2025/03/05

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In the previous class,
−
−y +y
ψ Û Û ψ
+

iϕ
i Qubit: ψ = cos(θ / 2) 0 + sin(θ / 2)e 1 + =
1
2
( 0 +1 ) +y =
1
2
( 0 +i 1 )
(Parameter range: 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π ) − =
1
( 0 −1 ) −y =
1
( 0 −i 1 )
2 2

i Orthonormal basis: e.g., { 0 , 1 }

→ n m = δ n,m : orthonormality
→ ∑ n n = Iˆ : completeness relation
n

i Probability amplitude: ψ = α 0 + β 1 = 0 ψ 0 + 1 ψ 1

i Normalization: ψ ψ = 1
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In the previous class,
Input Output
ψ Û Û ψ

i Vector representation of ψ i Matrix representation of Û

⎛ α ⎞ ⎛ U 00 U 01 ⎞
ψ =α 0 +β 1 =⎜ ⎟ U nm = n Û m , U = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ β ⎠ ⎜⎝ U10 U11 ⎟⎠

i Matrix and vector calculation of the output state Û ψ

⎛ U 00 U 01 ⎞⎛ α ⎞
By using n Û ψ = ∑ n Û m m ψ , → Û ψ = ⎜ ⎟⎜
m
⎜⎝ U10 U11 ⎟⎠ ⎝ β ⎟⎠

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In the previous class,
Input Output
ψ Û Û ψ

e.g. NOT gate (X operator, bit flip)

i X̂ 0 → 1 , X̂ 1 → 0 , X̂ (α 0 + β 1 ) = α 1 + β 0

i Braket representation
X̂ = 1 0 + 0 1

i Matrix representation
⎛ 0 1 ⎞
X=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 0 ⎠

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Quantum Operation
∗ Noiseless evolution is described by a unitary operator Û.
Input Output
ψ Û Û ψ

Unitary operator

Unitary operator Û, ÛÛ = Û Û = Iˆ.

† †

i Reversible evolution: Û −1 = Û †
i U is a unitary matrix: U(U ) = I
* T

i Output state: ψ ′ = Û ψ . Normalization?

ψ ′ ψ ′ = ψ Û †Û ψ = ψ I ψ = ψ ψ = 1
→ Norm: ψ 2
≡ ψ ψ = 1 is preserved.
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More examples of unitary operators
2) Z operator (phase flip)
i Ẑ 0 → 0 , Ẑ 1 → − 1 , Ẑ (α 0 + β 1 ) = α 0 − β 1

i Braket representation of Ẑ = 0 0 − 1 1
⎛ 1 0 ⎞
i Matrix representation of Ẑ ? Z = ⎜
⎝ 0 −1 ⎟⎠

⎛ 0 −i ⎞
3) Y operator: Y = ⎜ ⎟ i Braket representation : −i 0 1 + i 1 0
⎝ i 0 ⎠

⎛ 1 0 ⎞
4) Identity operator: I = ⎜ ⎟ i Braket representation : 0 0+1 1
⎝ 0 1 ⎠

ˆ σ̂ = X̂, σ̂ = Yˆ , σ̂ = Ẑ
∗ Pauli operators: σ̂ 0 = I, 1 2 3

Hermitian: σ̂ i = σ̂ i † Unitary: σ̂ iσ̂ i = Iˆ

†

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Commutator and anticommutator
i Commutator ⎡⎣ Â, B̂ ⎤⎦ ≡ ÂB̂ − B̂Â

If ⎡⎣ Â, B̂ ⎤⎦ = 0, ÂB̂ = B̂Â. → Â and B̂ commute.

{ }
i Anticommutator: Â, B̂ ≡ ÂB̂ + B̂Â

{ }
If Â, B̂ = 0, ÂB̂ = − B̂Â. → Â and B̂ anticommute.

< HW#1>
For Pauli operators (σ̂ 1 , σ̂ 2 , σ̂ 3 ), calculate σ̂ iσ̂ j for i, j ∈{1,2, 3} .
{ }
Using the result, determine ⎡⎣σ̂ i , σ̂ j ⎤⎦ and σ̂ i , σ̂ j .

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Diagonalizing an operator
i Spectral decomposition
▹ For a normal operator V̂ (V̂V̂ = V̂ V̂ ), e.g., Hermitian operator, Unitary operator
† †

→ Spectral decomposition: V̂ = ∑ λn un un
n

where eigenstates and eigenvalues are V̂ un = λn un , { u } : orthonormal basis

n

→ f (V̂ ) = ∑ f (λn ) un un
n

< Spectral decomposition >

▹ Ẑ 0 = 0 , Ẑ 1 = − 1
Ẑ = 0 0 − 1 1
▹ X̂ + = + , X̂ − = − −
X̂ = + + − − −
▹ Yˆ +y = +y , Yˆ −y = − −y Yˆ = +y +y − −y −y
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Diagonalizing an operator

i Eigenvalue of a unitary operator (Û ): λn = 1

2
▹ Û un = λn un → un Û Û un = λn = 1
†

i Eigenvalue of a Hermitian operator (Ĥ = Ĥ ): λn ∈real

†

▹ Ĥ un = λn un , un Ĥ = un λn : un Ĥ un = λn ,
† *
un Ĥ un = λn
† *

→ As Ĥ = Ĥ † , λn = λn * . i.e., λn ∈real

i Pauli operators are both unitary and hermitian.

▹ λn = ±1

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Quantum operation on Bloch Sphere

−
−y +y

X̂ 0 = 1 X̂ +y = i −y
X̂ 1 = 0 X̂ −y = −i +y

Rotation about X axis by 180 deg.

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Quantum operation on Bloch Sphere
Z

n = (nx ,ny ,nz ) < Rotation Operators >

φ
Y R̂n (φ ) = exp ( −iφ / 2 n ⋅ σ̂ )

( n ⋅σ̂ = n X̂ + n Yˆ + n Ẑ )
X
x y z

( )
i Example: R̂Z (φ ) = exp −iφ / 2 Ẑ = exp ( −iφ / 2 ( 0 0 − 1 1 ))

= exp ( −iφ / 2 ) 0 0 + exp ( iφ / 2 ) 1 1 = cos (φ / 2 ) Iˆ − i sin (φ / 2 ) Ẑ

< HW #2 >
R̂n (φ ) = exp ( −iφ / 2 n ⋅ σ̂ ) , n ⋅ σ̂ = nx X̂ + nyYˆ + nz Ẑ
prove that R̂n (φ ) = cos (φ / 2 ) Iˆ − i sin (φ / 2 ) n ⋅ σ̂
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Basis change operation
∗ Hadamard gate 0 1
i Ĥ 0 → + , Ĥ 1 → −
i Ĥ = + 0 + − 1 1 0
BS
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
H=
2 ⎜⎝ 1 −1 ⎟⎠

∗ Basis change operation

i For orthonormal bases { u } and { v }, { u } → { v }?
n n n n

i.e., for ψ = ∑ n cn un , ψ ′ = Û ψ = ∑ n cn vn

Û = ∑ vn un ÛÛ † = Iˆ → Û is unitary operation

n
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