PHY104 Basic

Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

PHY104 Basic Principles of Physics II - Electric Charge

Electricity and Magnetism Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
Part I - Electricity
DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

O. E. Oyewande Electric Potential

Capacitors

Professor of Theoretical Physics MCQ

Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Ibadan Ans MCQ

eoyewande@[Link]

Second Semester 2023/2024 Session

 PHY104 Basic
Lecturers. Textbooks Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
PHY104 is in two parts.
Electric Field
▶ Part I - Electricity; Lecturer: Professor O. E. Oyewande Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
▶ Part II - Magnetism; Lecturer: Mr P. O. Adesina.
DC Circuits
Further details (e.g., explanations, illustrations, examples, Wheatstone Bridge
exercises, etc.) on the topics covered in Electricity lectures Electric Potential

can be found in the following textbooks: Capacitors

MCQ
1. I. P. Farai (2017). Mechanics and properties of matter.
Ans MCQ
2. H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman, A. L. Ford (2016). Sears
and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern
Physics. 14th Edition. Pearson Education Inc.
 PHY104 Basic
Outline Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
Coulomb’s law, electric charges and methods of charging O. E. Oyewande

Electric field intensity and charge distribution in conductors Electric Charge

and insulators of various configurations Electric Field

Current Electricity
Current Electricity and Ohm’s law and Ohm’s law

Analysis of direct-current circuits containing only resistors, DC Circuits

cells and simple circuit laws e.g. Kirchhoff’s laws. Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
The Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer and their Capacitors
applications MCQ

Electric potential, potential gradient, and the electrical Ans MCQ

potential energy
Capacitors and dielectric
Multiple Choice Revision Questions
Answers to Multiple Choice Revision Questions
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

ELECTRIC CHARGE DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Static and Current Electricity. Electric Charge Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Electricity (E) is a phenomenon due to stationary or Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
moving charges; static or current E, electro-statics or
-dynamics, resp. Electric Charge

▶ Electric charge is a physical property of matter which is Electric Field

either positive or negative. Electrically neutral means no Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
net charge. DC Circuits
▶ Unlike (or opposite) charges (e.g., a positive charge and Wheatstone Bridge

a negative charge) attract while like charges (e.g., two Electric Potential

positive charges or two negative charges) repel. Capacitors

▶ The charge of a macroscopic object/matter is its net MCQ

Ans MCQ
charge, which is always a very small fraction (typically
≤ 10−12 ) of its total positive or negative charge. Such
object is made up of a large number1 (∼ 1023 ) of
atoms/mole; each atom is a “point” object with
internal structure (see Fig. on slide 7).
1
Number= NρV /Wm , where N, ρ, V , Wm are the avogadro number
(6.022 × 1023 atoms/mole), density, volume, and the molecular weight
of the object, respectively.
 PHY104 Basic
Atomic Structure and Charges Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ An atom of atomic number Z is composed of a O. E. Oyewande
positively charged nucleus (with charge +e × Z = +Ze)
and Z negatively charged electrons2 (with total charge Electric Charge

Electric Field
−e × Z = −Ze). (see illustration on next slide)
Current Electricity
▶ The nucleus is made up Z positively charged protons and Ohm’s law

(each with charge +e) and Z chargeless (i.e., neutral) DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
neutrons.
Electric Potential
▶ Hence, the total charge of an atom is
Capacitors
+Ze + (−Ze) = 0. I.e., an atom is electrically neutral MCQ
(has no overall charge). Ans MCQ

▶ E.g., He atom [see periodic table (PT) on slide 13] has

a total +ve charge of +3.2 × 10−19 C and a total -ve
charge of −3.2 × 10−19 C but an atomic charge of 0C.
2
Each electron has charge −e, where e = 1.602 × 10−19 Coulombs
(C) is the magnitude of the charge of the electron (i.e., | − e| = e).
⇒ 1C ≃ 6 × 1018 e. I.e., 1C is equivalent to the total charge of
≃ 6 × 1018 electrons (excluding the negative sign).
 PHY104 Basic
An Atom Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
▶ e = 1.602 × 10−19 C; echarge = −e; pcharge = +e;
ncharge = 0.
▶ Mass of electron, me ≃ 9.109 × 10−31 kg;
▶ mp ≃ 1.673 × 10−27 kg; mn ≃ 1.675 × 10−27 kg.
▶ Thus, me << mp < mn ; mp ≊ mn .
 PHY104 Basic
Matter Electric Charge from Atomic Structure Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ It is easier to add or remove electrons from the atom
O. E. Oyewande
than to add or remove a proton.
Electric Charge
▶ An atom with added electrons becomes negatively
Electric Field
charged, while one with removed electrons becomes
Current Electricity
positively charged. and Ohm’s law

