PHYSICAL SCIENCE The most common monosaccharide

SUMMATIVE -Glucose

Which of the following best describes

surface tension?
The structural protein found in hair, skin,
-The stronger the Inter Molecular Force, the and nail
stronger is its surface tension
-Keratin

Which of the following statement is

When atoms of metal & non-metals
considered TRUE about water?
combined
-Gases of water make a substance that
-Ionic Bond
can put out fire

-water is made from two gases that are

flammable This device is used to speed up the protons
to overcome the repulsion between the
-Universal solvent
protons and the target atomic nuclei by
All of these using magnetic and electrical fields

-Particle Accelerator

The second most abundant element in the

universe?
The most abundant of the lipids group
-Helium
-Triglycerides

The atoms involved are both nonmetals.

The biggest stars in the universe
-Covalent
-Red Super Giant

When does a star become unstable?

The following Statements are TRUE
-When it runs out of fuel regarding Intermolecular Force EXCEPT

-There are strong forces only

Hydrogen Bonding Force will combine only
on the following Elements EXCEPT
This refers to the energy required to
-Chlorine
increase the surface area by a unit amount

-Surface tension
This is the ability of fluids to rise in narrow The attraction between like molecules
tubes.
-Cohesion
-Capillary Action

What is known as the origin and production

Liquids which dissolve in each other
of heavy elements?
completely in all proportions.
-Stellar Nucleosynthesis
-Miscible Liquids

In main sequence star, Hydrogen fuses and

Considered as the building blocks of
converted to Helium. What element is
protein
produced from Helium gas at its core?
-Amino Acid
-Carbon

The simplest form of sugar

They are the building blocks of many
-Monosaccharides hormones and are important constituents
of the plasma membrane

-Fats
This is the measure of a liquid’s resistance
to flow.

-Ionic compound Combination of Glucose + Glucose results

to _____

Nucleosynthesis is also known as -Maltose

-Nuclear Fission

How is the energy of star produced?

Attractions BETWEEN the unit particles -By nuclear fusion

that make up an element or compound is
known as
All carbohydrates contain the following
-Intermolecular Force
biomolecules EXCEPT

-Protein
Which of the following Intermolecular
Forces of Attraction is considered as the
weakest?

-London dispersion forces

1-FORMATION-OF-HEAVY- - Concept of Isotopes:

ELEMENTS -Atoms of the same element

differing only in the number of neutrons are
Origin of Elements called Isotopes.
-2 phases of Element Origin: Example Isotopes: H-1, H-2
o Big Bang or Primordial (Deuterium), He-3, He-4, Li-6, Li-7
Nucleosynthesis: Origin of the
- The isotopes produced during the
“light” elements big bang nucleosynthesis were H-1,
o Stellar Nucleosynthesis: H-2, He-3, He-4, Li- 6,7
Production of the “heavy” - Isotopes
elements. o a form of an element that
Nucleosynthesis has the same atomic
number of the original
- the process that creates new element but with different
atomic nuclei from preexisting atomic mass or mass
nucleons (protons and neutrons). number.

Primordial/Big Bang
-The energy and temperature of the
Nucleosynthesis universe are extremely high to cause the
- refers to the process of producing the neutrons and protons to combine and form
“light elements” shortly after the Big Bang. certain species of atomic

- Initial Conditions First Three Minutes nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion.
Post-Big Bang: Protons and neutrons
Nuclear Fusion
collide and combine to form the first
element, Hydrogen. - Through Nuclear Fusion, the light
elements- Hydrogen (H), Helium
-Light Element Formation (He), and small amounts of lithium
-Light Elements Produced: (Li) and beryllium (Be) were
formed.
-Deuterium: Composed of
1 proton and 1 neutron. Origin of Heavier Elements
-Tritium: Formed via the - Occurs billions of years after light
collision of 1 proton and 2 elements in stars with sufficient
neutrons. density for extended fusion periods.
- Heavy elements formed via the
fusion of lighter nuclei within
stars.
 - The density inside a star is great Result: More massive isotopes of
enough to sustain fusion for the same element.
extended time periods required to
synthesize heavy elements.
Element Formation Synopsis
Summary of Element Formation
Processes:
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- Nucleosynthesis: Forms light
- The formation of heavy elements by elements.
fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior - Fusion in Stars: Forms elements
of stars up to iron.
- Stars are hot and dense enough to - Neutron in Capture: Forms
burn elements heavier than iron during
- Key Fusion Pathways: supernova events.
o Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen
Cycle: A sequence that
fuses hydrogen into helium. The Big Bang Model Stages
o Proton-Proton Fusion: Key Stages
Initial fusion of protons to
release energy - Singularity: Initial dense point of
o Triple Alpha Process: the universe.
Fusion of three helium - Inflation: Rapid expansion of the
nuclei to form carbon. universe shortly after the Big Bang.
o Layers near core of stars - Annihilation: Matter and antimatter
have very high temperatures pairs cancel each other out.
enough to nucleosynthesize
Nucleosynthesis Epoch
heavy elements such as
silicon and iron. - Formation of various atomic nuclei
from energy and particles.
Supernova and Neutron Capture - Eventually leads to the creation of
Formation of Elements Heavier than atoms as the universe cools.
Iron
Recombination Phase
- Cannot be formed through fusion
due to energy requirements. - Electrons bond with
- Created during a Supernova, an protons/neutron nuclei, forming
explosive death of a star. atoms and leading to stable
compounds.
Neutron Capture Reaction
Last Scattering Epoch
- Heavy elements produced by
adding neutrons to existing nuclei -Transition from a plasma state to a gas
instead of fusing light nuclei. phase allows photons to travel freely,
resulting in the universe becoming 2 Factors that determine the polarity of
transparent molecules

