and shared memory architectures
4. Explain about GPU
5. Explain about clusters and warehouse scale computers
6. Describe multiprocessor network topologies
PART C
1. Illustrate the recent applications of multithreading.
2. Real time applications of clusters.
3. Brief history of network topologies
 V.S.B. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
QUESTION BANK
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

EC8073-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

UNIT-1 ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-

POTENTIAL RECORDINGPART A
1. State all or none law in respect of cell biopotential. (Apr/May 2008)
Regardless of the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stimulus, which is assumed to be greater than
the threshold of stimulus, the action potential is always the same for any given cell. This is known as ‘all or none
law’.
2. Define the term Conduction Velocity. (Apr/May 2008) &(May/June2007)(Nov/Dec 2009)
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber of a nerve cell or is propagated from cell to cell is called
the propagation rate (or) conduction velocity. The conduction velocity is defined as V =[ (l1 – l2 ) / (t1 – t2)] .The
conduction velocity in peripheral nerves is normally 50m/s.

3. Draw a typical ECG waveform. (May/June2007)(Nov/Dec 2009)

4. State how a phonocardiogram and an electrocardiogram signals differ in their clinical

information.(AP/MAY 2008)
In electrocardiography, only the voltage generated by the electrical activity of the heart is recorded. Any form of
arrhythmia (disturbance in the heart rhythm) can be easily diagnosed using electrocardiogram.
The graphic record of the heart sounds is called phonogram. Because the sound is from the heart, it is called as
phonocardiogram. The basic aim of phonocardiograph is to pick up the different heart sounds, filter out the heart
sounds and to display them.
5. Define resting and action potential.(NOV/DEC 2008) (May /June 2009) (April/May 2015)
The membrane potential caused by the different concentration of ions is called as resting potential of the cell. The
positive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called as action potential and it is about 20mV.
6. Define Latency as related to EMG. (NOV/DEC 2008)(Nov/Dec 2015)
Latency is defined as the elapsed time between the stimulating impulse and the muscle‟s action potential.
7. List the names and frequency bands of EEG signals(May 2007)(Nov/Dec 2014)
The names and frequency bands of EEG signals are
Alpha waves - 8-13 Hz
Beta waves - 13-30Hz
Theta waves - 4-8 Hz
Delta waves - 05-4 Hz
8. What is the importance of PCG Signal ?(May/June 2009)
The importance of PCG signals are
1. Different types of heart sounds are measured.
2. Due to vibration setup in the blood inside the heart by sudden closure of valves
3. Additional sounds are hard between normal heart sounds.
 9. Mention the importance of biological amplifier.(Apr/May 2010)
Generally, Bio signal are having low amplitude and low frequency .so, amplifier are needed to boost the
amplitude level of the bio signals. These amplifiers are known as bio- amplifiers.
10. Mention the various lead systems used in ECG recording. (Apr/May 2010)
The various lead system used in ECG recording are
(i) Bipolar limb lead/standard lead
(ii)Augmented unipolar limb lead
(iii) Chest lead/precordial lead
(iv) Frank Lead system/corrected orthogonal lead system.
11. What is half cell Potential? (Apr/May 2011)
The voltage developed at an electrode-electrolyte interface is designated as the half cell potential or
electrode potential. A Characteristics potential difference established by the electrode and its surrounding electrolyte
which depends on the metal, concentration of ions in solution and temperature.

12. Give the EMG Signal Characteristics. (Apr/May 2011)

The EMG signal ranges from 0.1mV to [Link] frequency components of the EMG signal vary from
20HZ to 10 KHz and they are restricted to the frequency range of 20HZ to 200HZ for Clinical purpose using a low
pass filter.
13. What is EOG? (Nov/Dec 2011)
EOG –Electro oculography – It is the recording of the biopotential generated by the movement of eyes.
14. Compare the signal characteristics of ECG and PCG. (Nov/Dec 2011)(May/June 2013)
PCG related to mechanical events of heart while ECG related to electrical activity of heart. PCG has three
different waves but ECG has only one wave from to analysis the function of heart.
15. What is PCG? (Apr/May 2012)(Nov/Dec 2012)
The graphic record of the heart sounds is called as phonogram. Because the sound is from the heart, it is
called phonocardiogram. The instrument used to measure the heart sounds is called as phonocardiograph.
16. What are the different types of electrodes used in bipolar measurement? (Apr/May 2012)
The different types of electrodes used in bipolar measurement are
a) Metal plate electrodes, b) Suction cup electrode, c) Adhesive tape electrode,
d) Multipoint electrode, e) Floating electrode.
17. Give the ECG Signal Characteristics.(April/May 2015)
The ECG signal characteristics is given below
P wave 0.25 mV
R wave 1.60 mV
Amplitude Q wave 25% of R wave
T Wave 0.1 to 0.5 mV
P-R interval 0.12 to 0.20 sec
Q-T interval 0.35 to 0.44 sec
Duration S-T interval 0.05 to 0.15 sec
P wave interval 0.11 sec
QRS interval 0.09 sec

18. What is bio electric potential?(Nov/Dec 2015)

The ionic voltages produced as a result of the electrochemical activity of certain special type of cells are known as
bio-electric potential.
19. The contraction of skeletal muscle is termed as what? Give its specification. (May/June 2014)
The contraction of skeleton muscle is termed as Twitch and Tetanic [Link] contraction is a short burst
of stimulation causes the muscle to contract, but the duration is so short that the muscle begins relaxing even
before reaching peak force. If the stimulation is long enough, the muscle reaches peak force and plateaus at this
level, resulting in a Tetanic contraction.
20. Enlist the electrodes used for recording EEG.(May/June 2014)
Scalp electrodes: Fp1, Fp2, Fz, F3, F4, F7, F8, Cz, C3, C4, Pz, P3, P4, Oz, O1, O2, T3, T4, T5, T6
Nasopharyngeal electrodes: Pg1 and Pg2,
Ear electrodes: A1 and A2
 21. Define CMRR. Give its importance in physiological signal amplifiers.(Nov/Dec 2014)

The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) should be more than 80dB so as to eliminate the 50Hz
interference from the mains.
22. List the characteristics needed for Bio Amplifier.(May/June 2013)
a) The voltage gain of the amplifier should be >100dB.
b) It should have low frequency response.
c) Gain and frequency response should be uniform throughout the Bandwidth.
d) There is no drift in the amplifier.
e) The output impedance should be very small.
f) The common mode rejection ratio (CMMR) should be >80dB.
23. What are the requirement of a biological amplifier?(Nov/Dec 2013)
1. The voltage gain of the amplifier should be more than 100dB so as to amplify the biosignal properly to
drive the recorder.
2. The gain and the frequency response should be uniform throughout the required bandwidth.
3. There is no drift in the amplifier.
4. The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.
24. Draw the wave form of a typical PCG signal and label its components. ( Nov/Dec 2013)

25. Name the electrode used for recording ECG and EMG.(Nov/Dec 2012)
Surface Electrode and Needle Electrodes are used for recording ECG and EMG.
26. What are the different types of bio potential electrodes? (Nov/Dec 2010)
There are three types of electrodes
1. Micro Electrodes – ( Metal micro electrode and Micropipet)
2. Depth and Needle Electrode
3. Surface Electrode – ( Metal Plate Electrode, Suction cup electrode , Adhesive tape
electrode, Multipoint electrode ,Floating Electrode)
27. Mention the normal amplitude and frequency of EMG signal ? (Nov/Dec 2010)
The normal amplitude of EMG signal is about range from 0.1 to 0.5 mV
The normal frequency of EMG signal is about 60 Hz
28. What is the range of resting potential?
The resting potential range from 70 to 90 mill volt.
29. What are artifacts?
The term artifacts refer to any component of a signal that is extraneous to the variable represented by a
signal.
30. Differentiate between heart sound and murmurs.
Heart sound have a transient character and it is of short duration, whereas heart murmurs have a noisy
characteristics and last for a longer time. Heart sounds are due to the closing and opening of the valves, murmurs are
due to the turbulent flow of blood in the heart and larger vessels.
 31. List the important characteristics required for bio-amplifier.(May/June 2016)
a. The voltage gain of the amplifier should be >100dB.
b. It should have low frequency response.
c. Gain and frequency response should be uniform throughout the Bandwidth.
d. There is no drift in the amplifier.
e. The output impedance should be very small.
f. The common mode rejection ratio (CMMR) should be >80dB.
32. Mention the electrodes used to record bio-potential from a single muscle fibre.(May/June 2016)
Microelectrodes – i) Metal Microelectrodes ii) Micropipet.
33. State all none law (dec 2016)
The all-or-none law is the principle that the strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is
independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential, the nerve or muscle fiber
will give a complete response; otherwise, there is no response.
34. What is ment by conduction velocity(dec 2016)
In modern EMG systems, nerve conduction time and nerve velocity are measured. For
this measurement, initially nerve is stimulated and EMG is [Link] conduction velocitymeasurement is used
to indicate the location and type of nerve lesion
35. Define absolute and relative refractory period (june 2017)
Absolute refractory period: During a short period after the generation of an action potential, the cell does not
respond to any stimulus at all. This period is known as theabsolute refractory period.
Relative refractory period: It is the time period between the instant when the membrane potential becomes negative
again and the instant when the membrane potential returns to RMP. During this period, the cell responds to a
stimulus but less strongly than usual.
36. Mention the cause of first and second heart sounds(june 2017)
Record of heart sounds – 1st and 2nd heart sounds are heard well but 3rd and 4th are not. Heart sounds are generally
used for diagnosis of valverelated diseases. Such abnormal heart sounds are called murmurs.
1st heart sound: due to closure of AV valves – long, soft & low-pitched sound – sounds like„lubb‟ – 0.14-0.2 sec –
30-40 Hz.
2nd heart sound: due to closure of semilunar valves – short, sharp & high-pitched sound –sounds like „dub‟ – 0.08-
0.1 sec – 50-70 Hz.
37. List the important characteristics required for bioamplifier(june 2016)
The requirements for bio-potential amplifiers can often be more demandingthan for a lot of electronic equipment as
might be used in the entertainment ortelecommunications sectors. When measuring electrical signals, such as the
ECG,from the surface of the body typical requirements could be:
• Very High Input Impedance:
• Moderate Bandwidth:
• Sufficient Gain-Bandwidth Product:
• High Common-Mode-Rejection:
38. Mention the electrodes used to record bio potential from a single muscle fiber(june 2016)
single-fiber electromyography electrode within a motor unit used to record bio potential from a single muscle fiber

UNIT-1 PART B& C

1. i) Discuss in detail about Action Potential and Resting Potential.(Apr/May 2011)(Nov/Dec 2014)
ii) Write short notes on bio potential electrodes. (MAY/JUNE2007)(May/June 2013) (May/June
2012)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-8 & 24-27.
2. i) Explain the working principle of a ECG machine with a neat block diagram.(Nov/Dec 2015)
ii) What is Phonocardiography? (MAY/JUNE2007) (May/June 2014)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-142.
3. i) Explain in detail various types of bio potential electrodes.(May/June2012)(Nov/Dec2011) (April/May
2015)
ii) Write a short note on electromyogram. (AP/MAY 2008) (Nov/Dec 2015)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-33 & 153-156.
4. i) Draw an action potential waveform and discuss in detail about polarization and repolarization.
ii) Draw the bipolar limb lead system of an ECG. (AP/MAY 2008) (April/May2015)(May/June
2014)(Nov/Dec 2014)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-8 & 120-121.
5. i)What is Half cell potential?
ii) What are the three types of electrodes and mention its use.
iii) Discuss Microelectrodes in detail. (NOV/DEC 2008) (Nov/Dec 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 21, 24 -27.
6. i) Bring out the salient features of phonocardiography. .(Apr/May 2011)
ii) With suitable diagram, explain the method of measurement of conduction velocity in peripheral nerves.
(NOV/DEC 2008)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 133-142 & 153-156.
7. Explain the working principle of EEG recording machine.(April/May2015)(Nov/Dec 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 144
8. A) (i) explain the international standard 12 lead system used to record ECG(10) (may/june 2016)
(ii) list and discuss the important characteristics and frequency bands of EEC signal(6)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 132,77

9. (i) discuss in detail about the orgin potential and resting potential with necessary equations.(10)
(ii) describe the typical recording setup of EMG (6) (may/june 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link],123
10. a) discuss the genesis of ECG and explain the working of an ECG machine which is block diagram along
with its various lead configuration(16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 184
11. What is know as biopotential electrodes? Draw its equivalent circuit explain various types of biopotential
electrodes with suitable example(16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 192
12. (i) explain the international standard 12 lead system used to record ECG(10) (may/june 2017)
(i) list and discuss the important characteristics of bioamplifier(6) (may/june 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 132, 98
13. (i) discuss in detail about the 10 – 20 lead system.(10) (may/june 2017)
(ii) describe the typical EMG waveform and its characteristics(6) (may/june 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 126,67
 UNIT-2 – BIO CHEMICAL & NONELECTRICAL PARAMETER
MEASUREMENT
PART A

1. What are cardiac output and phonocardiogram?

Cardiac output is the amount of blood delivered by the heart to aorta per minute. Phonocardiogram is used to
measure heart sounds in graphical manner
2. What is cardiac output .Mention the methods of measurement of cardiac output .
Cardiac output is the amount of blood delivered by the heart to aorta per minute various Methods to
measure the cardiac output is
Fick‟s method
Indication dilution method
By impedance change
3. What are demerits of electromagnetic blood flow meter?
i) The output voltage of the method is only few micro volts.
ii) Change of magnetic field causes the transducer to act like a transformer and induces error
Voltage.
4. Name any two methods of respiration rate measurement?
1. Maximum mid expiratory
2. Maximal expiration flow rate
3. Maximal breathing capacity.
5. What is residual volume? (May/June 2007)
The Residual Volume (RV) is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at the end of a maximal expiration.

