Define the rate of a process in terms of change and time. How is the rate of substrate usage calculated?

Describe the formula for calculating energy transferred per gram

What is the formula for total magnification in microscopy?
of water.

How is energy per gram of food calculated? Explain how extreme temperatures or pH levels affect enzymes.

Describe the process of photosynthesis in plants. How do animals benefit from plants in terms of glucose?

What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis? Define stomata and their function in plants.

What is transpiration in plants? How is the rate of transpiration calculated?

Describe the adaptations of leaves for gas exchange. What adaptations do plants have for extreme environments?

Define auxins in the context of plant growth. How do positively phototropic shoots respond to light?

What is the response of negatively phototropic roots to light? Explain the behavior of positively gravitropic roots.

Describe the behavior of negatively gravitropic shoots. What is the commercial use of selective weedkillers?
 Rate = Substrate used/Time. Rate = Change/Time.

Energy transferred (J/g) = Mass of water (g) x 4.2 (J/g℃) x

Total magnification = eye mag x obj mag.
Temperature Increase (℃).

Extreme temps or pHs can change the shape of the enzyme and
Energy per gram of food (J/g) = Energy in food / mass of food.
can denature it.

Plants use the sun's energy to make glucose, which contributes

As animals eat the plant, they gain glucose from it.
to the plant's biomass.

Stomata are tiny pores on the surface of a plant that allow CO2
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity,
and oxygen to diffuse in and out, and enable water vapor to
concentration of CO2, and temperature.
escape during transpiration.

Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from

Rate of transpiration = Distance moved / Time taken.
plants into the atmosphere.

Small leaves or spines, curled leaves or hairs, thick waxy cuticle, Leaves are broad, have a palisade layer full of chloroplasts, a
thick fleshy stem for water storage, fewer stomata, and sunken transparent upper epidermis, xylem and phloem for water supply,
stomata to reduce water loss. and a waxy cuticle to reduce water loss.

Auxins accumulate on the shady side, promoting growth and Auxins are plant hormones used to control growth, produced in
causing the shoot to bend towards the light. the tips and diffusing backwards.

Positively gravitropic roots have more auxins on the lower side,

Negatively phototropic roots grow away from the light.
causing them to bend downwards.

Selective weedkillers, developed from auxins, affect broad-leaved

Negatively gravitropic shoots have more auxins on the lower
plants and disrupt their normal growth patterns, leading to their
side, causing them to bend upwards.
death.
 How does rooting powder aid in growing cuttings? What role do gibberellins play in flower and fruit formation?

How can gibberellins be used to produce seedless fruits? Describe how the ripening of fruits can be controlled.

Describe the role of ethene in fruit ripening. How do gibberellins affect seed germination?

Define hormones in the context of the human body. What is the function of the pituitary gland?

Explain the role of ovaries in the menstrual cycle. What hormone do testes produce and what is its function?

Describe the function of the thyroid gland. What is the role of adrenaline produced by the adrenal glands?

How does insulin function in the body? Compare the action of neurones and hormones.

What is the purpose of negative feedback in hormone regulation? Explain the process of thyroxine regulation in the body.

Describe the four stages of the menstrual cycle. What hormones control the menstrual cycle?

How does Clomifene therapy assist with infertility? What is the process of IVF?
Gibberellins stimulate seed germination, can make flowers bloom Rooting powder, containing auxins, helps cuttings produce roots
earlier, and can reduce flower formation. rapidly, allowing them to grow.

The ripening of fruits can be controlled while they are still on the Gibberellins can be applied to unpollinated flowers, allowing
plant or during transport to shops. them to develop into fruits.

Gibberellins enable seeds to germinate at times of the year when Ethene is a ripening hormone added to unripe fruit to help it
they normally wouldn’t. ripen to perfection.

The pituitary gland produces many hormones that regulate body Hormones are chemicals released into the blood that affect
conditions and is known as the master gland. target organs.

Testes produce testosterone, which controls puberty and sperm Ovaries produce oestrogen, which is involved in regulating the
production. menstrual cycle.

Adrenaline prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses, The thyroid gland produces thyroxine, which regulates the rate of
increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow. metabolism, heart rate, and temperature.

Neurones have a very fast, short, and precise action, while Insulin, produced by the pancreas, regulates the body's glucose
hormones have a slower, longer, and more general action. level.

If blood thyroxine levels are low, the hypothalamus releases TRH, Negative feedback controls hormone levels by triggering a
stimulating the pituitary gland to release TSH, which then response to return levels to normal when they are too high or too
stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine. low.

Stage 1: Menstruation starts; Stage 2: Uterus lining is repaired;

The menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, oestrogen, LH, and
Stage 3: Egg develops and is released; Stage 4: Uterus lining is
progesterone.
maintained.

IVF involves collecting eggs from a woman, fertilizing them in a

Clomifene therapy releases more FSH and LH, stimulating egg
lab, developing them into embryos, and transferring them back
maturation and ovulation in women who do not ovulate regularly.
into the woman's uterus.
 How do hormonal contraceptives prevent pregnancy? Define homeostasis in biological terms.