Stellar Life Cycle 1. The polarity of the bonds between

atoms which can be studied based
Star Evolution Phases on electronegativity.
- Average Star: Runs out of 2. The geometrical shape of the
hydrogen, becomes a Red Giant, molecule which can be predicted
then transitions to a White Dwarf. via the valence shell electron pair
- Massive Star: Evolves faster, repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
becomes a Red Super Giant, and
can form a Neutron Star or Black
Polarity of Molecules
Hole after a supernova.
- All compounds can be classified
Nebula Formation
based on what type of chemical
- Nebula: A large cloud of gas and bond formed when the atoms
dust, often the birthplace of stars. combined.
- The classification of the compound
Conclusion
can be used to determine whether
- The processes of nucleosynthesis, a molecule is polar or non-polar.
fusion, and neutron capture - 2 classifications of compounds are
contribute to the formation of all covalent and ionic.
elements in the universe, - Covalent & Ionic
establishing a foundational o Covalent Compound: the
understanding of cosmic chemistry atoms share one or more
pairs of valence electrons.
o Covalent Bond: consists of
POLARITY OF MOLECULES the mutual sharing of one or
more pairs of electrons
Molecules between two atoms.
o Ionic compounds:
- a group of two or more atoms held
▪ made out of ions
together by chemical bonds.
rather molecules.
- Examples: Salt, water, ozone,
▪ transfer electrons
nitrogen, sugar, coffee, etc.
from one atom to
Polarity another to form an
ionic bond that
- refers to the distribution of electric
relies on
charge around atoms, chemical
electrostatic
groups, or molecules.
attraction to keep
the atoms together.
 o Ionic Bond: occurs when Linus Pauling Electronegativity
there is a transfer of one or
more valence electrons - the electronegativity values of
form one atom to another. some elements on the table,
o Chemical Bonds: are increases within period (from
formed when atoms lose, left to right)
accept or share electrons. - decreases within a group (from
top to bottom).
Bond Polarity

- Electronegativity (EN) CONNECTION OF

o the measure of relative ELECTRONEGATIVITY TO THE
tendency of an atom to POLARITY OF BONDS
attract electrons to itself
- the electronegativity values of
when chemically combined
the atoms involved to get the
with another atom.
o The higher the value of EN, absolute electronegativity
the more it attracts difference (∆EN) which will
electron to itself. help us in predicting what type of
chemical bond that would exist
Ionic Compound
between them.
- The atoms involved are - Types of chemical bond:
combination of nonmetals and o Ionic
metal. o Nonpolar covalent
o NaCl o Polar Covalent
o CaCl2
o Fe2O3
o KBr
Types of chem (∆EN)
o AlCl3
bond
Covalent Compound Ionic ≥1.7
Polar Covalent 0.5-1.6
- the atoms involved are both Nonpolar ≤0.4
nonmetals. Covalent
o CO2
o CCl4
o N2O Polar Covalent Bond
o PCl5 - formed when electrons are shared
o HCl unequally by two atoms in a
compound.
- The bonded pair of atoms form an
electric dipole
 • Dipole means “two poles” which - This type of intermolecular
means that a molecule has one force is very weak.
positive end and one negative end. - acts in short distances.
2. Dipole- Dipole Forces(DDF)
- Molecules with permanent
- Different Molecular Shapes dipoles can interact with other
polar molecules through dipole-
dipole interaction.
- this is electrostatic in nature.