6. Mention the application of flame photometer. (May/June 2007) (Nov/Dec 2009)

A flame photometer is used to Analyzing urine or blood in order to determine the concentration of
potassium (K), sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca) and Lithium (Li).
7. What is meant by Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)? (Apr/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2007)
Mean Arterial Pressure is a weighted average of systolic and diastolic pressure. Generally, MAP falls about
one-third of the way between the diastolic low and the systolic peak. A simple formula for computing MAP is:
MAP = 1/3 (systolic - diastolic) + diastolic
8. What are Korotkoff’s sounds?(Nov/Dec 2008)
When an artery is partially occluded so that the blood velocity through the constriction is increased
sufficiently, identifiable sounds can be heard downstream through a stethoscope. These sounds are called
Korotkoff‟s sounds, are used in the common method of blood pressure measurement.
9. What is a colorimeter? State its uses?(Nov/Dec 2008)(May/June 2009)
The Colorimeter is used to measure the transmitted and absorbed light as it passes through a sample. The
colorimeter uses light absorption to determine blood proteins and iron levels. Colorimeter can be in the filter
photometer or spectrophotometer. When an interference filter is used to select a given wavelength it is called filter
photometer. When a diffraction grating or prism is used as a monochromatic to get different spectral components or
wavelength of interest in the colorimeter, then it is called spectrophotometer.

10. Name the four physical principles based on which blood flow meters are constructed?(Nov/Dec 2007)
1. Electromagnetic induction
2. Ultrasonic principle(Transit time type, Doppler type)
3. Thermal convection
4. Radiographic Principle
5. Indicated dilution Principle.

11. Name the instrument used to measure PO2 and PCO2?(May/June 2009)
Blood Gas Analyzingr
 12. How is the pulse rate measured?(Apr/May 2011)
The pulse rate is measured using one of the following methods
a) Electrical Impedance Method
b) Strain gauge Method
c) Photoelectric Method
d) Microphone Method
13. What is Stroke Volume? (Apr/May 2011)(May/June 2013)
Stroke Volume (SV) is the Volume of blood pumped from one ventricle of the heart with each beat.

14. What is systolic and diastolic pressure? (Nov/Dec 2011)

Contraction of heart muscle is called as systolic. The systolic pressure is 120 mm of Hg.
Relaxation of heart muscle is called as diastole. The diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
15. How is respiration rate measured? (Nov/Dec 2011)
The measurement of respiration rate provides ideas about relative respiratory activity .Various techniques
are used for this measurement are
1. Displacement method
2. Thermistor Method
3. Impedance pneumography
4. CO2 Method
5. Apnora Detector
16. Which transducer is used for measuring temperature? Why?(Apr/May 2012)
Thermoelectric type transducer is used for measuring temperature, because to store and carry plasma,
antibiotics etc.
17. What is the principle used in pulse rate measurement? (Apr/May 2012)
Piezoelectric type transducer is the principle used in pulse rate measurement.
18. Which flow meters are used to measure pulsatile flow of blood?(April/May 2015)
Pulsed Doppler Blood flow meter
19. Draw lung volume diagram. (April/May 2015)

20. How does the pH value determine the acidity and alkalinity in blood fluid?(Nov/Dec 2015)
The pH is a measure of the acid – base balance of a fluid. A neutral solution has a pH of [Link] pH
numbers indicate acidity , whereas higher pH values define a basic solution .
21. List the various indirect methods for the measurement of blood pressure.(Nov/Dec 2015)
The various indirect methods for the measurement of blood pressure are
1. Percutaneous insertion
2. Catheterization (Vessel cut down)
3. Implant of a transducer in a vessel or in the heart.
22. Write the principle behind electromagnetic blood flow meter.(May/June 2014)
Continuous measurement of blood velocity can be obtained by placing the electromagnetic flow
probe around arteries and veins. This probe operates on Faraday’s law of induced e.m.f. Blood is a
conductor of electricity. When a magnetic field is applied to a blood vessel, the blood flow in the vessel
causes an electric field to be induced in a direction mutually perpendicular to the direction of the applied
magnetic field and the blood velocity.
 23. Nitrogen washout technique is meant for what measurements? (May/June 2014)
A nitrogen washout can be performed with a single nitrogen breath, or multiple ones. Both
tests use similar tools, both can estimate functional residual capacity and the degree of non uniformity of gas
distribution in the lungs, but the multiple-breath
multiple test more accurately measures absolute lung volumes

24. What is Fick’ s Principle? Give its advantages.(Nov/Dec 2014)

The Fick‟s‟s method is based on the determination of cardiac output by the analysis of the gas keeping of the
organism. Thus the cardiac output can be calculated by continuously infusing oxygen in to the the blood or removing it
from the blood and measuring the amount of the oxygen in the blood before and after its [Link] method is
complicated, difficult to repeat, necessitates catheterization, it is practiced at some places.

25. Define cardiac output. Find the cardiac output of a person if his heart rate is 72 BPM and stoke
volume is 70ml. (Nov/Dec 2014)
Cardiac output is the amount of blood delivered by the heart to aorta per minute.

26. What are the components of Blood? (May/June 2013)

The components of blood include:
Red blood cells, White blood cells, Platelets, and Plasma.
27. If systolic and diastolic blood pressures are given as 110mmHg and 82 mm Hg . Calculate mean
arterial Pressure.(Nov/Dec 2013)
MAP = 1/3(systolic – diastolic) + diastolic
MAP = 1/3(110-82) + 82 = 36.66 mm Hg.
28. Mention the basic principle behind electrochemical pH determination.(Nov/Dec 2013)
The Principle is illustrated as below. Inside the glass bulb is a highly acidic buffer solution. Measurement
of the potential across the glass interface is achieved by placing a silver-
silver Silver chloride electrode in the solution
inside the glass bulb and a calomel or silver – silver chloride reference electrode in the solution in which the pH is
being measured.
29. What is an auto Analyzingr? What are the essential units in it? (Nov/Dec 2012)(May/June 2010)
Auto Analyzingr is used to measure blood chemistry and display on a graphic recorder.

30. Give the typical values of blood pressure and pulse rate of an adult.(Nov/Dec 2012)
Blood Pressure: 120/80 mmHg
Pulse Rate : 60 to 80 bpm
31. Mention the applications of auto Analyzingr?(Nov/Dec 2010)
1. Clinical analysis – Determine levels of albumin, alkaline phosphates, aspartate transaminase(AST),
blood urea nitrogen ,bilirubin ,calcium ,cholesterol ,creatinine , glucose , inorganic phosphorus ,
proteins and uric acid in blood serum or other bodily samples.
2. Industrial analysis – Mainly for water ,soil extracts and fertilizer.
32. Calculate the stroke volume in millilitres if the cardiac output is 5.2 litres/minute and heart rate is
76 beats/minute?(Nov/Dec 2009)
Cardiac output(ml/min) = Heart rate (beat/min)* Stroke Volume (ml/beat)
Stroke Volume = 5200/76 = 68.42 ml/beat
33. Define cardiac output. Find the cardiac output of a person if his heart rate is 70BPM and stroke
volume is 70ml.(May/June 2016)
Cardiac output is the amount of blood delivered by the heart to aorta per minute.
 34. What are the different types of test performed using auto Analyzingr?(May/June 2016)
1. Pipetting [Link] [Link]
35. What is blood pressure state the normal values of blood pressure(june 2017)
The sphygmomanometer consists of (i) an inflatable rubber bladder called the “cuff”,
(ii) a rubber squeeze ball pump and valve assembly and (iii) a manometer
36. State the different types of test performed using auto analyser(june 2017)
An automated analyser is a medical laboratory instrument designed to measure different chemicals and other
characteristics in a number of biological samples quickly, with minimal human assistance
37. Define cardiac output(dec 2016)
Cardiac output is the quantity of blood delivered by the heart to the aorta per minutes. It is amajor determinant of
oxygen delivery to the tissues.
38. Stae beer’s law(dec 2016)
If the path length or concentration increases, the transmittance decreases andabsorbance increases
Absorbtivity related to the nature of the A=aCL absorbing substance and opticalwavelength (known for a standard
solutionconcentration).
C: Concentration
L: Cuvette path length
39. Define cardiac output find the cardiac output of person if his heart beat rate is 70 BPM and stroke
volume is 70 ml(june 2016)
Cardiac output is the product of two variables, stroke volume and heart beat. Heartbeat is simply a count of the
number of times a heart beats per minute. Stroke volume is the amount of blood circulated by the heart with each
beat. The formula for this is expressed as CO = SV x HR.
CO=70*70=4900
40. Sate the different types of test performed using auto analyser(june 2016)
An automated analyser is a medical laboratory instrument designed to measure different chemicals and other
characteristics in a number of biological samples quickly, with minimal human assistance

PART B & C

1. a) i) Discuss the working principle of a colorimeter with a neat block Diagram.

ii) How will you measure blood pressure using Sphygmomanometer? (May/June 2007)(April/May
2015)(Nov/Dec 2015)(May/June 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-286 & Notes.
2. a) i) Explain the working principle of a electromagnetic type blood flow Meter.(April/May 2015)
ii) Define Cardiac output .Discuss a technique to determine cardiac Output.
(May/June 2007) (Apr/May 2012)(Nov/Dec 2011)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-237 &246-253.

3. a) i) Explain the working principle of a electromagnetic type blood flow Meter.(May/June 2016)
ii) Describe the operation of a blood cell counter. (April/ May 2008)(Nov/Dec 2014)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 233-237 & 274-277.
4. a) i) Define the terms : residual volume , tidal volume ,vital capacity and Total lung capacity.
ii)Discuss Fick‟s method for determining cardiac output. (April/ May 2008)(May/June 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]&246-247.
5. a) Describe the measurement of pH in blood.(Nov/Dec2011)(May/June 2016)
b) Explain the following : Auto Analyzingr(May/June 2014)(may/June 2012)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-267 &Notes.
 6. Draw a block diagram of ultrasonic blood flow meter .Explain the method of measuring the velocity of
blood flow using (i) Transit time principle (2) Doppler effect.(Apr/May 2011)
(Nov/Dec2007)(May/June 2013)(Nov/Dec 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-244.
7. Explain the function of a human respiratory system and the possible measurement and inferences made out
of them.(Nov/Dec 2015)(Nov/Dec 2014)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link].
8. A) (i) Describe the measurement of PH of blood using pH meter (8) (may/june 2016)
(ii)Explain the meseremeent of respiration rate using impedencetechinique.(8) (may/june 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 208,211
9. (i) state and explain the working principal of electromagnetic blood flow meter.
(ii) describe the working of coulter counter. (may/june 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 200
10. a) With suitable diagram describe how ultra sound principles are used in measuring the flow of blood?(16)
(Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 206
11. (i)Define blood pressure how it can be measured using sphygmomanometer?(8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
(ii)How the lungs volume can be measured ? explain with necessary diagram.(8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation , Notes
12. A) (i) Deacribe the measurement of PO2 (8) (may/june 2017)
(ii)Explain the block diagram and working of colorimeter.(8) (may/june 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 204,215
13. (i) Define the term cardiac output how is cardiac output measured by dye diluation
technique? Explain(may/june 2017)
(ii) describe the working principal of electromagnetic blood flow meter. (may/june 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 230,222

UNIT-3 – ASSIST DEVICES

PART A
1. What is meant by Bradycardia and Tachycardia? (May/June 2015)
The normal value of heart rate lies in the range of 60 to 100 beats per minute. A slower rate than this is
called asBradycardia (Slow rate) and a higher rate, Tachycardia (fast heart).
2. When does the need for pacemaker arise? What is its function? (Nov/Dec 2015)
In cardiac diseases, where the ventricular rate is too low, it can be increased to normal rate by using
pacemakers. The various arrhythmias ( rhythm disturbance) that result in heart block and Adams stokes attacks
represent a serious pathological condition. During that time, the patient becomes invalid because of the constant risk
of sudden losing consciousness. By fixing the artificial electronic pacemakers, the above defects in the heart can be
eliminated.
3. List the typical ranges of pacemaker parameters. (Nov/Dec 2014)
Pulse rate - 25-155pulses per minute
Pulse width - 0.1-2.3 ms
Pulse amplitude - 2.5-10 volts
Battery capacity - 0.44-3.2amp-hours
Longevity - 3.5-18 years
End-of-life indicator - 2-10%drop in pulse rate
Weight - 33-98 grams
Size - 22-80cm3
Encapsulization - Silicon rubber, Stainless steel, titanium
4. What are pacemakers?(May/June 2013)
Pacemaker is an electrical pulse generator for starting and maintaining the normal heart beat.
 5. What is meant by demand pacemaker?( Nov/Dec 2013)
If the R wave is missing for a preset period of time, the pace will supply a stimulus. Therefore if the heart
rate falls below a pre- determined minimum the pacemaker will turn on and provide the heart a stimulus. For this
reason it is called as Demand Pacemaker.
6. What are the batteries used for implantable pacemakers.(Nov/Dec 2012)
The batteries used for implantable pacemakers are
1. Mercury cells
2. Lithium cells
3. Rechargeable cells
4. Nuclear cells
5. Bio Fuel cells
6. Bio Mechanical power generation sources.
7. What is meant by Fibrillation?(May/June 2010)(May/June 2009)
The heart is able to perform its important pumping function only through precisely synchronized action of
the heart muscle fibers. The rapid spread of action potential over the surface of the atria causes these two chambers
of the heart to contract together and pump blood through the two atrio ventricular values in to the ventricles. After a
critical time delay the powerful ventricular muscles are synchronously activated to pump blood through the
pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems. A condition in which this necessary synchronism is lost is known as
Fibrillation.
8. Calculate the energy stored in 16µ F capacitor of a DC defibrillator that is charged to a potential of
5000 V dc.(Nov/Dec 2009)
Energy stored (E) = ½ C V2
E= ½ *16*10-6 * 5000 *5000 = 200 Joules.
9. Why should a patient susceptible to ‘ventricular fibrillation’ be watched continuously?
Ventricular fibrillation is far more dangerous, for under this condition the ventricles are unable to pump
blood and if the fibrillation is not corrected death will usually occurs with in a few minutes. So patient
should be watched continuously.

10. Distinguish between internal pacemakers and external pacemakers.(April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008)
(May/June 2007)
[Link] External Pacemaker Internal Pacemaker

1. The pacemaker is placed outside the body The pacemaker is miniaturized and is surgically implanted
beneath the skin near the chest or abdomen with its output
leads are connected directly to the heart muscle.