▶ Such an atom is said to be ionised and called an ion. DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
▶ Thus, a positively charged object is one that has lost
Electric Potential
electron(s), while a negatively charged object is one Capacitors
that has gained electron(s). MCQ

▶ It is incredibly harder to alter the number of protons Ans MCQ

because the protons are baryons, each made up of three

elementary particles which are bound by the strong and
EM forces.
▶ The fundamental forces, in order of decreasing strength,
are strong (SF), electromagnetic (EM, 10−2 SF), weak
(10−13 SF), and gravitational force (10−38 SF).
 PHY104 Basic
Fundamental Forces, Particles and Charge Principles of
Physics II.
▶ The fundamental forces are due to quarks (excluding Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
charge), charges, leptons, and mass, resp.
▶ In decreasing range they are: gravitational (∞), EM Electric Charge

(∞), strong (< 10−15 m), and weak force (< 10−18 m). Electric Field

▶ Common forces (e.g., push/pull, friction, tension, etc.) Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
are long range and mostly EM and/or gravitational. DC Circuits
▶ There are 17 distinct elem./fundamental particles: 6 Wheatstone Bridge

quarks [up (u), down (d), charm (c, + 23 e), strange (s), Electric Potential

top/truth (t) and bottom/beauty (b) quarks], 6 leptons Capacitors

[electron (e), electron-neutrino (νe ), muon (µ), MCQ

Ans MCQ
muon-neutrino (νµ ), tau (τ ), tau-neutrino (ντ )], 4
gauge-bosons and Higgs boson.
▶ u, c, t quarks have charge + 32 e; other quarks, − 13 e.
▶ e, µ, τ leptons have charge −e; neutrinos, 0.
▶ gauge-bosons: 8 gluons (g 0 ), 1 photon (γ 0 ), W ± and
Z 0 , and graviton (G 0 ) for SF, EMF, WF, and GF, resp.
(0 ⇒ chargeless). SF, WF, & GF are only attractive.
 PHY104 Basic
Antimatter. Nuclear Charge and Force Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Quantum particles (invisible, indistinguishable) are Part I - Electricity

either fermions (spin z2 ; z ∈ Z) or bosons (spin z). O. E. Oyewande

▶ Quarks and leptons are fermions, the other 5 are bosons. Electric Charge
▶ Each particle has an antiparticle (p̄); a particle of same Electric Field
mass but opposite charge. E.g., anti-electron (positron) Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
is ē = e + ; i.e., charge +e but has the mass of electron.
DC Circuits
▶ All other particles in nature are composites called
Wheatstone Bridge
hadrons; either baryons (composed of three quarks) or Electric Potential
mesons (composed of two; quark and antiquark). Capacitors
▶ Baryons are fermions while mesons are bosons. MCQ
▶ A proton is composed of two up-quarks and one Ans MCQ
down-quark all bound by the SF (their SF attraction >
EM repulsion), while a group of protons is bound
together by the residual SF between their quarks.
▶ Neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up
quark under SF & EM force. Electrons experience weak
forces and EM repulsion with one another but not SF.
▶ Thus, protons and neutrons are bound by SF in nucleus.
 PHY104 Basic
Fundamental Charge Composition. Exercise Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

▶ Residual strong interaction also strongly binds group of O. E. Oyewande

neutrons to group of protons in the nucleus, making it Electric Charge

extremely difficult to alter nuclear composition. Electric Field

▶ An up-quark has a charge of + 23 e, while a down-quark Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
has − 31 e. Thus, the elementary constituents of the DC Circuits
proton result to its overall charge + 32 e + 32 e − 13 e = +e. Wheatstone Bridge
While for a neutron the overall charge is Electric Potential
− 31 e − 13 e + 32 e = 0. Capacitors