Describe the importance of maintaining a constant internal

Define osmoregulation and its significance.
environment in organisms.

How does thermoregulation function in the human body when Explain the role of insulin and glucagon in blood glucose
temperatures rise? regulation.

Describe the differences between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. How do kidneys contribute to homeostasis in the body?

Define the structure and function of nephrons in the kidneys. Describe the levels of organization in an ecosystem.

Explain the concept of interdependence among organisms in a What happens to enzymes in the human body when
community. temperatures fall below the optimum level?

How do blood vessels respond when the body is cold? Describe the process that occurs in the kidneys to filter blood.

How does the body respond to cold temperatures to maintain

What is mutualism in ecological relationships?
thermoregulation?

Explain the consequences of improper osmoregulation in cells. Describe the relationship between parasites and their hosts.

Define abiotic factors and provide examples. How do biotic factors influence communities?
 High levels of oestrogen prevent the release of an egg, while
Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a stable internal
progesterone reduces fertility and stimulates thick cervical
environment in the body.
mucus production.

Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining a balance between It is crucial for keeping conditions stable, allowing organisms to
water intake and output, which is essential for cell function and respond to internal and external changes, and ensuring proper
preventing cell damage due to osmotic pressure. functioning of biological processes.

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by facilitating glucose uptake

When hot, the erector muscles relax, sweat production increases,
by cells, while glucagon raises blood glucose levels by promoting
and blood vessels widen to help cool the body down.
the release of glucose from stored sources.

Kidneys remove urea, adjust ion levels, and regulate water Type 1 diabetes is characterized by a lack of insulin and is treated
content, filtering blood at high pressure to maintain internal with insulin therapy, while Type 2 diabetes involves insulin
balance. resistance and is often correlated with obesity.

An ecosystem consists of individual organisms, populations of a Nephrons filter liquid from the blood at high pressure,
single species, communities of different species, and the non- reabsorbing useful substances like glucose, ions, and water, while
living conditions that support them. waste passes to the bladder.

Interdependence refers to the reliance of different organisms on

Enzymes work slower at temperatures below the optimum, which
each other for survival and reproduction, highlighting the
is around 37 degrees Celsius.
interconnectedness of species.

The liquid part of the blood is forced out of the glomerulus into
Blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow to the skin, helping
the Bowman's capsule at high pressure, allowing for the filtration
to conserve body heat.
of waste and reabsorption of useful substances.

In cold conditions, the erector muscles contract, sweat

Mutualism is a relationship between two organisms where both
production decreases, blood vessels constrict, and shivering
benefit from the interaction.
occurs to generate heat.

If osmoregulation is not maintained, cells may burst due to

Parasites live very closely to their hosts, often relying on them for
excessive water intake or shrink due to insufficient water, both of
survival.
which can disrupt cellular functions.

Abiotic factors are non-living components of the environment

Biotic factors, such as competition and predation, affect the
that affect communities, such as temperature, amount of water,
interactions and population dynamics within communities.
light intensity, and level of pollutants.
 Explain the purpose of using a quadrat in ecological studies. What is a belt transect and how is it used?

Describe the flow of energy in a food chain. Identify the primary source of energy for life on Earth.

How do plants utilize light energy? Define the pyramid of biomass.

What is the formula for calculating efficiency in energy transfer? How do humans contribute to the reduction of biodiversity?

List some methods for conserving biodiversity. What are the benefits of maintaining biodiversity?

Explain the concept of food security. Identify biological factors that affect food security.

Describe the carbon cycle. What is the water cycle?

Define droughts and their impact. What is desalinization?

 A belt transect involves marking out a line and collecting data A quadrat is used to count all the organisms in a specific area,
along it using quadrats to record the distribution of organisms allowing researchers to repeat the process and calculate the
and identify any correlations. mean number of organisms.

The sun is the primary source of energy for nearly all life on Energy is passed along the food chain, but not all energy is
Earth. transferred; some is lost at each level.

The pyramid of biomass shows the total weight of organisms at Plants convert a small percentage of light energy into glucose
each level of the food chain. through photosynthesis.

Humans reduce biodiversity through activities such as

Efficiency = (Energy transferred to the next level) / (Energy
deforestation, eutrophication, fish farming, and introducing non-
available at previous level).
indigenous species.

Maintaining biodiversity protects the human food supply,

minimizes damage to food chains, provides future medicine, Methods for conserving biodiversity include reforestation and
supports cultural aspects, promotes ecotourism, and creates new implementing conservation schemes.
jobs.

Biological factors affecting food security include increased

Food security refers to the availability of food and individuals'
consumption of meat and fish, environmental changes,
access to it, which is challenged by rising populations and the
sustainability issues, and the emergence of new pests and
need for increased food production.
pathogens.

The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water

The carbon cycle involves the constant recycling of materials,
within the Earth and atmosphere, involving processes such as
including carbon, through various processes in the environment.
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.

Droughts occur when there is no precipitation for a prolonged

Desalinization is the process of removing salt from salt water to
period, leading to water shortages and negative effects on
make it potable, providing fresh water for consumption.
ecosystems and agriculture.