2. The electrodes are called endocardiac The electrodes are called myocardiac electrodes and are in
electrodes and are in contact with the inner contact with the outer wall of the heart muscle.
surface of the heart chambers

3. It does not required open chest surgery It requires an open chest minor surgery to place the circuit

4. The battery can be easily replaced The battery can be replaced only by minor surgery

5. During placement, swelling and pain do During placement, swelling and pain arise due to minimum
not arise due to minimum foreign body foreign body reaction.
reaction.

6. No safety for the pacemaker Cent percent safety for the pacemaker

7. Mostly used for temporary heart Mostly used for permanent heart damages
irregularities
 12. Classify pacing modes. (NOV/DEC 2007)

Competitive mode Asynchronous mode

Pacing modes ( fixed rate)
Non competitive mode
Ventricular programmed Atrial programmed

Demand mode Standby mode Synchronous mode

(R-wave inhibited) (R-wave triggered) (P-wave)
13. What is Defibrillator? State its use. (Nov/Dec 2007)
A Defibrillator is an electronic device that Creatings a sustained myocardial depolarization of a patient‟s
patient heart in
order to stop ventricular fibrillation (or) atrial fibrillation .The instrument for administering the electric shock is
called as defibrillator.
1. The method of defibrillation is the application of an electric shock to the area of the heart.
2. Defibrillators are also used to convert other potentially dangerous arrhythmias to one that is easily
managed – CARDIO VERSION.
3. Defibrillator discharge may used to convert a tachycardia (fast heart) arrhythmia to a normal rhythm.

14. Draw the circuit of DC Defibrillator and give its output specification. (Apr/May2011(May/June
2012)(May/June 2014)

15. What is heart – Lung Machine?

During open heart surgery for installation of a valve prosthesis or correction of a congenital mal formation,
the heart cannot maintain the circulation. It is then necessary to provide extra-
extra corporeal circulation with a special
machine called Heart – Lung Machine .
16. What is Systole and Diastole?
Systole is the period of contraction of the ventricular muscles during that time blood is pumped in to the
pulmonary artery and the aorta. Diastole is the period of dilation of the heart chambers as they fill with blood.

17. What are the types of oxygenators?

They are four types of oxygenators. They are
1. Bubble oxygenators
2. Film oxygenators
3. Membrane oxygenators
4. Liquid – Liquid oxygenators
18. Define dialysis.
Dialysis is a process by which the waste products in the blood are removed and restoration of normal pH
value of the blood is obtained by an artificial kidney machine.
 19. Compare Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis?
[Link] Hemodialysis Peritoneal dialysis
1. In this procedure, blood is purified by an The peritoneal cavity in our body is used as a semi
artificial kidney machine called permeable membrane and by passing the
Hemodialysis in which the blood is taken dialysate into it waste products are removed from
out from the body and waste products the blood by diffusion.
diffuse through a semi permeable
membrane which is continuously rinsed by
a dialyzing solution or dialysate.
2. More effective to separate the waste Less effective
products
3. Technically complex and risk one because Simple and risk free
the blood is taken out from the body.
4. Dialyzing time is about 3 to 6 hours Dialyzing time is about 9 to 12 hours
.
20. What are the three physical processes used in dialysis?
The three physical process used in dialysis are i) Diffusion ii) Osmosis iii) Ultra filtration.
21. What are the two types of procedures for doing dialysis?
The two types of procedures for doing dialysis
1. Hemodialysis
2. Peritoneal dialysis
22. Which type of electrode is applied in the case of external stimulation and what is the current range?
The paddle shaped electrodes are applied on the surface of the chest and the current range is 20 -150 mA

23. Which types of electrodes are used in internal stimulation and what is the current range?
The electrodes in the form of fine wires of Teflon coated stainless steel , spoon like electrodes are used
.The current range in 2 -15 mA
24. What is external stimulation employed?
The external stimulation is employed to restart the normal rhythm of the heart in case of cardiac stand still.

25. What is internal stimulation employed?

Internal stimulation is employed in cases requiring long term pacing because of permanent damage that
prevents normal self triggering of heart.
26. What are the modes of operation of pacemakers?
The modes of operation of pacemakers are
1. Ventricular asynchronous pacemaker(Fixed rate pacemaker)
2. Ventricular synchronous pacemaker
3. Ventricular inhibited pacemaker(Demand pacemaker)
4. Atrial synchronous pacemaker
5. Atrial sequential ventricular inhibited pacemaker
27. What are the types of defibrillator?
The types of defibrillator are
1. A.C Defibrillator
2. D.C Defibrillator
3. Synchronized D.C Defibrillator
4. Square Pulse D.C Defibrillator
5. Double Square Pulse Defibrillator
6. Biphasic D.C Defibrillator
28. Why are asynchronous pacemakers no longer used?(May/June 2016)
A synchronous pacing is called competitive pacing because the fixed rate impulses may occurs along with natural
pacing impulses and would therefore in competition with them in controlling the heart rate.
 29. When do you need heart lung machine?(May/June 2016)
During open heart surgery for installation of a valve prosthesis or correction of a congenital mal formation, the heart
cannot maintain the circulation .It is then necessary to provide extra-corporeal circulation with a special machine
called heart lung machine.
30. What is the systolic and diastolic pressure of Aorta?
Systolic Pressure/Diastolic pressure: 130/75
31. What is the systolic and diastolic pressure of different areas of heart?
Left Ventricle: 130/5
Right Ventricle: 25/0
Left Atrium: 9/5
Right Atrium: 3/0
32. Differentiate internal and external defibrillator(june 2017)
Momentary application of strong electrical stimulus to bring all the cardiac cells simultaneously into a refractory
period thereby arresting their irregular, uncoordinated twitching is known as defibrillation. Types: (i) ac
defibrillation & (ii) dc defibrillation.
The ac defibrillation: A brief (0.25 to 1 sec) burst of 60 Hz ac at an intensity of 6 A is applied to the chest of the
patient. As an attempt to correct the atrial fibrillation using ac often results in even more serious ventricular
fibrillation, ac defibrillation is no longer used.
The dc defibrillation: Several volts of dc is momentarily applied across or through the chest – only fewer repetitions
are required to correct ventricular fibrillation so less harm than ac defibrillation – successful in correcting atrial
fibrillation.
33. What is dialyasate mentation its composition (june 2017)
themake up of dialysate or the dialysis 'bath', is: sodium chloride, sodim bicarbonate or sodium acetate, calcium
chloride, potassium chloride, and magnesium chloride. This is the general composition of dialysate, but other
compounds such as glucose may also be included.
34. Distinguish between endocardiac and myocrdiac electrodes. (dec 2016)
The endocardial approach (Fig. 2) is to place electrodes at the apex of the right ventricle via any suitable superficial
vein above the diaphragm. This may include use of either the external or the internal jugular, the cephalic, or the
subclavian vein. It is not advisable to use any veins below the diaphragm for long-term endocardial stimulation. The
cephalic and the subclavian are the most desirable veins in as much as they avoid "draping" the electrode catheters
over the clavicle. As a practical matter it is wise, when surgically preparing the patient, that the entire side of the
chest and neck on the side to be employed be made available for a surgical field.

35. Mention few difference between internal and external defibrillator(dec 2016)
EXTERNAL DEFIBRILLATOR:
A unit based on computer technology and designed to Analyzing the heart rhythm itself, and then advise whether a
shock is required. It is designed to be used by lay persons, who require little training. It is usually limited in their
interventions to delivering high joule shocks for VF and VT rhythms
36. Why are asynchronous pacemaker no longer used? (june 2016)
Heart beat rate cannot be changed. If it is fixed in atrium, atrium beat at a fixed rate. If ventricle beat at a different
rate, and then it leads to a severe problem. Ventricular fibrillation may be occurred.
37. When do you need heart lungs machine? (june 2016)
A machine that does the work both of the heart and of the lungs: pumping and oxygenating blood. Blood returning
to the heart is diverted through a heart-lung machine before being returned to arterial circulation. Such machines
may be used during open-heart surgery. Also known as pump-oxygenator or cardiopulmonary bypass machine.

PART B & C

1. Discuss with suitable block diagram the different modes of operation of Cardiac pacemakers.
(Nov/ Dec 2008)(Apr/May 2011 & 2012) (Nov/Dec 2011)(Nov/Dec 2012)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-175.
2. a) i) What is defibrillator? ii) Distinguish between Internal and External Defibrillator.
iii) With block diagram describe the operation of synchronized D.C Defibrillator.
(Nov/ Dec 2008) (Apr/May 2011)(April/May2015)(Nov/Dec 2015)(Nov/Dec 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-186 &190-193.
3. Explain the operation of Dialyzer with a neat sketch.(May/June 2016)
 Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link].
4. Explain the operation of Heart – Ling machine with a neat sketch.
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link].
5. Discuss with suitable block diagram of atria and ventricle Cardiac pacemakers.
(Nov/ Dec 2008)(Apr/May 2011 & 2012) (Nov/Dec 2011)(Nov/Dec 2012)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-175
6. With block diagram describe the operation of D.C Defibrillator.(Nov/Dec 2015)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-186 &190-193.
7. A (i) With a neat diagram explain the block diagram of arterial and ventricular triggered pacemaker.(16)
(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 210
8. Explain in detail the principal and diagram working of hacmodialyser.(16) (May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 285
9. a)How pacemakers are classified based on the modes of operation draw the block
diagram of stand by and demand pacemakers and explain its working principle.(16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 260
10. Enumerate the following oxygenators peritionial dialysis(8+8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 243
11. A) (i) With a neat diagram explain the block diagram of DC defibrillator.(8)
(ii) Describe the working of atrial synchronous pacemaker. (8) (May/June 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 206, 241
12. Explain in detail the different types of oxygenators and pumps used in heart lung machine.(16) (May/June
2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 228

UNIT-4 – PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND BIO TELEMETRY

PART A

1. Write the physiological effects of electricity.(April/May 2015)

Type of Current Current range (mA) Physiological effect
Threshold 1-5 Tingling Sensation
Pain 5-8 Intense or painful sensation
Let-go 8-20 Threshold of involuntary muscle contraction
Paralysis >20 Respiratory paralysis and pain
Fibrillation 80-1000 Ventricular and heart fibrillation
Defibrillation 1000-10000 Sustained myocardial contraction, temporary
respiratory paralysis and possible tissue burns

2. What is the principle of diathermy? (Nov/Dec 2015)(Nov/Dec 2014)

High frequency currents ,apart from their usefulness for therapeutic applications , can also be used in operating
rooms for surgical purposes involving cutting and coagulation .The frequency of current used in surgical diathermy
units is in the range of 1-3MHz in contrast with much higher frequencies employed in short – wave therapeutic
diathermy machines.
3. Mention the situations which account for hazards from electric shock.(May/June 2014)
Many devices have a metal chassis and cabinet that can be touched by the medical attendants and
patient. If they are not grounded, then short circuit leads to micro or macro shock. Other situations which may
be hazards is due to
➢ Leakage currents
➢ Static electricity
➢ Interruption of power
➢ Unequal ground potential
➢ Broken ground wire, etc.,
 4. Can pain be relieved through electrical stimulation? What is the equipment used for it?(May/June
2014)
Yes pain can be relieved through electrical [Link] equipment used for it is Transcutaneous
Electrical Nerve Stimulator (TENS).
5. Define Let-go current. (Apr/ May 2008)(Nov/Dec2011) (Apr/May 2012)
Let-go current is the minimum current to produce muscular contraction. Let-go current for men is about 16
mA and for women is about 10.5 mA.
6. Distinguish between Micro shock and Macro shock. (Nov/Dec2007)(Nov/Dec2009) (Apr/May
2011)(Nov/Dec 2014)(May/June 2013)

MICRO SHOCK MACRO SHOCK

A physiological response to a current A physiological response to a current
applied to the surface of the heart that results applied to the surface of the body that
in unwanted stimulation like muscle produces unwanted or unnecessary
contraction or tissue injury is called Micro stimulation like muscle contraction or
shock. tissue injury is called Macro shock.

7. What is diathermy? List its types. (Nov/Dec 2007) (Apr/May2010)(May/June 2010)

Diathermy is the treatment process by which cutting, coagulation, etc., of tissues are obtained.
The various types are:
1. Surgical diathermy
2. Short wave diathermy
3. Microwave diathermy
4. Ultrasonic diathermy
8. What are the electrical safety methods used in hospitals? (Nov /Dec 2010)(May/June 2016)
The electrical safety methods used in hospitals
1. Proper grounding of equipment.
2. Double insulation
3. Protection by Low voltage
4. Ground Fault Interrupter
5. Isolation Transformer.
9. How electrical hazards do occurs due to medical equipments? (Nov /Dec 2010)
One of the main hazards connected with the use of medical equipment is electrical shock.
10. What is the use of ultrasonic diathermy?(Nov/Dec 2011)
It is used for curing the diseases of peripheral nervous system, skeletal muscle system and skin ulcers.
11. What is tele- stimulation?(Nov/Dec2011)(Nov/Dec 2014)
Tele-stimulation is the measurement of biological signals over long distance. Tele- stimulation refers to
study of diseases by stimulating into animals without killing them and to monitor them by receiving their bio –
signals.
12. List the application of Bio- Telemetry.(Apr/May2011)(May/June 2013)
The application of Bio- Telemetry
1. Monitoring ECG even under ergonomic conditions
2. Monitoring the health of astronauts in space
3. Patient Monitoring in an ambulance and other locations away from hospital
4. Research on anaesthetized animals.
13. List out any six bioelectric and physiological variables adaptable for biotelemetry Measurements

Bioelectric variables---ECG, EEG, EMG and Physiological variables---blood pressure, gastrointestinal

pressure, blood flow, temperature.
14. What is radio pill?(Apr/May2012)(April/May 2015)(May/June 2010)(Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec
2009)(May/June 2016)
Radio pill is used to monitor stomach pressure or pH. A pill consisting of a sensor and miniature
transmitter is swallowed and the data are picked up by a receiver and recorded
 15. List out the advantages of a Bio-telemetry
Bio system.(May/June 2007) (May/June 2009)
The advantages of a Bio-telemetry
telemetry system
● Bio-telemetry helps us to record the bio-signals over long periods and while the patient is engaged in
his normal activities.
● Computer or the medical attendants can easily diagnosis the nature of disease by seeing the telemetric
bio-signals without attending the patient‟s room.
● Patient is in his room without any mechanical (or) physical disturbance during recording by means of
Bio-telemetry
● For future reference (or) to study the treatment effect, the bio-telemetry is the essential one.
● For recording on animals, particularly for research, the bio-telemetry is greatly used.
● For monitoring the person who is in action, the bio-telemetry is an ideal one.
16. Explain the principle of tele--stimulation. (Apr/May 2008)
Tele-stimulation is the measurement of biological signals over long distance.
17. Draw the block diagram of a Bio – Telemetry system. (Nov/Dec 2008)

Biological Transducer Conditione Transmission Read-out

Signal r Link Devices

18. What care must be taken while measuring responses to electrical stimulation?
The care must be taken while measuring responses to electrical stimulation
1. Proper Grounding
2. Protection is provided by removing the power from the defective
3. Device by tripping the circuit breaker.
19. What is meant by single channel telemetry?(Nov/Dec 2015)
For a single channel system, a miniature battery operated radio transmitter is connected to the electrodes of
the patients. This transmitter broadcasts the bio potential over a limited range to a remotely located receiver, which
detects the Radio signals and recovers the signals for further processing.
20. List the two types of multiplexing involved in multi channel wireless telemetry?(Nov/Dec 2013)
The two types of multiplexing involved in multi channel wireless telemetry are
1. Time division Multiplexing
2. Frequency division Multiplexing
21. What are the precaution necessary to avoid micro shock?(Nov/Dec 2013)
1. In the vicinity of the patient, use only apparatus or appliances with three-wire power cords.
2. Provide isolated input circuits on monitoring equipment
22. Specify the frequencies used for biotelemetry?(Nov/Dec 2012)
The frequencies used for biotelemetry are of the order of 37,102,153,159,220 and 450MHz.
23. Give the types and frequencies of operation of diathermy units.(Nov/Dec 2012)
The types and frequencies of operation of diathermy units are
1. Fulguration -100Hz
2. Deciccation-100Hz
3. Electrotomy-500Hz
4. Coagulation-250Hz
5. Blending-500Hz
24. Name the instrument needed for a bio-telemetry system.(Nov/Dec 2010)
The instruments needed for a bio-telemetry
bio system are
1. Tunnel Diode FM transmitter
2. Hartley type FM transmitter
3. Radio Telemetry with a sub-carrier
sub
4. Pulsed Hartley oscillator
25. What is use of high frequency current in diathermy?
The use of high frequency current is to avoid the intense muscle activity and the electrocution hazard
which occurs if low frequencies are used.
 26. Where is ultra sonic diathermy used?
Ultra sonic diathermy is used where short wave treatment is failed and in cases where localization of the
heart effect is desired.
27. Name few diseases that can be cured by ultrasonic diathermy?
The few diseases that can be cured by ultrasonic diathermy are
1. Neurits
2. Arthritis
3. Skin ulcers.
28. What are the factors of leakage current flow?
The factors of leakage current flow are
1. Ungrounded equipment
2. Broken ground wire
3. Unequal ground potential
29. What are the two divisions in patient monitoring systems?
The two divisions in patient monitoring systems are
1. Intensive care unit
2. Intermediate coronary care unit
30. What is the purpose of patient monitoring system?
The purpose of patient monitoring system is to follow the patient condition carefully by repeated
measurement of many variables.
31. Define desiccation and haemostasis(june 2017)
Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. A desiccant is a hygroscopic
(attracts and holds water) substance that induces or sustains such a state in its local vicinity in a
moderately sealed container
Hemostasis or haemostasis is a process which causes bleeding to stop, meaning to keep blood within a
damaged blood vessel (the opposite of hemostasis is hemorrhage). It is the first stage of wound healing.
This involves coagulation, blood changing from a liquid to a gel
32. List the applications of biotelemetry(june 2017)
Motorracing Agriculture Water Management Rocketry Flight Test
33. What are the choices of radio carrier frequency for medical telemetry purposes
Use and Outcomes of Telemetry Monitoring on a Medicine Service. Telemetry is a powerful tool for real-
time monitoring of a patient's heart rhythm and QRS pattern. Beds with telemetry monitoring are limited
and expensive in most institutions; therefore, the use of this resource would ideally be evidence based.
(dec 2016)
34. Define let go current. (dec 2016)
The "Let Go" Threshold is the current level where we lose control of our muscles and the electricity
causes muscles to contract until the current is removed
35. List the devices used to safeguard against electrical hazards(june 2016)
Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI)
Line Isolation Monitor (LIM)
Safety Analyzingr
Receptacle Tester
36. Which is radio pill mentaion the application of radio pill(june 2016)
It contains transducer sensitive to pH, temperature and pressure. It is used for telemetering continuous
informations about one or various variables from lumen of the gut. Temperaturesensitive pills are
designed by the medical research council‟s bioengineering lab.

PART B & C
1. Explain working principle of a diathermy unit with a neat block diagram. (April/May2015) (May/June
2014)(May/June 2013)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]

2. a) i) Explain in detail the components of a Bio –telemetry system.(Nov/Dec 2015)

ii) Discuss the various applications of telemetry in patient care.(April/ May 2008)
 Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]&320.

3. a) i) Explain the physiological effects of electric current at 50Hz. (May/June 2016)

ii) With reference to electrical safety explain (Nov/Dec 2015)
a) Ground fault circuit interrupter(Apr/May 2011)
b) Protection by low voltage (Nov/Dec 2007)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 329

4. Explain the single channel and multi channel bio telemetry system with neat diagram.(April/May
2015)(Nov/Dec 2014)(May/June 2013)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 312

5. Write short notes on frequency selection for telemetry applications. (May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 313

6. Explain working principle of a surgical diathermy unit with a neat block diagram. (April/May2015)
(May/June 2014)(May/June 2013)(May/June 2016)
7. Briefly explain about the electrical safety Instrumentation.
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-340.

8. A) (i) Explain the working and application techniques of short wave diathermy(10) (May/June 2016)
(ii) Discuss the different operation performed using surgical diathermy treatment.(6) (May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 284, 291

9. B) (i) Describe the physiological effect of electricity on humans(8) (May/June 2016)

(ii) write a short notes on frequency selection for telemetry applications .(8) (May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 290, 312

10. a) Define diathermy draw the circuit diagram of a short wave diathermy unit and discuss its impact on
therapy purpose in details also brief describe how its can be applied to human subjects(16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 273

11. (i) Explain the working of ground fault interrupter(8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
(ii) With suitable diagram explain how ECG signal can be transmitted using single channel telemetry
system.(8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam , notes

12. A) (i) Explain the simplified circuit diagram of a microwave diathermy machine(10) (May/June 2017)
(ii) Discuss the different methods of applying electrodes in shortwave diathermy treatment.(6) (May/June
2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 261, 242
13. (i) Describe the single channel ECG telemetry system(8) (May/June 2017)
(ii) briefly discuss about micro and macro shocks.(8) (May/June 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .,notes
 UNIT-5 – RECENT TRENDS IN MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
PART A

1. List the parts of endoscope unit.(May/June 2013)

The parts of endoscope unit are:
1. High power argon laser
2. Partial beam splitter
3. Power meter and heat sink
4. Lens system
5. Micropositioner
6. Encapsulated quartz fibreguide
7. Endoscope
8. Synchronous filter shutter
9. Firing control and timing unit
2. Name the laser commonly used for ophthalmic application. Why? (April/May 2015)
The Laser commonly used for ophthalmic application is Argon ion Laser and Nd-YAG Laser. Argon ion
laser which emits blue green light that is readily absorbed by the blood are preferred for photocoagulation of small
blood vessels in the eye.
3. Bring out the clinical applications of endoscopy?(Nov/Dec 2015)
Type Range of Use Diagnostic problem

1. Bronchoscope Trachea larger airways Foreign bodies infections, aspiration of mucus,

2. Cardioscope Heart cavities valvular defects and septal defect

3. Laparoscope Abdominal cavity Tumors, family planning operation

4. Cystoscope Urinary bladder Tumors ,inflammation,stones.

4. Mammograms are used for what purposes?(May/June 2014)

A mammogram is a low dose x-ray exam of the breast that is used to detect and evaluate breast changes (or) breast
cancer. It is used to aid in the early detection and diagnosis of breast diseases in women.
5. List out the properties of LASER. (May/June 2007)
The properties of LASER are
1. Laser light is highly coherent
2. Laser is highly powerful
3. It is also directional and monochromatic
4. It is capable of propagation over long distance
5. It is extremely bright
6. Laser beams are not easily absorbed by the water.
6. What is Thermograph? State its applications. (Nov/Dec 2008)(May/June 2009)
(Apr/May2010)(May/June 2012)(Nov/Dec 2015)
Thermograph is the process of recording true thermal images of the surfaces of objects under study. In
medicine, Thermograph displays images representing the thermal radiation of skin areas.
Application: 1. It is important diagnostic aid in Breast cancers
2. Rheumatic diseases or joint diseases.
3. Tumors
4. Collagen and Orthopedic diseases
5. Examination of placenta attachment
6. Harmone, Brain and Nervous diseases.
7. What are the functions of endoscopy unit?(Nov/Dec 2008)
Endoscope is a tubular optical instrument to inspect or view the body cavities which are not visible to the
naked eye normally. The endoscope is so designed for easy sterilization. In the endoscope, at the object end there is
an assembly of objective lens and prism and at the viewing end, there is an eye lens. Endoscopic pictures can be
recorded with color film and video tape recorder.
 8. Mention the advantages of performing surgery using LASER. (Apr/ May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2009)
1. Highly sterile
2. Highly localized and precise
3. Noncontact surgery
4. Dry – field ,almost bloodless surgery
9. Which laser is used for surgery? (Apr/May 2011)
LASER is used for surgery are : Argon Iron, CO2 and Nd-YAG laser.
10. Mention the application of LASER in ophthalmology.(Nov/Dec 2012)
1. Photocoagulation of retinal bleeding
2. Retinal Reattachment
3. Iridectmies
4. Glaucoma
5. Senile macular degeneration
6. Lens capsule surgery
11. What type of LASERs are used for patient treatment?(May/June 2009)
The types of LASERs used for patient treatment are
1. Pulsed Nd-Yag Laser
2. Continuous Wave CO2 Laser
3. Continuous Wave Argon ion Laser
12. What is Telemedicine?
Telemedicine is the application of telecommunication and computer technology to deliver health care from
one location to another.
13. State the application of Telemedicine. (May/Jun 2016)
The applications of Telemedicine are
1. Tele-radiology – Radiological images like X-ray , CT or MRI Scan etc
2. Tele-pathology- microscopic images of pathology slides and biopsy reports
3. Tele-cardiology – Transmission of ECG , Echo ,Color Doppler
4. Tele-education – Delivery of medical education programmes to the physicians
14. What are essential parameters for Telemedicine?
The essential parameters for telemedicine relating to a patient are
1. Primary patient data
2. Patient History
3. Clinical Information
4. Investigation
5. Data and Reports
15. Name the technologies used in telemedicine.
The technologies used in telemedicine are :
1. Transmission of Medical Images
2. Transmission of Video Images
3. Transmission of digital Audio
4. Video Conferencing
5. Digital Communication Systems
6. Telemedicine using Mobile Communication
7. Use of Internet resources for telemedicine
16. Name some uses of CO2 Laser in surgery?
The CO2 Laser are used for the distruction of tumors by coagulation whereas CO2 Laser functions as a
nonmaterial, light knife for performing tissues incisions and tumor nodule excisions.
17. Mention few advantages of Laser Surgery.
The advantages of Laser Surgery are
1. Highly sterile
2. Highly localized and precise
3. Non Contact Surgery
4. Dry-Field ,almost bloodless surgery
5. Short periods of surgical time.
 18. What are the diseases that can be diagnosed by thermograph?
Thermograph is an important diagnostic in many diseases especially in breast cancers in rheumatic diseases
or joint diseases.
19. What are the classifications of thermograph?
The classifications of thermograph
1. Infrared thermograph
2. Liquid crystal thermograph
3. Microwave thermograph
20. What are the characteristics of good thermograph equipment?
The characteristics of good thermograph equipment
1. Short frame time
2. High resolution
3. A small size and light weight optical head
4. Absolute temperature can be measureable
21. List out the factors of photo physical event that depends on?
The factors of photo physical event that depends on
1. Wavelength of Laser
2. Energy density
3. Pulse duration
4. Irradiation time
5. Absorption characteristics of target molecule
22. List out the four photo biological Laser processes.
The four photo biological Laser processes are
1. Photo chemical processes
2. Thermal processes
3. Photoablative processes
4. Electromechanical processes
23. Name the type of LASER used in Photo chemical processes.
The LASER used in Photo chemical processes are He-Ne .Nd-YAG.
24. Name the type of LASER used in Photo thermal processes.
The LASER used in Photo Thermal processes are CO2 andNd-YAG.
25. Name the type of LASER used in Electro mechanical processes.
The LASER used in Electro mechanical processes are Nd-YAG.
26. List the types of pumping sources used in LASER. (May/June 2016)
Stimulated Emission
27. What is LASER?
LASER is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
28. On What factor LASER action depends?
LASER action depends upon the phenomenon of stimulated emission.
29. On what properties LASER is determined?
1. The gain of the medium
2. The pumping Mechanism
3. The resonator design
30. What is cryogenic surgery?
It is based on the development of heat at the operating site during irradiation. Tissues are killed when their
temperature is below 20 degree [Link] the tissue are at 20 degree C ,there is no formation of ice crystals
and increase of salt concentration within the cells. Thus necrosis of the tissue takes place. This method of
killing diseased cells is called as cryogenic surgery which is painless and it is taking place without blood
shedding.
31. What makes thermograph useful? (june 2017)
● Get a visual picture so that you can compare temperatures over a large area
● It is real time capable of catching moving targets
● Able to find deteriorating components prior to failure
● Measurement in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other methods
● It is a non-destructive test method
32. List the properties of laser beam(june 2017)
Characteristics of Laser Light
A laser generates a beam of very intense light. Laser light has three distinct characteristics that distinguish it from
ordinary light: Laser light is:
Collimated
Monochromatic
Coherent
33. Define the physical factors which affect the amount of infrared radiation from human body(dec 2016)
All objects, including human bodies, emit electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength of radiation emitted depends
on the temperature of the objects. Such radiation is sometimes called thermal radiation. Most of the radiation
emitted by human body is in the infrared region, mainly at the wavelength of 12 micron.
34. Mentation few applications of lasers in medicine(dec 2016)
Angioplasty cancer diagnosis cancer treatment cosmetic dermatology such as scar revision, skin resurfacing, laser
hair removal, tattoo removal dermatology to treat melanoma frenectomy lithotripsy laser mammography medical
imaging microscopy ophthalmology (includes Lasik and laser photocoagulation) optical coherence tomography
optogenetics prostatectomy plastic surgery, in laser liposuction surgery to ablate and cauterize issue
35. Sate the application of telemedicine(june 2016)
Telemedicine is the use of telecommunication and information technology to provide clinical health care from a
distance. It has been used to overcome distance barriers and to improve access to medical services that would often
not be consistently available in distant rural communities.
Blood Pressure
Interstitial Fluid Pressure (IFP)
Pressure-Volume Loop Studies
Telemetry Biopotential
Telemetry Pressure and Biopotential
Specialized Telemetry
36. List the types of pumping sources used in LASER(june 2016)
Optical pumping · Pumping cavities · Flashlamp pumping · External laser pumping