3. Ion- Dipole Forces(IDF)

- When an ionic compound
dissolves in water, the water
molecules arrange their
oppositely charged dipole to be
attracted to the fully charged
EFFECTS OF INTERMOLECULAR ion, creating a very strong
FORCES ON PROPERTIES OF attractive force.
-result of an electrostatic
SUBSTANCES
interaction.
- Intermolecular Forces
o hold molecules together. 4. Hydrogen Bonding Forces
o - Hydrogen that is bonded to
o collectively describe the very electronegative elements
attractions BETWEEN the (F, O, or N) is highly electron
unit particles that make up deficient.
an element or compound.
o The nature of the • if two molecules are only
intermolecular forces connected using VAN DER WAALS
depends on the structure of dispersion forces, then it would
the substance in question. require very little energy to break
o The stronger the those molecules apart from each
intermolecular forces, the other.
greater the forces of
attraction.
- 4 General types of Intermolecular
Forces
1. London Dispersion Forces/
Van der Waals Dispersion
Forces(LDF)
Intermolecular Forces and Physical Viscosity
Properties
- this is the measure a liquid’s
- Stronger intermolecular forces will resistance to flow.
result in a higher physical property - Generally, the stronger is the IMF in
such as higher melting or boiling the liquid the more viscous it is.
points, which require breaking
molecules apart.
- Higher intermolecular forces also BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
leads to a higher freezing point
CHO-CARBOHYDRATES
- Surface tension
o A phenomenon caused by - All carbohydrates contain carbon,
cohesive forces hydrogen and oxygen.
(intermolecular forces) - provide energy to the body,
between molecules particularly through glucose
allowing liquids to create a (simple sugar that is a component
thin film on its surface of starch)
- Serves also as a storage form of
Miscible Liquids
energy (glycogen)
- Liquids which dissolve in each -
other completely in all proportions - They may be classified in the ff:
o Monosaccharides (simple
Capillary Actions
sugars)
- this is the ability of fluids to rise in ▪ Glucose- most
narrow tubes. common, “blood
Convex and Concave Meniscus sugar”, “wine sugar”,
“grape sugar”. The
- Convex meniscus chief source of
o formed when the cohesive energy for our body
forces within a liquid is cells
stronger than the adhesive ▪ Fructose - It is the
forces between the liquid sugar present in
and the surface of the fruits, honey and
container. vegetables, “fruit
- Concave meniscus sugar”, and used as
o the opposite wherein the a sweetener.
adhesive forces is stronger ▪ Galactose - It is the
than the cohesive forces. simple sugar
present in milk and
- The cohesive and adhesive forces peas.
are both due to IMF.
o Disaccharides (simple found in cell walls
sugars-composed of 2 of plants.
monosaccharides.)- held
together by a glycosidic
LIPIDS
bond. Crystalline, water
soluble and sweet to taste. - hydrophobic (water fearing)
▪ Maltose- Glucose + - they are nonpolar molecules.
Glucose - the building blocks of many
▪ Lactose- composed hormones.
of galactose and - important constituents of the
glucose. plasma membrane.
▪ Sucrose- table - A. FATS & OILS
sugar, present in o Triglycerides- The most
almost everything abundant of the lipids
we eat. Glucose + o At room temperature, fats
Fructose are usually solid while oil
exists as liquid.
o Polysaccharides (complex o BUTTER, CHEESE, WHOLE
carbohydrates)- complex MILK, ICE CREAM, LARD &
macromolecules that are FATTY MEALS
made up of chains of
PROTEIN
monosaccharides.
glycosidic bonds. - made up of amino acids.
▪ Starch- what we eat - composed of 4 elements, namely:
from plants, serve 1. Carbon
as a source of 2. Hydrogen
energy for animals 3. Oxygen
and humans. 4. Nitrogen
▪ Glycogen- what we - Examples of proteins and their
store as we digest functions:
starch. Found in the o Keratin- structural protein
muscle and liver. found in hair, skin, and nails
Acts as an o Fibroin / Silk protein -
immediate source of found in silk.
energy in the o Collagen- a major insoluble
muscles. fibrous protein. Found in
▪ Cellulose- made up connective tissues such as
of repeating glucose tendons, ligaments, skin,
units. Cannot be cartilage and the cornea of
digested by the the eye.
body. commonly
 o Enzymes- catalyze
chemical reactions.
▪ Lipase - help in
digestion of fats
▪ Pepsin - help in
breaking down
proteins into
peptides.
▪ Sucrase - also
called invertase;
help in the digestion
of sugars and
starches.
o Myoglobin- stores oxygen
in muscles. It contains a
heme group

NUCLEIC ACIDS

- essential role in the storage,

transfer, and expression of genetic
information.
- The most common examples of
nucleic acids are DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid).