PETROLEUM GEOLOGY - University of Perugia, 2022/2023
• Mod 1 – Petrophysics and well log interpretation
M. Porreca
Rock properties
(Lecture VIII)
- Compaction curves
- Physical and chemical compactions
- Fracture porosity and fracture permeability
- Fracture characterization
- Fractured reservoirs
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fracture Porosity and permeability estimations
Fracture porosity is a very difficult number to calculate.
Estimates can be made by:
1. Core analysis
2. kf/ϕf relationship
3. Field determinations
4. Logs (no direct method)
5. Multiple well tests
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
1. Fracture Porosity from Core Analysis
X-Ray Cross
Tomography show a
pronounced vertical
heterogeneity with
intervals characterized
by a very high "vuggy
porosity" inside a
general very poor
matrix, the presence
of well-defined
fracture planes, at
medium to high dip
angle is observed
2. Rock properties (VIII)
1. Fracture Porosity from Core
Analysis
Fracture density is very high in the uppermost
part of the coring, where many features
suggest a tectonic origin. Here open fractures
are more frequent than the cemented ones.
Between 3848 and 3850 m fracture density
cannot any more estimated because on core
the rock fracturing and/or comminution is so
intense and pervasive that rock assumes the
aspect of a cataclasite, where pre-existing
sedimentary and tectonic structures are totally
obliterated
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fracture Porosity and permeability estimations
Fracture porosity is a very difficult number to calculate.
Estimates can be made by:
1. Core analysis
2. kf/ϕf relationship
3. Field determinations
4. Logs
5. Multiple well tests
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
3. Field measurements of fracture porosity
Outcrop analog of a fractured reservoir. Cretaceous Frontier Formation sandstone at Muddy Gap, Wyoming. Beds dip toward viewer.
Traces of long opening-mode fractures that are inclined normal to bedding define a pronounced preferred orientation. The pattern here
fits closely with widely held views of fractures in the subsurface, but this simple trace pattern is just one end member of a range of
possible patterns that are commonly more complex (see for example, Olson et al., 2009).
Inset shows open fracture in 4-inch diameter core, Frontier Formation, Green River Basin Wyoming. Information on fracture length and
spacing can be obtained from outcrops, rarely from core.
2. Rock properties (VIII)
3. Field measurements of fracture porosity
High fractured and
porosity zones
Complex fracture development related to stratigraphic architecture: Challenges for
structural deformation prediction, Tensleep Sandstone at the Alcova anticline, Wyoming
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
3. Field measurements of fracture porosity
Calculated fracture porosity(%) distribution
by fracture spacing measurement point or
station on a surface fold in Ordovician Big
Horn dolomite, western Wyoming thrust belt.
The method of ϕf calculation can involve both
field and laboratory measurements and is
quite time-consuming.
Its advantage lies in the fact that structural and
stratigraphic inhomogeneities in ϕf can be
modeled and predicted.
(Nelson, 2001)
2. Rock properties (VIII)
3. Field measurements of fracture porosity
New techniques!... Terrestrial Laser scanner (TLS)
Rock exposure with well-developed discontinuity sets along a secondary road in Spain, from the towns of Falset to Bellmunt in
Baix-Camp, Catalonia. The rock mass consist of Carboniferous Meta-Siltstone and Slates.
The dimensions of the white boards are 60x60 cm. The size of the outlined area that is used for the laser scan analysis is 4x4 m.
TLS: few minutes, thousands of data
2. Rock properties (VIII)
3. Field measurements of fracture porosity
New techniques!... Terrestrial Laser scanner (TLS)
This is a visualization of the laserscan pointcloud of the This illustration is the same pointcloud, but now each point is
part of the rock exposure. The grey-scaled value is the classified (‘segmented’) to individual discontinuity planes.
laser’s reflected intensity value. This point cloud consist of The various classes (planes) are show with different colours.
616300 points, that are defined by their x, y and z In this case a total of 285 individual planes were recognised 17
coordinate values.
2. Rock properties (VIII)
3. Field measurements of fracture porosity
New techniques!... Terrestrial Laser scanner (TLS)
This illustration shows the segmented point, but now The orientations of the 285 individual planes that were recognised after the pointcloud
segmentation are plotted in this stereo (polar) plot. Visually, 5 discontinuity sets are
classified according to the 5 discontinuity sets that are
recognised. The only user input is the number of joint sets. The colour of the poles in the
identified in the stereoplot of all the 285 planes various sets correspond with the coloured pointcloud in Figure 5, i.e. the ‘red’ set (1) is the
bedding, which is the same as the slatey cleavage in this case.
2. Rock properties (VIII)
4. Well-log measurements of fracture porosity
The FMI fullbore formation
microimager provides real-
time microresistivity
formation images and dip
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
4. Well-log measurements of fracture porosity
High angle Low angle
Interpretation of the surface crossing the borehole using Image Logs 20
2. Rock properties (VIII)
4. Well-log measurements of fracture porosity
Image Log vs. Core Logs
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
4. Well-log measurements of fracture porosity
(Left) Rose diagrams of each well indicating
fracture orientation as measured from the
image-logs.
Fracture qualities of A-D are color coded red
(A), green (B), purple (C) and blue (D).
A-C fractures were the most reliable in
determining fracture strike.
(Center and right) Portion of an image-log
interpretation showing the various types of
interpreted fractures (A-D), bedding planes
and faults
The FMI fullbore formation microimager provides real-
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time microresistivity formation images and dip
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fracture Porosity and permeability estimations
The scale problem!
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
Classification of Fractured Reservoirs
• Delineates the reservoir parameters most important in quantifying the
reservoir (high-grades data acquisition)
• Potential production & evaluation problems can be anticipated
• The style of reservoir simulation necessary can be constrained
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured Reservoir Classification
Type I: Fractures provide the essential storage capacity and permeability in a
reservoir. The matrix has little porosity or permeability (Conduit to flow).
Type II: Rock matrix provides the essential storage capacity and fractures provide the
essential permeability in a reservoir. The rock matrix has low permeability, but may
have low, moderate, or even high porosity.
Type III: Fractures provide a permeability assist in an already economically
producible reservoir that has good matrix porosity and permeability.
Type IV: Fractures do not provide significant additional storage capacity or
permeability in an already producible reservoir, but instead create anisotropy.
(Barriers to Flow)
Nelson (1999)
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured Reservoir Classification
Schematic Distribution of Fractured Reservoir Types
All
100% kf Fractures
Permeability II I
% of Total
III
Decreasing Effect of Matrix
Increasing Effect of Fractures
IV
100% km
All 100% fm % of Total Porosity 100% ff
Matrix
Nelson (1999)
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured Reservoir Classification
Interconnected fractures network on carbonate
Type I bedding plane, Kilve, Somerset, UK. The
fracture porosity in this field appears to average
about 1.8 percent
Asmari carbonates above Pabdeh marls, oilfield,
showing progradation of slope systems from top left
down to bottom right. These Oligocene-age carbonates Type III
form the main shallow reservoir system of the Kirkuk
and Gachsaran fields.
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured Reservoir Classification
The following checklist will aid in outlining the workflow of a fractured reservoir evaluation:
1. Document fracture presence 1. Predict fracture distribution and extent
• Logs • Extrapolation using fracture type and observations
• Cores 2. Estimate fracture spacing and spacing variability
• Anomalous flow rates • Cores[1][10]
2. Determine if structure is present • Borehole Televiewer
• Seismic, gravity, magnetics • Predictions (including relevant outcrops)
• Structure maps 3. Estimate fracture width
• Dipmeters • Laboratory data
3. Determine lithological control of fracture distribution • Flow test data
• Logs • Thin sections
• Cores and fracture stratigraphy • Impregnation and dissolution
• Logs and flow tests or DSTs 4. Estimate reservoir properties at depth
4. Document fracture systems geometry • φm' k
• Borehole Televiewer or Formation MicroScanner • φf' kf
• Cores • Using data from steps 1 through 3
• Predictions (including relevant outcrops) 5. Estimate fracture and matrix interaction
5. Document fracture morphology • φf / φm interaction
• Cores • kf / km contrast
• Borehole Televiewer 6. Correlate small-scale petrophysical properties with large-scale reservoir engineering tests
• Predictions (including relevant outcrops) 7. Determine fractured reservoir type
6. Determine fracture type (origin) • Correlate matrix and fracture properties and their communication to determine
• Application of observations to empirical models using data from relative contribution of the fracture system and potential recovery problem
steps 1 through 5 8. Make conclusions relevant to the type of evaluation
• Early exploration evaluation
• Estimation of economic potential
• Recovery planning and reservoir modeling 28
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Naturally fractured reservoir models
Real (a) and idealized (b)
dual-porosity reservoir model
Naturally fractured reservoirs are characterized by the presence of two distinct types of porous
media: matrix and fracture. Because of the different fluid storage and conductivity characteristics of
the matrix and fractures, these reservoirs often are called dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure illustrates a naturally fractured reservoir composed of a rock matrix surrounded by an irregular
system of vugs and natural fractures. Fortunately, it has been observed that a real, heterogeneous,
naturally fractured reservoir has a characteristic behavior that can be interpreted using an equivalent,
homogeneous dual-porosity model such as that shown in the idealized sketch.
2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured reservoir modelling
Fractured Reservoir Modeling
Fractured Discrete Fracture Dual Continuum
Reservoir Network (DFN) Model Model
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured reservoir modelling
- Conventional simulation:
Single cell with porosity and K
- Discrete Fracture Network simulation:
Fracture projections
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2. Rock properties (VIII)
Fractured reservoir modelling – DFN workflow
References
• Nelson (2001) Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured
Reservoirs. 2nd Edition.
• http://wiki.aapg.org/Fractured_reservoir_evaluation
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