PART B & C
1. a) Discuss working principle of an infrared thermo graphic equipment. Mention applications of thermo
graph (May/June 2007) (Apr/May 2011)(Nov/Dec 2011) (Nov/Dec 2014) (May/June 2013)(May/June
2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-373.
2. a) Discuss in detail the different application of Laser in medicine. (Nov/Dec 2007)(Apr/May 2012)
(April/May 2015)(May/June 2014) (May/June 2013)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link].
What is an endoscope? Discuss the working of an endoscopic unit. (Apr/ May 2008)
(Nov/Dec11)(Apr/May 2012(April/May2015)(Nov/Dec 2015)(May/June 2014)(May/June
2013)(May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]-223 &356-359.
3. Briefly explain about the importance of Telemedicine.
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By [Link] .[Link]
4. What is cryogenic? List some cryogenics agents with its operating temperature and explain how it is used
to perform surgery?
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link].
5. Explain the basic principle of LASER.
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link].
6. A) (i) What is thermography ? explain the block diagram of infrared imaging system(10)
(ii) Describe the different operation involved in endoscopy(6) (May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 310,295
7. (i) what is cryogenic list some cryogenics agents with its operating temperature and explain how it is used
to perform surgery(10) (May/June 2016)
(ii) write short notes on applications of LASER in medicine.(6) (May/June 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 324,290
8. a)Explain the infrared thermographic instrumentation with a suitable block diagram and what are the
 different medical applications(16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 320
9. (i) Write a notes on cryogenic surgery(8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
(ii) Write a notes on endoscopy unit(8) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 336, 314
10. A) (i) What is endoscope ? explain the different types of operations performed using endoscopy(10)
(May/June 2017)
(ii) Describe the working principle of thermograph(6) (May/June 2017)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 290, 298
11. B) (i) Explain different typers of LASER(10) (May/June 2017)
(ii) write short notes on cryogenic applications.(6)
Ans: Text book: Bio medical instrumentation By Arumugam .[Link]: 318,338
 V.S.B ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

UNIT 1
1. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?

The most important criteria arc performance, reliability and security. Performance of the
network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w. Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from the failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.

2. Group the OSI layers and its function.

The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups. Network support layers:
Consisting of Physical, data link and network layers and they deal with the physical aspects of
moving data from one device to another. User support layers: Consists of Session. Presentation and
application layers and they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. The transport
layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission

3. What are the features provided by layering?

 It decomposes the problem of building a network into manageable components. Rather

than implementing a monolithic piece of software each of this solves one part of the
problem.
 It provides more modular design. To add some new service, it is enough to modify
 the functionality at one layer, reusing the functions provided at all the other layers.

4. What are the two interfaces provided by protocols?

 Service interface-defines the operations that local objects can perform on the protocol.
 Peer interface-defines the term and meaning of messages exchanged
between protocol peers to implement the communication service.

5. What is LAN?

A LAN is a common name used IO describe a group of devices that share a geographic location.
It is limited to single building orcampus.
 6. What is flow Control?
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data. The sender
can send before waiting for acknowledgment.

7. What is the use of two dimensional parity in error detection?

Two-dimensional parity check increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors. It is used
to detect errors occurred in more than one bits.

8. What are the issues in data link layer?

The data link layer has a number of specific functions it can carry out. These functions include,
providing a well-defined service interface to the network layer.
Dealing with transmission errors and regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not
swamped by fast senders.

9. What are the ways to address the framing problem’?

The tracing problem can be addressed by the following protocols:
• Byte-Oriented Protocols(PPP)
• Bit-Oriented Protocols(HDLC)
• Clock-Based Framing(SONET)
10. What are the responsibilities of’ data link layer’?
Specific responsibilities of data link layer include the following.
Framing, physical addressing, flow control, error control, access control

11. Mention the types of errors.

There are 2 types of errors. They are single-bit error and burst-bit error.

12. Define the following terms.

Single bit error: The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as
byte character/data unit or packet) is changed from l to 0 or from 0 to l. Burst error: Means
that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 front 0 to1.

13. What is redundancy?

It is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shower group of bits or extra bits may be
appended at the destination of each unit.

14. What is the purpose of harming code?

A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. So the simple
strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be
applicable for multiple bit correction.
15. What is mean by error control?
Error control is a method that can be used to recover the corrupted data whenever possible.
These are two basic types of error control which are backward error control and forward error
control.

16. What is OSI?

A standard that specifies a conceptual model called Open systems Interconnection network
interface model, which breaks networked communications into seven layers: Application,
Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data link, Physical.

17. State the major functions performed by the presentation layer of the ISO OSI
model.
Presentation layer is concerned with the format of data exchanged between peers, for
example, whether an integer is 16, 32, or 64 bits long and whether the most significant bit is
transmitted first or last, or how a video stream is formatted.

18. State the purpose of layering in networks?

A layer is a collection of related functions that provides services to the layer above it
and receives services from the layer below it.
To execute the functions by each layer is independent.

19. What are the two fundamental ways by which network performance is measured?
1. Bandwidth
2. Latency

UNIT - II

1. What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?

The Network Layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet
possibly across multiple networks (links).Logical addressing and routing.

2. What is DHCP?
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol has been derived to provide dynamic configuration.
DHCP is also needed when a host moves from network to network or is connected and
disconnected from a network.

3. Define ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol is a collection of error messages that are sent back to
the source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an IP datagram successfully.

4. What is the need of internetwork?

 To exchange data between networks, they need to be connected to make
internetwork.

5. What do you mean by ARP?

ARP stands for Address resolution protocol. ARP is a dynamic mapping method that finds
a physical address for a given a logical address. i.e. mapping IP address to physical address.

6. What do you mean by RARP?

RARP stands for Reverse Address resolution protocol, maps a MAC address to an IP
address.

7. What are the functions of MAC?

MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains synchronization,
flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to
another, as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet.

8. Define the term medium access control mechanism

The protocol that determines who can transmit on a broadcast channel are called medium
access control (MAC) protocol. The MAC protocols are implemented in the Mac sub-layer which
is the lower sub-layer of the data link layer.

9. What is bridge?
Bridge is a hardware networking device used to connect two LANs. A bridge operates at
data link layer of the OSI reference model.

10. What is a repeater?

Repeater is a hardware device used to strengthen signals being transmitted on a network.

11. Define router

A network layer device that connects networks with different physical media and translates
between different network architecture.

12. What is a switch?

A switch is a networking device that manages networked connections between devices on a
star networks.

13. What is mean by Ethernet?

Ethernet is a networking technology developed in 1970 which is governed by the IEEE
802.3 specifications.

14. What are the advantages of Ethernet?

[Link]
 [Link] to install
[Link] various writing technologies.

15. Identify the class and default subnet mask of the IP address [Link].
IP Address [Link] belongs to Class C. Its subnet mask is [Link].

16. What are the limitations of bridges?

1. Scale
2. Heterogeneity

17. Define Bluetooth.

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances
(using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and
mobile devices and building personal area networks (PANs).

20. What are the 3 levels of hierarchy in IP Addressing?

1. Netid
2. Subnetid
3. Hostid

21. What are the functions of bridge?

1. Connecting networks
2. Filtering information so that network traffic for one portion of the network does
not congest the rest of the network.

22. Define sub- netting

Sub-netting is a technique that allows a network administrator to divide one
physical network into smaller logical networks and thus control the flow of traffic for security or
efficiency reasons.

UNIT - III

1. What is routing?
Routing is a process of selecting paths in a network through which network traffic is sent.

2. Define an internetwork.
A collection of interconnected network is called an internetwork.

3. What does routing metric mean?

A routing metric is a unit calculated by a routing algorithm for selecting or rejecting a routing
path for transferring data/traffic.

4. What are the metrics used in determining the best path for a routing protocol?
  Bandwidth
 Delay
 Load
 Reliability
 Cost
 Hop count
 MTU
 Ticks

5. What is multicasting?
Multicasting is the delivery of information to a group of destinations simultaneously using the
most efficient strategy to deliver the messages over each link of the network only once.

6. What are different types of multicast routing?

Reverse path multicasting and reverse path broadcasting

7. What is multicast? What is the motivation for developing multicast?

Multicasting means delivering the same packet simultaneously to a group of clients.
Motivation for developing multicast is that there are applications that want to send a packet
to more than one destination hosts.

8. Define RIP.
RIP is a dynamic protocol used for finding the best route or path from end-to-
end over a network by using a routing metric/ hop count algorithm.

9. What is OSPF?
OSPF protocol is a router protocol used within larger autonomous system networks in
preference to the Routing Information Protocol (RIP).

10. What are the features of OSPF?

 Authentication of routing messages
 Additional hierarchy
 Load balancing

11. Mention any four applications of multicasting

Broad casts of audio and video, video conferencing, shared applications. IGMP is used
by multicast routers to keep track of membership in a multicast group.

12. Describe the process of routing packets

Routing is the act of moving information across an internetwork from a source to a
destination.
 13. What are the some routing algorithm types?
The routing types are static, dynamic, flat, hierarchical, host-intelligent, router-
intelligent, intra- domain, inter-domain, link state and distance vector.

14. What is a benefit of DHCP?

 Simplicity: clients need to manual configuration.
 Mobility and hosts: Hosts may move between networks without reconfiguring.
 Mobility of network: Possible for internet service providers to reconfigure customers
address transparently.
 Save address space if individual clients are not always active.

15. What are the 3 types of routing performed by BGP?

Inter-autonomous system routing, intra-autonomous system routing, pass through
autonomous system routing

16. What are the different kinds of multicast routing?

 DVMRP
 PIM
 MSDP
 MOSPF
 MBGP

17. How can the routing be classified?

The routing can be classified as,
 Adaptive routing
 Non-adaptive routing.

18. What are the salient features of IPv6?

Salient features are:
 Efficient and hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructures.
 IPv6 networks provide auto configuration capabilities.
 Better support for QOS.
 Large Address space.
 Stateless and stateful address configuration.

19. Write the BGP Message types.

 Open
 Update
 Notification
 Keep-alive
 UNIT- IV

1. What are the fields on which the UDP checksum is calculated? Why?
UDP checksum includes a pseudo header, the UDP header and the data coming from
the application layer.

2. What are the advantages of using UDP over TCP?

 UDP does not include the overhead needed to detect reliability
 It does not need to maintain the unexpected deception of data flow
 UDP requires less processing at the transmitting and receiving of hosts.
 It is simple to use for a network
 The OS does not need to maintain UDP connection information.

2. What is TCP?

TCP provides a connection oriented, reliable byte stream service. The connection oriented
means the two applications using TCP must establish a TCP connection with each other before
they can exchange data.

3. Define congestion
When too many packets rushing to a node or a part of network, the network performance
degrades. This situation is called as congestion.

4. List the flag used in TCP header.

TCP header contains six flags. They are URG, ACK, PSH, RST, SYN, FIN

5. Give the approaches to improve the QoS.

Fine grained approaches, which provide QoS to individual applications or flows.
Integrated services, QoS architecture developed in the IETE and often associated with RSVP.

6. What do you mean by QoS?

Quality of Service is used in some organizations to help provide an optimal end user
experience for audio and video communications. QoS is most commonly used on networks where
bandwidth is limited with a large number of network packets competing for a relatively small
amount of available and width.

7. What is multiplexing?
The job of gathering data chunks at the sources host from different sockets, encapsulating
each data chunks with header information to create segments, and passing the segments to the
network layer is called multiplexing.
 8. What is de-multiplexing?
The job of delivering the data in a transport layer segment to the correct socket is called de-
multiplexing.

9. What is RTT?
RTT is an acronym for Round Trip Time: it is a measure of the time it takes for a packet
to travel from a computer, across a network to another computer, and back.

10. What is the segment?

Transport layer protocols send data as a sequence of packets. In TCP/IP these packets
are called segments.

11. What is a port?

Applications running on different hosts communicate with TCP with the help of a concept
called as ports. A port is a 16 bit unique number allocated to a particular application.

12. List the services of end to end services.

 Guarantee message delivery.
 Delivery messages in the same order they are sent.
 Deliver at most one copy of each message.
 Support arbitrarily large message.
 Support synchronization.

13. What is congestion?

When load on network is greater than its capacity, there is congestion of data Packets. Congestion
occurs because routers and switches have queues or buffers.

14. What are the functions of transport layer?

 Breaks messages into packets.
 Connection control.
 Addressing.
 Provide reliability.

15. What are the types of QoS tools?

 Congestion avoidance
 Shaping/policing
 Link efficiency

16. List some ways to deal with congestion

 packet elimination
  Flow control
 Buffer allocation
 Choke packets

17. Define network congestion?

When two or more nodes would simultaneously try to transmit packets to one node there is
a high probability that the number of packets would exceed the packet handling capacity of the
network and lead to congestion.

18. List the three types of addresses in TCP/IP.

Three types of addresses are used by systems using the TCP/IP protocol: the physical
address, the internetwork address (IP address), and the port address.

19. What is the flow characteristics related to QoS?

The flow characteristics related to QoS are
 Reliability
 Delay
 Jitter, Bandwidth

20. What are the techniques to improve QoS?

The techniques to improve QoS are
 Scheduling
 Traffic shaping
 Resource reservation
 Admission control

21. Define Socket address.

The combination of IP address and port address is called Socket address.

22. What are the two types of protocols used in Transport layer?
The two types of protocols used in Transport layer are TCP and UDP

23. Define Throughput.

It is defines as a number of packets passing through the network in a unit of time.

24. Define UDP

User datagram protocol is a Unreliable, connectionless protocol, used along with the IP
protocol.

25. What is the need of port numbers?

 Port numbers are used as an addressing mechanism in transport layer.
26. What are the types of port numbers used in transport layer?
 Well-known port
 Registered port
 Dynamic port

27. Why TCP services are called Stream delivery services?

TCP allows the sending process to deliver data as a stream of bytes and the receiving process to
deliver data as a stream of bytes. So it is called as stream of bytes.

28. Define jitter

Jitter is defined as a variation in the delay of received packets. The sending side transmits
packets in a continuous stream and spaces them evenly apart. Because of network congestion,
improper queuing, or configuration errors, the delay between packets can vary instead of remaining
constant.

29. Compare connectionless service & connection oriented service

In connection less service there is no connection between transmitter & receiver Ex: UDP
In connection oriented service there is a connection between transmitter & receiver Ex: TCP

30. What is Unicast & Multicast communication?

 Unicast communication is one source sending a packet to one destination. Multicast
communication is one source sending a packet to multiple destinations.

UNIT - V

1. Define the two types of user agents in the electronic mail system
 Command driven: It normally accepts a one character command from the
keyboard to perform its task.
 GUI based: They contain GUI components that allow the user to interact with the software by
using both the keyword and mouse.

2. What is DNS?
DNS is a client/server application that identifies each host on the internet with a unique
user friendly name.
3. What is the purpose of inverse domain?
The inverse domain is used to map an address to a name.

4. What is SMTP?
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a standard and reliable host to host mail transport
protocol that operates over the TCP port 25.
 5. State the Purpose of SNMP
The primary purpose of SNMP is to allow the network administrator to monitor and
configure devices on the network, remotely via the network. These configuration and monitoring
capabilities are collectively referred to as management.

6. What is the Domain name system responsible for?

The Domain Name system converts domain names (of the form [Link]) into IP
numbers.

7. What are the four main properties of HTTP?

 Global Uniform Resource Identifier
 Request response exchange.
 Statelessness.
 Resource meta data

8. What is SMTP used for?

SMTP is used when email is delivered from an email client, such as Outlook Express, to
an email server or when email is delivered from one email server to another.

9. What is virtual terminal?

A virtual terminal is a data structure maintained by either the application software or a local
terminal.

10. What are the basic functions of email?

Composition, Transfer, Reporting, Displaying and Disposition of mails.

11. Define WWW?

It is an internet application that allows users to view web pages and move from
one web page to another.

12. What is the web browser?

Web browser is a software program that interprets and displays the contents of HTML web
pages.

13. What is URL?

URL is a string identifier that identifies a page on the World Wide Web.

14. What do you mean by TELNET?

TELNET is used to connect remote computers and issue commands on those computers.

15. What are the responsibilities of Application Layer?

The Application Layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
 network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as e-mail, shared database
management and other types of distributed information services
 Network virtual Terminal, Mail services, Directory Services
 File transfer, access and Management (FTAM),
 Mail services,

16. Write down the three types of WWW documents.

The documents in the WWW can be grouped into three broad categories: static,
dynamic and active.
A) Static: Fixed-content documents that are created and stored in a server.
B) Dynamic: Created by web server whenever a browser requests the document.
C) Active: A program to be run at the client side.

17. What is fully Qualified Domain Name?

If a label is terminated by a null string is called a Fully Qualified Domain Name.

18. What is Generic Domains?

Generic domain defines registered hosts according to their generic behavior. Each node in
the tree defines a domain, which is an index to the domain name space database. Eg.-
com – Commercial organizations,
edu - Educationalinstitutions
gov – GovernmentInstitutions.

19. What is simple mail transfer protocol?

The TCP/IP protocol that supports electronic mail on the internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP). It is a system for sending messages to other computer users based on
email addresses.

20. What do you mean by File transfer protocol?

It is a standard mechanism provided by the internet for copying a file from one host to another.

21. What are the two types of connections in FTP?

The two types of connections in FTP are control connection, open connection

22. Define HTTP.

It is used mainly to access data on the World Wide Web. The protocol transfers data in
the form of plaintext, hypertext, audio, video and soon.

23. What are the types of messages in HTTP transaction?

The types of messages in HTTP transaction are request messages and response messages.
24. What are the parts of a browser?
The parts of a browser are controller, client program, Interpreter

25. Name the four aspects of security.

Privacy, authentication, integrity, non-repudiation

26. What is POP?

Post Office Protocol, version3 (POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol version4
(IMAP4) are protocol used by a mail server in conjunction with SMTP to receive and hold
mail for hosts.

27. What is the function of SMTP?

The TCP/IP protocol supports electronic mail on the Internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer (SMTP). It is a system for sending messages to other computer users based on email
addresses. SMTP provides mail exchange between users on the same or different computers.

28. How does MIME enhance SMTP?

MIME is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through
SMTP. MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII data and deliverers it to
the client SMTP to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at the receiving side receives the
NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be transforming feed back to the original data.

29. Why is an application such as POP needed for electronic messaging?

Workstations interact with the SMTP host, which receives the mail on behalf of
every host in the organization, to retrieve messages by using a client-server protocol such as Post
Office Protocol, version 3(POP3). Although POP3 is used to download messages from the server,
the SMTP client still needed on the desktop to forward messages from the workstation user to its
SMTP mail server

IMPORTANT 16 MARKS
UNIT -I
1. Explain ISO/OSI reference model.
2. Explain the categories of networks.
3. Explain the topologies of the network.
4. Explain error detection and error correction techniques.
5. Explain error control mechanism.
UNIT - II
1. Explain detail about IEEE 802.3 MAC sub-layer.
2. Explain detail about Bluetooth architecture.
3. Explain about IPv4 address.
4. Explain about Address resolution protocol Packet format.
 5. Explain about RARP Frame Format of RARP Encapsulation.
6. Explain about Internet Control Message Protocol.
7. Explain about Ethernet.
8. Explain about wireless LAN.
9. Explain about zigbee and wifi and 6LowPAN.
10. Explain about IP, ICMP, Mobile IP.

UNIT – III
1. Explain IPv6 addressing method and its transition.
2. Define routing & explain distance vector routing and link state routing.
3. Define bridge and explain the type of bridges.
4. Explain about sub-netting.
5. Write short notes about repeaters, routers and gateways.
6. Explain about Bellman ford algorithm.
UNIT- IV
1. Explain the duties of transport layer.
2. Explain UDP &TCP.
3. Explain about congestion control.
4. Explain about Congestion Avoidance.
5. Explain detail about QoS Policing.
6. Explain about state transition diagram.
7. Explain about Go-Back-N protocol.
8. Explain about stop and wait protocol.
UNIT-V
1. Explain the functions of SMTP.
2. Write short notes on FTP.
3. Explain about cryptography and its need.
4. Explain about HTTP. HTTP transactions HTTP messages
5. Explain the WWW in detail. Hypertext & Hypermedia Browser Architecture Categories of
Web Documents HTML
6. Explain about Electronic mail(POP3, SMTP, IMAP, MIME)
7. Explain detail about Domain Name System.
 V.S.B ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DISCRETE TIME SIGNAL PROCESSING
UNIT 1
PART A

1 What are the advantages of DSP?

[Link] accuracy
[Link] is easier to perform mathematical operation
3. Digital signals can be easily stored on magnetic disk without any loss ofinformation.

2 Define STEP signal.

Also called as delta functionRepresented
by S(n) S(n)=1 for n=0
=0 for n > 0

3 Define impulse signal.

Also called as delta functionRepresented
by S(n) S(n)=1 for n=0
=0 for n≠ 0
4 Find the period of x(n) = cos [8πn/7 +2].
ω=8π/7 2πf = 8π/7
f= 4/7 ; here K= 4 & N =7
5 What is meant by causal & non causal system?
A system is said be causal if it’s output at anytime depends upon present and past input only. A
system is said be non causal if it’s output at anytime depends upon present and future input only.
6 Distinguish between linear Time Invarient and non linear system.
a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t) = f[a1x1(t) + a2x2(t)]
If the above equation satisfies then the system is said to be Linear system. If the above equation
does not satisfies then the system is said to be non Linear system.
7 Compare linear convolution and circular convolution.
y(n)=(N1+N2-1 )samples -input sequence may have different length-Zeropadding is not required
Linear convolution,
y(n)=max(N1+N2)- input sequence should have same length –If the length of the sequence are not
equal Zeroes are appended at the end of the sequence Circular convolution
8 What is sampling theorem?
Fs>=2Fm
Fs= Sampling frequency
Fm- maximum analog frequency.

9 What are the applications of DSP?

Image processing, speech processing, biomedical, Radar system, Digital audio, video processing
10 What is continuous and discrete time signal?
Continuous time signal
A signal x(t) is said to be continuous if it is defined for all time t. Continuous time signal arise
naturally when a physical waveform such as acoustics wave or light wave is converted into a
electrical signal.
Discrete time signal
A discrete time signal is defined only at discrete instants of time. The independent variable has
discrete values only, which are uniformlyspaced. A discrete time signal is often derived from the
continuous time signal by sampling it at auniform rate
11 State distributive law
The distributive law can be expressed as
x(n)*[h1(n)+h2(n)]=x(n)*h1(n)+x(n)*h2(n)
12 Define discrete time system.
A discrete or an algorithm that performs some prescribed operation on adiscrete time signal is
called discrete time system.
13 What is zero padding?What are its uses?
Let the sequence x(n) has a length L. If we want to find the N-point DFT(N>L) of the sequence x(n),
we have to add (N-L) zeros to the sequence x(n). This is known as zero padding.
The uses of zero padding are
1)We can get better display of the frequency spectrum.
2)With zero padding the DFT can be used in linear filtering.
14 What is overlap-add method?
In this method the size of the input data block xi(n) is L. To each data block we append M-1 zeros and
perform N point cicular convolution of xi(n) and h(n). Since each data block is terminated with M-1
zeros the last M-1 points from each output block must be overlapped and added to first M-1 points of
the succeeding [Link] method is called overlap-add method.

15 What is overlap-save method?

In this method the data sequence is divided into N point sections xi(n).Each section contains the last
M-1 data points of the previous section followed by L new data points to form a data sequence of
length N=L+[Link] circular convolution of xi(n) with h(n) the first M-1 points will not agree with the
linear convolution of xi(n) and h(n) because of aliasing, the remaining points will agree with linear
convolution. Hence we discard the first (M-1) points of filtered section xi(n) N h(n). This process is
repeated for all sections and the filtered sections are abutted together.
16 What are the steps involved in calculating convolution sum?
The steps involved in calculating sum are
• Folding
• Shifting
• Multiplication
• Summation
17 What are the properties of convolution sum?
The properties of convolution sum are
• Commutative property.
• Associative law.
• Distributive law.
18 State properties of ROC.
• The ROC does not contain any poles.
• When x(n) is of finite duration then ROC is entire Z-plane except Z=0 or
Z=∞.
• If X(Z) is causal,then ROC includes Z=∞.
• If X(Z) is anticasual,then ROC includes Z=0.
19 How to obtain the output sequence of linear convolution through circular convolution?
Consider two finite duration sequences x(n) and h(n) of duration L samples and M samples. The linear
convolution of these two sequences produces an output sequence of duration L+M-1 samples, whereas
the circular convolution of x(n) and h(n) give N samples where N=max(L,M).In order to obtain the
number of samples in circular convolution equal to L+M-1, both x(n) and h(n) must be appended with
appropriate number of zero valued samples. In other words by increasing the length of the sequences
x(n) and h(n) to L+M-1 points and then circularly convolving the resulting sequences
PART-B

1 Discover the circular convolution and correlation for x(n)={0,1,-2,3,-4}and h(n)={0.5,1,2,1,0.5}

2 Determine the impulse response of the difference equationY(n)+3y(n1)+2y(n-

2)=2x(n)-x(n-1)
3 Find the response of the system for the input signal using linearconvolution
X(n)={1,2,2,3} and h(n)={1,0,3,2)
Find the inverse Z transform of 1/(1-1/2Z-1)(1-1/4 Z-1)

4 Deduct whether the following systems are linear time invarient

(i)Y(n)=ex(n) (ii)Y(n)=A.X(n)+B (x(n-1)
5 Test the stability and causality of the following system y(n)=cosx(n)
6 Find the one sided z-transform of discrete sequences generated by mathematically sampling of the
following continuous time function
7 Find the Z transform of the following discrete time signals and find ROC x(n)=u(n-2) x(n)=[-1/5
]nu(n)+5[1/2]-nu(-n-1)
8 A Discrete time system is represented by the following difference equations y(n)=3y2(n-1)-
nx(n)+4x(n-1)-2x(n+1) for n>0 .Determine the system is memoryless , causal, linear shift variant.
Justify your answers.
9 A causal system is represented by the following differential equations Y(n)+1/4 Y(n-1)=X(n)+1/2
X(n-1). Find the system function H(Z) and its coreponding region of convergence(ROC)
10 Find the unit sample respose h(n) of the system for the given equationY(n)+1/4 Y(n-1)=X(n)+1/2
X(n-1)
11 Determine the inverse Ztransform of X(Z)=1/1-1.5 z-1 +0.5 Z-2) if ROCZ>1, ROC Z<0.5 and ROC
0.5<Z<1
12 Determine the response of the system described by the difference equation y(n)=0.7 y(n-1)-0.12 y(n-
2)+x(n-1)+x(n-2) to the input x(n)=n u(n)
UNIT II
PART A

What is FFT?
1 The Fast Fourier Transform is a method or algorithm for computing the DFT with reduced
number of calculations. The computational efficiency can be achieved if we adopt a
divider and conquer approach. This approach is based on decomposition of an N-point
DFT in to successively smaller DFT’s. This approach leads to a family of an efficient
computational algorithm is Known as FFT algorithm

What are the advantages of FFT algorithm over direct computation ofDFT?
2 Reduces the computation time required by DFT.
Complex multiplication required for direct computation is N2 and for FFTcalculation is
N/2 log 2 N.

3 What do you mean by radix-2 FFT?

The radix -2 FFT is an efficient algorithm for computing N- point DFT of an N-point
sequence .In radix-2 FFT the n-point is decimated into 2-point sequence and the 2-point
DFT for each decimated sequence is computed. From the results of 2-point DFT’s, the 4-
point DFT’s are computed. From the results of 4 –point DFT’s ,the 8-point DFT’s are
computed and so on until we get N - point DFT.

4 Is DFT of a finite duration sequence is periodic? If so state the theorem

Yes .periodic. April/May 2018 Theorem :

periodicity property If x(n)—X(Z)
Then x(n+K)---X(Z+K)
5 How many multiplications & addition are involved in radix-2 FFT?
For performing radix-2 FFT, the value of N should be such that, N= 2m. Thetotal numbers
of complex additions are N log 2 N and the total number of complex multiplication are
(N/2) log 2 N.
6 What is main advantage of FFT ?
FFT reduces the computation time required to compute Discrete FourierTransform
7 State the advantages of FFT over DFT’[Link] the Need for using FFT algorithms for
computing DFT.
Reduces the computation time required by DFT .
Complex multiplication required for direct computation is N2 and for FFT calculation is
N/2 log 2 N .Speed calculation.

8 Write the methods to perform Linear convolution?

[Link] method
[Link] and IDFT method
[Link] method
9 State sampling theorem?

Sampling is the process to convert analog time domain continuous signal into discrete
time domain signal. But it is the process of converting only time domain not in amplitude
domain.
Nyquist criteria:
We sample the signal based on the following condition i.e., fs ≥2fm

Where fx = Sampling frequency Fm = maximum signal frequency

If these above conditions are not satisfied we will meet the following demerits after the
sampling process. Guard band2. Aliasing Effect
10 What are the applications of FFT algorithms?
The applications of FFT algorithm include Linear Filtering (ii) Correlation
(iii) Spectrum Analysis

11 How many multiplications and additions are required to compute N- point DFT using
radix-2 FFT? Assume N=512

In computing N-point DFT by this method the number of stages of computation will be m-
times. The number ‘r’ is called the radix of the FFT algorithms. In radix-2-FFT, the total
number of complex additions are reduced to N log2N and total number of complex
multiplications are reducedto (N/2log2N)
12 What is meant by aliasing? How can it be avoided?
If we operate the sampler at fx < fm, the frequency components of the frequency spectrum
will overlap with each other i.e., the lower frequency of the second frequency component
will overlap with higher frequency of the first frequency component. This overlapping
effect is called as Aliasing effect. For avoiding overlapping of high and low frequency
components, we have to use low-pass filter to cut the unwanted high frequency
components.
13 Why FFT is needed?
The direct evaluation DFT requires N2 complex multiplications and N2 –N complex
additions. Thus for large values of N direct evaluation of the DFT is difficult. By using
FFT algorithm the number of complex computationscan be reduced. So we use FFT.

14 What is DIT algorithm?

Decimation-In-Time algorithm is used to calculate the DFT of a N point sequence. The
idea is to break the N point sequence into two sequences, the DFTs of which can be
combined to give the DFt of the original N point [Link] algorithm is called DIT
because the sequence x(n) is often splitted into smaller sub- sequences.

15 What DIF algorithm?

It is a popular form of the FFT algorithm. In this the output sequence X(k) is divided into
smaller and smaller sub-sequences , that is why the name Decimation In Frequency.

16 What are the applications of FFT algorithm?

The applications of FFT algorithm includes
1) Linear filtering
2) Correlation
3) Spectrum analysis

17 Why the computations in FFT algorithm is said to be in place?

Once the butterfly operation is performed on a pair of complex numbers (a,b) to produce
(A,B), there is no need to save the input pair. We can store the result (A,B) in the same
locations as (a,b). Since the same storage

18 What are the similarities between DIF and DIT algorithms?

Similarities:
Both algorithms require same number of operations to compute the [Link] algorithms
can be done in place and both need to perform bit reversal at some place during the
computation.
19 state the Time shifting properties of Z-transform
if x(n)↔X(Z)
then Z
x(n-k)↔Z-KX(Z)
20 How many multiplications are required to compute N point DFT usingredix-4 FFT?
The number of multiplications required to compute N point DFT usingradix-2 FFT are 3N
log2 N
 PART-B

1 Determine the DFT of the sequence x(n) = {1,1,-2,-2}

Determine the response of LTI system by radix -2 DIT FFT.

2 Derive the equation for Decimation – in time algorithm for FFT. ii) How do you perform
linear filtering by FFT using Save –add method?
3 From first principles obtain the signal flow graph for Computing 8- point using radix -2 DIF –
FFT algorithm. ii) Using the above signal flow graph compute DFT of
x(n) = cos (nπ/4) ,0 ≤ n ≤ 7.
4 Two finite duration sequence are given by x(n) = sin (nπ/2) for n = 0,1,2,3 h(n) = 2 n for n =
0,1,2,3 Determine circular convolution using FT &IDFT method.
5 i)Discuss in detail the important properties of the DFT.
ii) Find the 4-point DFT of the sequence x(n) = cos (nπ/4)
iii) Compute an 8-point DFT using DIF FFT radix -2 algorithm. x(n) = { 1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1}

6 Determine eight point DFT of the following sequences using radix2DIFFFT

algorithm x(n)={1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,1,-1}.
7 Find eight point DFT of the following sequences using radix2 DITFFTalgorithm x(n)={1,-
1,1,-1,0,0,0,0,0}
8 Using radix 2 DIT-FFT algorithm ,determine DFT of the given sequence for N=8
x(n)=n for 0<n<7
9 Determine the response of LTI system when input x(n)= {-1,1,2,1} andimpulse response
h(n)={-1,1,-1,1] by Radix 2 DIT FFT
10 Given x(n)={1 2 3 4 }=h(n). circularly convolve x(n) and h(n) using DFTand IDFT
computations.
11 Given x(n)={1 2 -1 ,2,2,-1,2,1}, Compute 8 point DFT using Decimationin time algorithms.

12 Explain the filtering methods based on DFT and FFT.

13 Determine the response of LTI system when input sequence x(n)={-1,1,2,1} and impulse
response h(n)={-1,1,-1,1) by Radix2 DITFFT.
14 Starting from the key equation of DFT ,with necessary equation explainDIT-FFt algorithm.

15 Determine IDFT of X(K)={6,-2,-2j,2,-2+2j} using DIT algorithm.

 UNIT III
PART A

1 Compare Butterworth with chebychev filters.

The magnitude response of Butterworth filter decreases monotonically as the frequency Ω
increases from 0 to ∞, whereas the magnitude response of the chebychev filter exhibits ripples
in the pass band or stop band accordingto the type. The transition band is more in Butterworth
filter when compared to chebychev filter. The poles of the Butterworth filter lie on a circle,
whereas the poles of the chebychev filter lie on an ellipse..For the same specification, the
number of poles in Butterworth are more when compared to the chebychev filter ie. The order
of the chebychev filter is lessthan that of Butterworth. This is a great advantage because less
number of discrete components will be necessary to construct the filter.

2 What are the properties of impulse invarient transformation.

It is many to one mapping. The relocation between analog and digital frequency is linear. To
prevent the problem of aliasing ,the analog filter should be band limited. The magnitude and
phase response of analog filter can be preserved by choosing low sampling time or high
sampling frequency

3 What is meant by bilinear transformation method of designing IIRfilter.

This transformation is a one to one mapping from the S domain to Z domain

4 Write the advantages of bilinear transformation.

[Link] is no aliasing.
[Link] effect of warping on amplitude response can beeliminated by prewarping the analog
filter.
[Link] is one to one mapping

5 Write the disadvantages of bilinear transformation.

The non linear relationship between the analog and digital frequencies introduce frequency
distortion which is called as frequency warping. Using BLT a linear phase analog filter cannot
be transformed to linear phase digital filter.
6 Write the Properties of Chebychev filter:
The magnitude response of the filter exhibits ripples in the pass band or stopband. The pole of
the filter lies on an ellipse.
7 Write the structural realization of FIR filter.
[Link] form I
[Link] form II
[Link] form
[Link] form
8 State the condition for a digital filter to be causal and stable.
The response of the causal system to an input does not depend on future values of that input,
but depends only on the present and/or past values of the input. A filter is said to be stable,
bounded-input bounded output stable, if every bounded input produces a bounded output. A
bounded signal has amplitude that remains finite.
9 What are the limitations of impulse invariant mapping technique?
The impulse invariance technique is appropriate only for band limited filter like low pass
filter. Impulse invariance design for high pass or band stop continuous-time filters, require
additional band limiting to avoid severealiasing distortion, if impulse designed is used. Thus
this method is not preferred in the design of IIR filters other than low-pass filters.
10 What are the different types of filters based on impulse response?
Based on impulse response the filters are of two types
1. IIR filter
2. FIR filter
The IIR filters are of recursive type, whereby the present output sampledepends on the
present input, past input samples and output samples.
The FIR filters are of non recursive type, whereby the present outputsample depends on the
present input sample and previous input samples
11 What are the different types of filters based on frequency response?
Based on frequency response the filters can be classified as
1. Lowpass filter
2. Highpass filter
3. Bandpass filter
4. Bandreject filter
12 State the structure of IIR filter?
IIR filters are of recursive type whereby the present o/p sample depends on present i/p, past
i/p samples and o/p samples. The design of IIR filter is realizable and stable.
The impulse response h(n) for a realizable filter is
h(n)=0 for n≤0
13 State the advantage of direct form ΙΙ structure over direct form Ι
structure.
In direct form ΙΙ structure, the number of memory locations required is lessthan that of direct
form Ι structure.
14 Mention the methods for converting analog into digital IIR filter.
The two important procedures for digitizing the transfer function of ananalog filter are
• Impulse invariance method.
• Bilinear transformation method.
15 What is meant by impulse invariant method of designing IIR filter?
In this method of digitizing an analog filter, the impulse response of resultingdigital filter is a
sampled version of the impulse response of the analog [Link] transfer function of analog
filter in partial fraction form,
16 What is bilinear transformation?
The bilinear transformation is a mapping that transforms the left half of S- plane into the
unit circle in the Z-plane only once, thus avoiding aliasing offrequency components. The
mapping from the S-plane to the Z-plane is in bilinear transformation is

S=2/T(1-Z-1/1+Z-1)
17 What are the properties of bilinear transformation?
• The mapping for the bilinear transformation is a one-to-one mapping that is for every
point Z, there is exactly one corresponding point S, and vice- versa.
• The j Ω-axis maps on to the unit circle |z|=1,the left half of the s-plane maps to the interior
of the unit circle |z|=1 and the half of the s-plane maps on to the exterior of the unit circle
|z|=1.
18 What are the advantages of bilinear transformation?
Advantages:
• The bilinear transformation provides one-to-one mapping.
Stable continuous systems can be mapped into realizable, stable digital systems.
• There is no aliasing.
19 What are the disadvantages of bilinear transformation?
Disadvantage:
• The mapping is highly non-linear producing frequency, compression at high
frequencies.
• Neither the impulse response nor the phase response of the analog filter is preserved in a
digital filter obtained by bilinear transformation
20 What is the advantage of cascade realization?
Quantization errors can be minimized if we realize an LTI system in cascaform.
21 What are characteristics between S-plane & Z-plane
S-plane & Z-plane mapping has the following characteristics
• The left half of S-plane maps inside a circle of radius ½ centered at Z= ½ inthe Z-plane.
• The right half of S-plane maps into the region outside the circle of radius ½in the Z-plane.
• The j Ω-axis maps onto the perimeter of the circle of radius ½ in the Z-plane
PART-B

1 Design a digital Butterworth filter satisfying the constraints usingbilinear transformations.

0.707 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1.0 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ π/2
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; 3π/4 ≤ ω ≤ π.

2 Design a digital Butterworth filter satisfying the constraints

0.8 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1.0 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ π/4
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; π/2 ≤ ω ≤ π. Apply Bilinear transformation method.
3 i)Design a digital BUTTERWORTH filter that satisfies the following constraint using
BILINEAR Transformation. Assume T = 1 sec.
0.9 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ π /2
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; (3 π /4) ≤ ω ≤ π ii) Determine the magnitude response of the FIR filter (M=11)
and show that Phase and group delay are constant iii) The desired frequency response of a
low pass filter is given by Hd(ω) ={ e –j3ω ; -3π/4 ≤ ω ≤ 3π/4 0 ;
otherwise. Determine H(ejω) for M= 7using HAMMING window.
For the analog transfer function H(S) = 1/ (S+1)(S+2) . Determine H(Z) using impulse
invariant technique.
4 Obtain the direct form-I, direct form –II , cascade form and parallelform realization of the
following system function.
Y(n)=-0.1 y(n-1)+0.2y(n-2)+3x(n)+3.6x(n-1)+0.6x(n-2)
5 Realize the following FIR system with difference equation . y(n)=3/4 y(n-1)-1/8y(n-
2)+x(n)+1/3x(n-1) in direct form I.
6 Design a digital chebyshev filter satisfying the constraints
0.75 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1.0 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ π/2
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; 3π/4 ≤ ω ≤ π. Apply Bilinear transformation method.
7 Explain with necessary equations the approximations derivatives method for converting
an analog filter into a digital filter.
8 Using bilinear transformation design a lowpass filter monotonic in passband with -3.01 db
cutoff frequency of 0.4 π rad and magnitude down atleast by 15 db at 0.75 π rad

9 The specifications of desired low pass filter is

0.8 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1.0 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ 0.2π
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; 0.6π ≤ ω ≤ π. Design a Chebyshev digitalfilter using impulse
invariant Transformation.
10 Determine the system function of the IIR digital filter for the analog transfer function
(S)=10/S2+7S+10 with T=0.2 sec using impulse invariant method.

11 Design a digital filter which exhibits equiripple behavior only either inpassband or stopband
and monotonic satisfying the constraints
0.8 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1.0 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ 0.2π
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; 0.6 π ≤ ω ≤ π. Using Bilinear transformation method.

12 Convert the analog filter with transfer function H(s)=2/(s+1) (s+2) intodigital filter using
Impulse Invarient method.
13 The specifications of desired low pass filter is
0.79 ≤ | H(ω)| ≤ 1.0 ; 0 ≤ ω ≤ 0.2π
| H(ω)| ≤ 0.2 ; 0.6π ≤ ω ≤ π.Design a Chebyshev digitalfilter using Bilinear transformation .

14 Realize the following FIR system with difference equation . y(n)=3/4 y(n-1)-1/8y(n-
2)+x(n)+1/3x(n-1) in direct form II
15 Write the design procedure for butterworth filter and Chebeshev filter
 UNIT IV
PART – A

1 In the design of FIR digital filter, how is Kaiser Window different from other
windows?

In all other windows a trade off exists between ripple ratio and main lobe width. In Kaiser
Window both ripple ratio and main lobe width can be varied independently
What are the merits and demerits of FIR filter?
2
Merits :Linear phase filter. Always Stable
Demerits: The duration of theimpulse response should be large Non integral delay.
3 What are the advantages of FIR filter over IIR filter?

They can have an exact linear phase. They are always stable
They can be realized efficiently in hardware The design methods are generally stable.
4 What is Gibb’s phenomenon

In Fir filter design using Fourier analysis method for rectangular window method, the infinite
duration impulse response is truncated to finite duration impulse response. The abrupt
truncation of impulse response introduces a oscillation in the pass band and stop band .This
effect is Known as Gibb’s
phenomenon
5 What are the properties of FIR filter?

FIR filters are [Link] filters have linear phase. They need higher orderfilters for the
same magnitude response compared to IIR Filters.
6 What is the reason that FIR filter is always stable?

The phase delay and group delay of a linear phase FIR filter are equal and constant over the
frequency band whenever a constant group delay is preferred the impulse response will be in
the form of H(n)=-h(N-1-n) and it is anti symmetric about the centre of the impulse response
sequence.
7 What do you understand by linear phase response in filters?

The linear phase filter are those in which the phase delay and group delay are constant. The
linear phase filter is also called as constant time delay filter.
8 What is constant time delay filter?

The linear phase filters are those in which the phase delay and group delay are constant. The
linear phase filter is also called as constant time delay filter.
9 What is group delay and phase delay.

Filters can have linear or nonlinear phase depending upon the delay function namely phase
 delay and group delay .phase delay=-o(w)/w group delay=-do(w)/d(w)

10 What is the principle of designing FIR filter using frequency sampling method?
In frequency sampling method the desired magnitude response is sampled and a linear phase
response is specified .The samples of desired frequency response are identified as DFT
coefficients. The filter coefficients are then determined as the IDFT of this set of samples.
11 For what type of filters frequency sampling method is suitable? Frequency sampling
method is attractive for narrow band frequencyselective filters where only a few of the
samples of the frequency responseare non zero.
12 When cascade form realization is preferred in FIR filters?
The cascade form realization is preferred when complex zeros with absolutemagnitude is less
than one.
13 Compare Hanning window and Hamming window .

Hamming window:
The equation for Hamming window is given byWH(n)= 0.54-
0.46 cos 2пn/M-1 0 ≤ n ≤ M-1
0 otherwise

Hanning window:
The equation for Hanning window is given byWHn(n)= 0.5[1-
cos 2пn/M-1 ] 0 ≤ n ≤ M-1
0 otherwise
14 What is linear phase FIR filter.?

The linear phase filter does not alter the shape of the signal. The necessary and sufficient
condition for a filter to have linear phase.h(n) = ± h(N-1-n); 0 ≤ n ≤ N-1
15 What are the demerits of FIR filter?
Demerits: The duration of the impulse response should be large Nonintegral delay.
16 What is linear phase? What is the condition to be satisfied by theimpulse
response in order to have a linear phase?
For a filter to have linear phase the phase response θ(w) α w is the angular frequency. The
linear phase filter does not alter the shape of the signal. The necessary and sufficient condition
for a filter to have linear phase. h(n) = ± h(N-1-n); 0 ≤ n ≤ N-1
17 List the characteristics of FIR filters designed using window functions.
The Fourier transform of the window function W(ejw) should have a small width of main
lobe containing as much of the total energy as possible The Fourier transform of the window
function W(ejw) should have side lobes that decrease in energy rapidly as w to π. Some of
the most frequently usedwindow functions are described in the following sections.
18 what are various windows used for designing FIR filters.
Hamming ,
Hanning,
Rectangular
19 What are the design techniques of designing FIR filters?
There are three well known methods for designing FIR filters with linear phase .
They are
(1.)Window method
(2.)Frequency sampling method
(3.)Optimal or minimax design.
20 In the design of FIR digital filters, how is Kaiser window different from other
windows?

It provides flexibility for the designer to select the side lobe level and [Link] has the attractive
property that the side lobe level can be varied continuously from the low value in the
BlacKman window to the high value in the rectangular window
21 What are the desirable and undesirable features of FIR Filters?
The width of the main lobe should be small and it should contain as much of total energy as
possible. The side lobes should decrease in energy rapidly as w tends to π
22 List the characteristics of FIR filters designed using window functions.

The Fourier transform of the window function W(ejw) should have a small width of main lobe
containing as much of the total energy as possible the Fourier transform of the window
function W(ejw) should have side lobes that decrease in energy rapidly as w to π. Some of the
most frequently used window functions are described in the following sections.

PART – B

1 Design a high pass filter hamming window by taking 9 samples of w(n) and with a cutoff
frequency of 1.2 radians/sec

2 Describe the design of FIR filter using frequency sampling technique.

ii) The desired frequency response of a low pass filter is given by
Hd(ω) ={ e –j2ω ; -π/4 ≤ ω ≤ π/4 0 ; Otherwise. Obtain the filter coefficient, h(n)
using RECTANGUAR window define by W(n) = { 1; 0 ≤ n ≤ 4 ; otherwise.

3 Design a band pass filter to pass frequencies in the range 1to2

radians/sec using Hanning window, with N=5.

4 Design an ideal band reject filter using hamming window for the given frequency response.
jω
Assume N=11, Hd(e )=1; w< π/3 and w>2 π/3

= 0: otherwise
5 Design an FIR filter for the ideal frequency response response usingHamming window
with N=7Hd(ejω)= e-j3ω ; - π/8 <w< π/8
0 ; π/8<w< π
6 Write the design procedures of FIR filter using frequency samplingmethod.

7 Design an ideal differentiator with frequency response. H(ejw)=jw;- -π ≤ ω ≤ π using

hamming window with N=7
–j2ω
8 The desired frequency response of a low pass filter is given byHd(ω) ={ e ; -π/4 ≤ ω ≤ π/4
0 ; Otherwise.

Obtain the filter coefficient, h(n) using Hamming window define byW(n) = { 1; 0 ≤ n ≤ 4

0; otherwise
9 Determine the filter coeffcients of h(n) of M=15 obtained by sampling and its frequency
response is H(2 πK/15)=1 for K=01,2,3,4 K=5 K=6,7
10 Given H(Z) H(z)=0.5+0.25z-1+0.75z-1+z-3+0.75z-4+0.25z-5+0.5z-
Draw the linear phase realization and direct form realization andcompare both the
structures
11 Design an FIR filter for the ideal frequency response using Hammingwindow with N=7
Hd(ω) ={ e –j2ω ; -π/8 ≤ ω ≤ π/8
0 ; Otherwise.
12 Determine the filter coefficient of h(n)of length M=15 .obtained by sampling and its
frequency response asH(2 πK/15 )=1 ; K=0,1,2,3,4
=0.4 ;K=5
=0 ;K=6,7
13 Explain the procedure of designing FIR filters by window
14 Explain Frequency sampling method of designing FIR filters.
 UNIT V
PART A

1 Identify the various factors which degrade the performance of the digital filter
implementation when finite word length is used

Input quantization error Coefficient quantization error Product quantization

2 What is meant by limit cycle oscillation in digital filter?
In recursive system when the input is zero or same non-zero constant value the non linearity
due to finite precision arithmetic operation may cause periodic oscillation in the output.
Thus the oscillation is called as Limit
cycle
3 Define Rounding .

Rounding of a b –bit is accomplished by choosing the rounded result as theb – bit number
closed to the original number unrounded.
4 What is meant by dead band of the filter ? How to calculate the deadband of an IIR
system?

In the limit cycle the amplitude of the output are confined to a range ofvalue which is
called as dead band of the filter.
5 What is fixed point number representation.

The position of the binary Point is fixed.

6 What is floating point number representation.

The position of the binary Point is variable.

7 What are the different quantization methods?

Truncation a n d Rounding
8 Define truncation error for signed magnitude representation and for 2s complement
representation.

Truncation is the process of discarding all bits less significant than leastsignificant bit that
is retained.
9 What is zero input limit cycle oscillation?

Zero Input Limit Cycles :Zero input limit cycles are usually of lower amplitude in comparison
with overflow limit cycles. If the system enters to the limit cycles oscillations, it will
continue even after input attains zero range. This equation gives steady state noise power due
to quantization.
10 What is the need for sampling and quantization?
Sampling is used to convert the Continuous Time signal to Discrete Time signal. Quantization
is used to round off the nearest integer value.

11 Express the fraction 7/8 and -7/8 in sign magnitude, 2’s complement and
1’scomplement.

Sign magnitude: 0.111 1.111

1’s complement: 0.000 1.000

2’s complement: 0.001 1.001

12 Why rounding is preferred to truncation in realizing digital filter?

Error introduced due to rounding operation is less compared to truncation. Similarly

quantization error due to rounding is independent of arithmetic operation. And mean of
rounding error is zero. Hence rounding is preferred over truncation in realizing digital filter.
13 What are the different quantization methods?

Amplitude quantization , vector quantization , scalar quantization

14 What is zero padding? Does zero padding improve the frequencyresolution in the
spectral estimate?

The process of lengthening a sequence by adding zero—valued samples iscalled appending

with zeros or zero padding
15 What is meant by finite word length effects in digital filters?

The digital implementation of the filter has finite accuracy. When numbers are represented in
digital form, errors are introduced due to their finite accuracy. These errors generate finite
precision effects or finite word length effects. When multiplication or addition is performed in
digital filter, the result is to be represented by finite word length (bits). Therefore the result is
quantized so that it can be represented by finite word register. This quantization error can
create noise or oscillations in the output. These effects are called finite word length effects.
16 What is round – off noise error?

Rounding operation is performed only on magnitude of the number. Hence round-off noise
error is independent of type of fixed point representation. If the number is represented by bu
bits before quantization and b bits after quantization, the maximumround-off error will be (2-b
– 2-bu)/2. It issymmetric about zero.
17 what are the different types of arithmetic in digital systems.?
There are three types of arithmetic used in digital systems. They are fixed point arithmetic,
floating point ,block floating point arithmetic.
18 What is meant by fixed point number?.
In fixed point number the position of a binary point is fixed. The bit to theright represent the
fractional part and those to the left is integer part.

19 What are the different types of fixed point arithmetic?

Depending on the negative numbers are represented there are three forms of fixed point
arithmetic. They are sign magnitude,1’s complement,2’s complement

20 What is meant by 2’s complement form?

In 2’s complement form the positive number is represented as in the sign magnitude form. To
obtain the negative of the positive number ,complementall the bits of the positive number and
add 1 to the LSB.
88. What is meant by floating pint representation?
In floating point form the positive number is represented as F =2CM,where is mantissa, is a
fraction such that1/2<M<1and C the exponent can be either positive or negative.
21 What are the advantages of floating pint representation?
[Link] dynamic range
2. Overflow is unlikely.
22 What are the quantization errors due to finite word length registers indigital filters?
[Link] quantization errors
[Link] quantization errors
[Link] quantization errors

23 What is input quantization error?.

The filter coefficients are computed to infinite precision in theory. But in digital computation
the filter coefficients are represented in binary and are stored in registers. If a b bit register is
used the filter coefficients must be rounded or truncated to b bits ,which produces an error.

24 What is product quantization error?

The product quantization errors arise at the output of the multiplier. Multiplication of a b bit
data with a b bit coefficient results a product having2b bits. Since a b bit register is used the
multiplier output will be rounded ortruncated to b bits which produces the error.

PART – B

1 Determine the characteristics of a limit cycle oscillation with respect to the system described by
the difference equation y(n) =0.95y(n-1)+x(n). Determine the dead band of the filter.
2 Draw the quantization noise model for a second order System with system function.
3 Explain the various error introduced due to quantization.
4 Write in detail on Limit Cycle Oscillations.
5 What is the need for signal scaling? How the overflow error scaling is performed?
6 Explain in detail about the zero-input limit cycle oscillations due to finiteword length of
registers
7 Realize the first order transfer function H(z) = 1 / (1-az-1) and draw its quantization model. Find
the steady state noise power due to product round off.
8 Explain about fixed point and floating point representation.
9 Write notes on quantization noise. Dervie the formula for noise power.
10 (i)Consider (b+1)-bit (including sign bit) bipolar ADC. Obtain an expression for signal to
quantization noise ratio. State the assumptions made.
11 Two first order filters are connected in cascaded whose system functions of the individual
sections are H1(Z)=1/(1-0.5 Z)AND H1(Z)=1/(1-0.4 Z).Determine the overall output noise
power.
12 Explain in detail about finite word length effects in digital filters.
13 Bring out the difference between Fixed point and Floating point arithmetic.
14 Derive the formula for noise power. How the scaling is performed in Digitalfilters?