MCQ
Exercise 1 Ans MCQ
Exotic baryons called pentaquarks are artificial. They are
composed of five quarks: four quarks and one antiquark.
Calculate the electric charge of a pentaquark uudc c̄.
▶ Note that charges are expressed in terms of e (e.g.,
+ 32 e for u). Thus, e is a natural unit of charge.
 PHY104 Basic
Conductors and Insulators Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Electrical3 conductor is a material that allows charges Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
to move from one region to another. E.g., copper wire.
The easier the flow of charges, the better the conductor. Electric Charge
▶ An insulator is a material that does not allow transfer of Electric Field

electric charges from one region to another. E.g., nylon Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
[(C6 H11 NO)n ], rubber band [e.g., (C5 H8 )n ]. DC Circuits
▶ A semiconductor is intermediate between a good Wheatstone Bridge
conductor and good insulator in charge conduction. Electric Potential
▶ Most metals are good conductors, most non-metals are Capacitors

good insulators, while metalloids/semimetals are mostly MCQ

semiconductors. See PT on slides 13 and 14. Ans MCQ

▶ If the chemical composition of a material includes a

metallic element it is most likely a conductor. E.g.,
ordinary water is H2 O which is an insulator but it also
contains dissolved metallic (Na, Mg, K, etc.) ion or salt
(-Cl, -NO3 , etc.) impurities, which make it a conductor.
3
This adjective emphasises electrical behaviour and differentiates
from a heat conductor, which is also an electrical conductor.
 PHY104 Basic
Periodic Table: Metals, Non-Metals, Metalloids Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Periodic Table: Different Metals Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Charging Methods: Rubbing Principles of
Physics II.
Matter can be charged using the following methods. Part I - Electricity

1. Rubbing. A method by which charges are removed from O. E. Oyewande

or added to neutral objects through friction between them. Electric Charge

▶ When a plastic rod (neutral), (CH2 CHX)n (X=O, N, Electric Field

etc.) polymer, is rubbed with fur (or hair; both neutral) Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
the plastic rod acquires negative charges while the fur DC Circuits
acquires positive charges. Wheatstone Bridge
▶ When a glasss rod (neutral), SiO2 , is rubbed with silk Electric Potential

(neutral) it acquires positive charges while the silk Capacitors

acquires negative charges4 . MCQ

Mnemonic: Plastic, which is lighter than glass, acquires −ve Ans MCQ

(lighter) charge (me < mp ), while glass acquires +ve.

4
If the charged rods (or the fur and silk) are brought close then they
will attract each other because they have unlike (or opposite) electric
charges. Or, if the charged plastic rod and silk (or glass rod and fur) are
brought close then they will repel each other because they have like
charges. Whereas, two plain (unrubbed) plastic or glass rods (or plain
furs or silks) neither attract nor repel each other because the are
electrically neutral (not charged).
 PHY104 Basic
Charging Methods: Transfer Principles of
Physics II.
2. Transfer. A method by which charges are transferred (or Part I - Electricity

conducted) from a charged object to an uncharged one. O. E. Oyewande

▶ The charged object looses part of its charges while the Electric Charge
previously neutral object gains the lost charges. Electric Field
▶ The charge transfer is achieved by connecting the two Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
objects with a conductor; i.e., by their physical contact.
DC Circuits
▶ E.g., if the charged glass rod above (method 1) is
Wheatstone Bridge
connected (with a Cu wire) to a neutral metal rod, it Electric Potential
looses some +ve charges (e-deficiencies) to the metal Capacitors
rod (i.e., e − flow from the neutral metal to neutralise MCQ
the e-defficiency of the glass) which (metal) then Ans MCQ
becomes +vely charged.
▶ This explains the electric shock felt on dry days when
touching a metal object. Friction between the soles of
the feet and bare floor or carpet charges the feet (and
body). When touching a metal the built up charges are
transferred. This flow of charges is current electricity
which is felt as the electric shock.
 PHY104 Basic
Charging Methods: Induction Principles of
Physics II.
3. Induction. This is a method by which charges are induced Part I - Electricity

and retained on an uncharged object (A) due to the presence O. E. Oyewande

(proximity) of a charged one (B). Electric Charge

▶ B (A) does not loose (gain) any charge to A (from B). Electric Field
A is only made to retain induced charges of opposite Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
sign to B.
DC Circuits
▶ Charging of A is done by bringing B close enough to
Wheatstone Bridge
attract charges of opposite sign to B on a region of A Electric Potential
closest to B while those of same sign are repelled to A’s Capacitors
further region. MCQ
▶ Thereafter, A is earthed on its further side to allow the Ans MCQ
unwanted charges to either exit (i.e., electrons) A or be
neutralised [i.e., apparent positive charges
(“holes”/electron deficiency)] by flow of electrons into
A. Note: Induced charges were already present in A but
now separated to retain them.
▶ Charge induction is why a charged object attract
uncharged.
 PHY104 Basic
Earthing. Charge Conservation Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

