Solar flare

(Redirected from Solar flares)

A solar flare is a relatively intense, localized emission of
electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. Flares
occur in active regions and are often, but not always,
accompanied by coronal mass ejections, solar particle
events, and other eruptive solar phenomena. The occurrence
of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle.

Solar flares are thought to occur when stored magnetic

energy in the Sun's atmosphere accelerates charged particles An illustration of the structure of the Sun
in the surrounding plasma. This results in the emission of
Granules Tachocline
electromagnetic radiation across the electromagnetic
spectrum. Sunspot Solar core
Photosphere Solar corona
The extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from solar Chromosphere Flare
flares is absorbed by the daylight side of Earth's upper Convection zone Prominence
atmosphere, in particular the ionosphere, and does not Radiative zone Solar wind
reach the surface. This absorption can temporarily increase
the ionization of the ionosphere which may interfere with
short-wave radio communication. The prediction of solar flares is an active
area of research.

Flares also occur on other stars, where the term stellar flare applies.

The electromagnetic spectrum is the

Physical descriptionfull range of electromagnetic radiation,
organized by frequency or wavelength.
The spectrum
Solar flares are eruptions of electromagnetic is divided
radiation into separate
originating in the
Sun's atmosphere. [1] bands, with different names
They affect all layers of the solar atmosphere for the
(photosphere, chromosphere, andelectromagnetic [2] The waves
corona). plasma within
mediumeach is
7 band. From low to high frequency Image artifacts (diffraction spikes
heated to >10 kelvin, while electrons, protons, and heavier ionsthese
are
[3][4] and vertical streaks) appearing in a
are:
accelerated to near the speed of light. radio waves, microwaves, infrared,
Flares emit electromagnetic CCD image of a major solar flare
radiation across the electromagneticvisiblespectrum,
light, ultraviolet,
from radioX-rays,
waves andto due to the excess incident radiation
gamma rays. [2] gamma rays. The electromagnetic waves
in each of these bands have different
Flares occur in active regions, often around sunspots,
characteristics, such as where intense
how they are
magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere
produced,to link howthethey
corona to the solar
interact with
interior. Flares are powered by thematter,
suddenand (timescales of minutes
their practical to tens
applications.
of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same
energy releases may also produce coronal mass ejections (CMEs),
although the relationship between CMEs and flares is not well
understood.[5] An X3.2-class solar flare observed
in different wavelengths. Clockwise
Associated with solar flares are flare sprays.[6] They involve faster from top left: 304, 335, 131, and 193
ejections of material than eruptive prominences,[7] and reach velocities of Å
20 to 2000 kilometers per second.[8]
Cause
Flares occur when accelerated charged particles, mainly electrons, interact with the plasma medium. Evidence
suggests that the phenomenon of magnetic reconnection leads to this extreme acceleration of charged
particles.[9] On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades – a type of prominence
consisting of a series of closely occurring loops following magnetic lines of force.[10] These lines of force
quickly reconnect into a lower arcade of loops leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the
arcade. The sudden release of energy in this reconnection is the origin of the particle acceleration. The
unconnected magnetic helical field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a
coronal mass ejection.[11] This also explains why solar flares typically erupt from active regions on the Sun
where magnetic fields are much stronger.

Although there is a general agreement on the source of a flare's energy, the mechanisms involved are not well
understood. It is not clear how the magnetic energy is transformed into the kinetic energy of the particles, nor
is it known how some particles can be accelerated to the GeV range (109 electron volt) and beyond. There are
also some inconsistencies regarding the total number of accelerated particles, which sometimes seems to be
greater than the total number in the coronal loop.[12]

Post-eruption loops and arcades

After the eruption of a solar flare, post-eruption loops made of hot
plasma begin to form across the neutral line separating regions of opposite
magnetic polarity near the flare's source. These loops extend from the
photosphere up into the corona and form along the neutral line at
increasingly greater distances from the source as time progresses.[14] The
existence of these hot loops is thought to be continued by prolonged
heating present after the eruption and during the flare's decay stage.[15]

In sufficiently powerful flares, typically of C-class or higher, the loops may A post-eruption arcade present after
combine to form an elongated arch-like structure known as a post- an X5.7-class solar flare during the
eruption arcade. These structures may last anywhere from multiple Bastille Day solar storm[13]
hours to multiple days after the initial flare.[14] In some cases, dark
sunward-traveling plasma voids known as supra-arcade downflows may
form above these arcades.[16]