▶ Touching at any stage earths since human body is O. E. Oyewande

conductor. Electric Charge

▶ The earth (soil) is a conductor and is so large that it is Electric Field

Current Electricity
a practically infinite reservoir of charges; and Ohm’s law

▶ It serves as infinite source of required electrons or sink DC Circuits

of unwanted electrons. Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
Principle of Charge Conservation:
Capacitors
▶ In any process of charging, charge is neither created nor MCQ
destroyed but only transferred from one object/place to Ans MCQ
another. This is the principle of conservation of charge.
▶ Consequently (another statement), the algebraic sum of
all the electric charges in any closed system is constant.
▶ That is, the total sum of charges before the transfer is
the same as the total sum after the transfer.
 PHY104 Basic
Theory of Charging: Solid State Charges Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Solids can be crystalline (see Fig. on slide 20) or Part I - Electricity

amorphous. O. E. Oyewande

▶ The atoms or molecules (a group of two or more atoms Electric Charge

which can only exist as that group) of a crystalline solid Electric Field
are arranged in a regular periodic/repeating lattice such Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
that the outermost electrons of these atoms are able to
DC Circuits
leave them and roam freely about the crystal like a
Wheatstone Bridge
uniform electron gas. Electric Potential
▶ In this case only the positively charged ions of these Capacitors
atoms remain fixed (though vibrating) in the regular MCQ
lattice positions. Ans MCQ
▶ Thus, electrons are the only mobile charges in solids;
positive charges are not mobile and cannot participate
in charging.
▶ “positively charged” solids (not atoms/molecules) are
those with electron deficiencies called holes.
▶ The arrangement of atoms or molecules of an
amorphous solid is not regular.
 PHY104 Basic
Structure of Crystalline Solids Principles of
Physics II.
(3D and 2D, low and high resolution (zoom), Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
respectively)
Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Theory of Charging: Charge Distributions Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
▶ In other words, crystalline solids are said to have long
range order because the regular repetition of Electric Charge

Electric Field
arrangement of atoms or molecules extend throughout
Current Electricity
the entire solid, while amorphous solids are disordered and Ohm’s law
(no order/regularity or short range order). DC Circuits

▶ Thus, overall, the charge distribution in the crystalline Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
solid is uniform and the solid is electrically neutral.
Capacitors
Whereas, the charge distribution in an amorphous solid
MCQ
is non-uniform and it possesses charged regions which
Ans MCQ
fluctuate.
▶ Such solids become charged when rubbed due to (i)
overall excess charges from addition or removal of
electrons during the rubbing process, and (ii)
non-uniform distribution of the excess charges.
 PHY104 Basic
Theory of Conduction Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Hence, charging by rubbing is more applicable to
O. E. Oyewande
amorphous solids like plastic and glass.
Electric Charge
▶ Following the theory of charging, solids/materials
Electric Field
composed of atoms with detachable electrons (e.g., Current Electricity
copper metal) possess free electrons which move within and Ohm’s law

the solid from region to region, thereby conducting DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
charges (electricity).
Electric Potential
▶ Non-metallic solids do not have such easily detachable
Capacitors
electrons. (see electron cofiguration PT on slide 23)) MCQ
▶ Their atoms would rather gain electrons to fill their Ans MCQ

shells, than loose them. Hence, there are very little or

no free electrons to roam about for conduction.
▶ Now, attraction of unlike single charges (point charges)
or repulsion of like point charges means a force exists
between them. The magnitude of this force is given by
Coulomb’s law.
 PHY104 Basic
Periodic Table: Electron Configuration Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Exercise 2 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

1. Two lightweight metal spheres A and B each hang from Electric Charge
an insulating thread. A has a net negative charge, while Electric Field
B is neutral. (a) If the spheres are close together but do Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
not touch, will they (i) attract, (ii) repel, or (iii) exert
DC Circuits
no force on (i.e., neither attract nor repel) each other?
Wheatstone Bridge
(b) If the spheres touch will they (i) attract, (ii) repel,
Electric Potential
or (iii) exert no force on (i.e., neither attract nor repel)
Capacitors
each other? MCQ
2. An uncharged metal sphere hangs from a nylon thread. Ans MCQ