Frequency
The frequency of occurrence of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle. It can typically range from
several per day during solar maxima to less than one every week during solar minima. Additionally, more
powerful flares are less frequent than weaker ones. For example, X10-class (severe) flares occur on average
about eight times per cycle, whereas M1-class (minor) flares occur on average about 2000 times per cycle.[17]

Erich Rieger discovered with coworkers in 1984, an approximately 154 day period in the occurrence of
gamma-ray emitting solar flares at least since the solar cycle 19.[18] The period has since been confirmed in
most heliophysics data and the interplanetary magnetic field and is commonly known as the Rieger period.
The period's resonance harmonics also have been reported from most data types in the heliosphere.

The frequency distributions of various flare phenomena can be characterized by power-law distributions. For
example, the peak fluxes of radio, extreme ultraviolet, and hard and soft X-ray emissions; total energies; and
flare durations (see § Duration) have been found to follow power-law distributions.[19][20][21][22]: 23–28
Classification

Soft X-ray
The modern classification system for solar flares uses
the letters A, B, C, M, or X, according to the peak flux in
watts per square metre (W/m2) of soft X-rays with
wavelengths 0.1 to 0.8 nanometres (1 to 8 ångströms),
as measured by GOES satellites in geosynchronous
orbit.

Classification Peak flux range (W/m2)

A < 10−7

B 10−7 – 10−6

C 10−6 – 10−5

M 10−5 – 10−4 An M5.8, M2.3, and X2.8 flare were recorded by GOES-16
X > 10 −4 on 14 December 2023. Their corresponding peak fluxes in
the 0.1 to 0.8 nm channel were 5.8×10−5, 2.3×10−5, and
−4 2
The strength of an event within a class is noted by a 2.8×10 W/m , respectively.
numerical suffix ranging from 1 up to, but excluding, 10,
which is also the factor for that event within the class.
Hence, an X2 flare is twice the strength of an X1 flare, an X3 flare is three times as powerful as an X1. M-class
flares are a tenth the size of X-class flares with the same numeric suffix.[23] An X2 is four times more powerful
than an M5 flare.[24] X-class flares with a peak flux that exceeds 10−3 W/m2 may be noted with a numerical
suffix equal to or greater than 10.

This system was originally devised in 1970 and included only the letters C, M, and X. These letters were
chosen to avoid confusion with other optical classification systems. The A and B classes were added in the
1990s as instruments became more sensitive to weaker flares. Around the same time, the backronym
moderate for M-class flares and extreme for X-class flares began to be used.[25]

Importance
An earlier classification system, sometimes referred to as the flare importance, was based on H-alpha spectral
observations. The scheme uses both the intensity and emitting surface. The classification in intensity is
qualitative, referring to the flares as: faint (f), normal (n), or brilliant (b). The emitting surface is measured in
terms of millionths of the hemisphere and is described below. (The total hemisphere area AH = 15.5 × 1012
km2.)

Corrected area
Classification
(millionths of hemisphere)

S < 100

1 100–250
2 250–600

3 600–1200

4 > 1200

A flare is then classified taking S or a number that represents its size and a letter that represents its peak
intensity, v.g.: Sn is a normal sunflare.[26]
Duration
A common measure of flare duration is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) time of flux in the soft X-ray
bands 0.05 to 0.4 and 0.1 to 0.8 nm measured by GOES. The FWHM time spans from when a flare's flux first
reaches halfway between its maximum flux and the background flux and when it again reaches this value as
the flare decays. Using this measure, the duration of a flare ranges from approximately tens of seconds to
several hours with a median duration of approximately 6 and 11 minutes in the 0.05 to 0.4 and 0.1 to 0.8 nm
bands, respectively.[27][28]

Flares can also be classified based on their duration as either impulsive or long duration events (LDE).
The time threshold separating the two is not well defined. The SWPC regards events requiring 30 minutes or
more to decay to half maximum as LDEs, whereas Belgium's Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence regards
events with duration greater than 60 minutes as LDEs.[29][30]

Effects
The electromagnetic radiation emitted during a solar flare propagates away from the Sun at the speed of light
with intensity inversely proportional to the square of the distance from its source region. The excess ionizing
radiation, namely X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) radiation, is known to affect planetary atmospheres
and is of relevance to human space exploration and the search for extraterrestrial life.

Solar flares also affect other objects in the Solar System. Research into these effects has primarily focused on
the atmosphere of Mars and, to a lesser extent, that of Venus.[31] The impacts on other planets in the Solar
System are little studied in comparison. As of 2024, research on their effects on Mercury have been limited to
modeling of the response of ions in the planet's magnetosphere,[32] and their impact on Jupiter and Saturn
have only been studied in the context of X-ray radiation back scattering off of the planets' upper
atmospheres.[33][34]

Ionosphere
Enhanced XUV irradiance during solar flares can result in increased
ionization, dissociation, and heating in the ionospheres of Earth and
Earth-like planets. On Earth, these changes to the upper atmosphere,
collectively referred to as sudden ionospheric disturbances, can interfere
with short-wave radio communication and global navigation satellite
systems (GNSS) such as GPS,[35] and subsequent expansion of the upper
atmosphere can increase drag on satellites in low Earth orbit leading to
orbital decay over time.[36][37] Structure of Earth's nightside (left)
and dayside (right) ionospheric sub-
Flare-associated XUV photons interact with and ionize neutral layers under normal conditions
constituents of planetary atmospheres via the process of photoionization.
The electrons that are freed in this process, referred to as photoelectrons
to distinguish them from the ambient ionospheric electrons, are left with kinetic energies equal to the photon
energy in excess of the ionization threshold. In the lower ionosphere where flare impacts are greatest and
transport phenomena are less important, the newly liberated photoelectrons lose energy primarily via
thermalization with the ambient electrons and neutral species and via secondary ionization due to collisions
with the latter, or so-called photoelectron impact ionization. In the process of thermalization, photoelectrons
transfer energy to neutral species, resulting in heating and expansion of the neutral atmosphere.[38] The
greatest increases in ionization occur in the lower ionosphere where wavelengths with the greatest relative
increase in irradiance—the highly penetrative X-ray wavelengths—are absorbed, corresponding to Earth's E
and D layers and Mars's M1 layer.[31][35][39][40][41]
Radio blackouts
The temporary increase in ionization of the daylight side of Earth's atmosphere, in particular the D layer of the
ionosphere, can interfere with short-wave radio communications that rely on its level of ionization for
skywave propagation. Skywave, or skip, refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted off of
the ionized ionosphere. When ionization is higher than normal, radio waves get degraded or completely
absorbed by losing energy from the more frequent collisions with free electrons.[1][35]

The level of ionization of the atmosphere correlates with the strength of the associated solar flare in soft X-ray
radiation. The Space Weather Prediction Center, a part of the United States National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, classifies radio blackouts by the peak soft X-ray intensity of the associated flare.

Associated
Classification
SXR class Description[17]

R1 M1 Minor radio blackout

R2 M5 Moderate radio blackout

R3 X1 Strong radio blackout

R4 X10 Severe radio blackout

R5 X20 Extreme radio blackout

Solar flare effect

During non-flaring or solar quiet conditions, electric currents flow through
the ionosphere's dayside E layer inducing small-amplitude diurnal
variations in the geomagnetic field. These ionospheric currents can be
strengthened during large solar flares due to increases in electrical
conductivity associated with enhanced ionization of the E and D layers.
The subsequent increase in the induced geomagnetic field variation is
referred to as a solar flare effect (sfe) or historically as a magnetic
crochet. The latter term derives from the French word crochet meaning
hook reflecting the hook-like disturbances in magnetic field strength
observed by ground-based magnetometers. These disturbances are on the
order of a few nanoteslas and last for a few minutes, which is relatively
Electric currents in Earth's dayside
minor compared to those induced during geomagnetic storms.[42][43]
ionosphere can be strengthened
during a large solar flare

Health

Low Earth orbit

For astronauts in low Earth orbit, an expected radiation dose from the electromagnetic radiation emitted
during a solar flare is about 0.05 gray, which is not immediately lethal on its own. Of much more concern for
astronauts is the particle radiation associated with solar particle events.[44]

Mars
The impacts of solar flare radiation on Mars are relevant to exploration and the search for life on the planet.
Models of its atmosphere indicate that the most energetic solar flares previously recorded may have provided
acute doses of radiation that would have been almost harmful or lethal to mammals and other higher
organisms on Mars's surface. Furthermore, flares energetic enough to provide lethal doses, while not yet
observed on the Sun, are thought to occur and have been observed on other Sun-like stars.[45][46][47]
Observational history
Flares produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, although with different intensity. They are not
very intense in visible light, but they can be very bright at particular spectral lines. They normally produce
bremsstrahlung in X-rays and synchrotron radiation in radio.[48]

Optical observations
Solar flares were first observed by Richard Carrington and Richard
Hodgson independently on 1 September 1859 by projecting the image of
the solar disk produced by an optical telescope through a broad-band
filter.[50][51] It was an extraordinarily intense white light flare, a flare
emitting a high amount of light in the visual spectrum.[50]

Since flares produce copious amounts of radiation at H-alpha,[52] adding a

narrow (≈1 Å) passband filter centered at this wavelength to the optical Richard Carrington's sketch of the
telescope allows the observation of not very bright flares with small first recorded solar flare (A and B
telescopes. For years Hα was the main, if not the only, source of mark the initial bright points which
information about solar flares. Other passband filters are also used. moved over the course of five
minutes to C and D before
disappearing.)[49]
Radio observations
During World War II, on February 25 and 26, 1942, British radar
operators observed radiation that Stanley Hey interpreted as solar emission. Their discovery did not go public
until the end of the conflict. The same year, Southworth also observed the Sun in radio, but as with Hey, his
observations were only known after 1945. In 1943, Grote Reber was the first to report radioastronomical
observations of the Sun at 160 MHz. The fast development of radioastronomy revealed new peculiarities of the
solar activity like storms and bursts related to the flares. Today, ground-based radiotelescopes observe the
Sun from c. 15 MHz up to 400 GHz.

Space telescopes
Because the Earth's atmosphere absorbs much of the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the Sun with wavelengths shorter than 300 nm,
space-based telescopes allowed for the observation of solar flares in
previously unobserved high-energy spectral lines. Since the 1970s, the
GOES series of satellites have been continuously observing the Sun in soft
X-rays, and their observations have become the standard measure of
flares, diminishing the importance of the H-alpha classification.
Observations of a solar flare by
Additionally, space-based telescopes allow for the observation of extremely different instruments aboard the
long wavelengths—as long as a few kilometres—which cannot propagate Solar Dynamics Observatory
through the ionosphere.

Examples of large solar flares

The most powerful flare ever observed is thought to be the flare associated with the 1859 Carrington Event.[54]
While no soft X-ray measurements were made at the time, the magnetic crochet associated with the flare was
recorded by ground-based magnetometers allowing the flare's strength to be estimated after the event. Using
these magnetometer readings, its soft X-ray class has been estimated to be greater than X10[55] and around
X45 (±5).[56][57]

In modern times, the largest solar flare measured with instruments occurred on 4 November 2003. This event
saturated the GOES detectors, and because of this, its classification is only approximate. Initially,
extrapolating the GOES curve, it was estimated to be X28.[58] Later analysis of the ionospheric effects
suggested increasing this estimate to X45.[59][60] This event produced the
first clear evidence of a new spectral component above 100 GHz.[61]

Prediction
Current methods of flare prediction are problematic, and there is no
certain indication that an active region on the Sun will produce a flare.
However, many properties of active regions and their sunspots correlate
Space weather conditions, including
with flaring. For example, magnetically complex regions (based on line-of-
the soft-X-ray flux (top row), during
sight magnetic field) referred to as delta spots frequently produce the
the 2003 Halloween solar storms[53]
largest flares. A simple scheme of sunspot classification based on the
McIntosh system for sunspot groups, or related to a region's fractal
complexity[62] is commonly used as a starting point for flare prediction.[63] Predictions are usually stated in
terms of probabilities for occurrence of flares above M- or X-class within 24 or 48 hours. The U.S. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issues forecasts of this kind.[64] MAG4 was developed at
the University of Alabama in Huntsville with support from the Space Radiation Analysis Group at Johnson
Space Flight Center (NASA/SRAG) for forecasting M- and X-class flares, CMEs, fast CME, and solar energetic
particle events.[65] A physics-based method that can predict imminent large solar flares was proposed by
Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research (ISEE), Nagoya University.[66]

See also
Aurora
Gamma-ray burst
Hyder flare
Moreton wave
Neupert effect
Sun in culture
Sun in fiction
Superflare

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External links
NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center's near real-time solar flare data and resources:
GOES X-Ray Flux (1-minute data) ([Link]
GOES Solar Ultraviolet Imager (SUVI) ([Link]
ger-suvi)
D Region Absorption Predictions (D-RAP) ([Link]
edictions-d-rap)
3-Day Forecast ([Link]
Forecast Discussion ([Link]

Retrieved from "[Link]