It is drawn to a positively charged glass rod brought

close to it but suddenly flies away from the rod if it
touches the rod. Explain why (a) the sphere is first
attracted and then (b) repelled.
 PHY104 Basic
Coulomb’s Law Principles of
Physics II.
Coulomb’s Law states that the magnitude of the electric Part I - Electricity

force, F , between two point charges, q1 (of magnitude |q1 |) O. E. Oyewande

and q2 , is directly proportional to the product of the charges Electric Charge

and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r , Electric Field
between them. Mathematically, it is: Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
|q1 ||q2 | DC Circuits
F =k (1)
r2 Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
In SI units, proportionality constant
k ≃ 8.988 × 109 Nm2 /C2 . Note: if qi = −e then |qi | = e. Capacitors

MCQ
▶ This law only gives the magnitude of force, F⃗ , exerted
Ans MCQ
by a charge on another. The direction of F⃗ (whose
magnitude is F ) is along the imaginary straight line
joining the two charges.
▶ Each like charge exerts a push/repulsive force on the
other.
▶ Each unlike charge exert a pull/attractive force on the
other.
 PHY104 Basic
Illustration: Interaction Between Point Charges Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Figure copied from page 690 of Young, Freedman, and Ford. Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ
▶ F⃗i on j is the force of point charge qi on qj .
Ans MCQ
▶ Fi on j is the magnitude of the force of point charge qi
on qj .
▶ Note: F⃗i on j = −F⃗j on i . I.e., electric forces between
point charges obey Newton’s third law; in fact, they
obey Newton’s laws (see Farai for these laws).
 PHY104 Basic
Electric constant ϵ0 . Metric Prefixes Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

1 |q1 ||q2 |Electric Charge

In SI units,k ≡ ; ϵ0 = 8.854×10−12 C2 /Nm2 . ⇒ F = .
4πϵ0 4πϵ0 r 2Electric Field
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
Exercise 3
Wheatstone Bridge
Calculate the force exerted by two 1 C charges separated by Electric Potential
1 m. Comment on whether (i) it is natural to encounter Capacitors
such charges; (ii) this EM force can be affected by normal MCQ
daily actions (forces). Ans MCQ

Source: Wikipedia.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Example (1. Electric Force due to a Charge) Part I - Electricity

Given two point charges5 q1 = −75 nC and q2 = +25 nC O. E. Oyewande

separated by r = 3.0 cm, calculate: (a) F⃗1 on 2 ; (b) F⃗2 on 1 . Electric Charge

Solution. For simplicity, we denote F⃗i on j with F⃗i . Electric Field

(a) According to Coulomb’s law [equation (1)], Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
|q1 ||q2 | |q1 ||q2 |
Fi = k 2
⇒ F 1 = F2 = k Wheatstone Bridge
r r2
Electric Potential
2 | − 75 × 10−9 C| · | + 25 × 10−9 C|
 
9N · m
Capacitors
= 8.988 × 10 · .
C2 (3.0 × 10−2 m)2
MCQ

Ans MCQ
Note that it is unnecessary to include units in intermediate
stages of calculation. They were included here for teaching
(verification) purpose: to show the need for consistency in
units (see footnote 5).

5
Note: For consistency, always convert all units to SI
units and evaluate prefixes before substitution in formulae.
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 1 (contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

Inconsistent units will not cancel out to give the final unit. O. E. Oyewande

N · m2 75 × 10−9 C · 25 × 10−9 C Electric Charge

F1 = 8.988 × 109 · Electric Field
C2 9.0 × 10−4 m2
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
8.988 · 75 · 25
= × 109+(−9)+(−9)−(−4) N = 1872.5 × 10−5 N DC Circuits
9 Wheatstone Bridge
’ Electric Potential
∴ F1 = F2 = 0.018725 N ≃ 0.02 N. Capacitors

MCQ
’ Direction of F⃗1 : the charges are opposite, hence, they
Ans MCQ
attract (i.e., pull) each other. Thus, F⃗1 is directed towards
q1 along the straight line between q1 and q2 . In other words,
F⃗1 acts on q2 and pulls it towards q1 along the straight line
between them.
(b) F⃗2 has magnitude of 0.02 N and is directed from q1
towards q2 . (see the second illustration on slide 26)
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Example (2. Electric Force due to Several Charges) Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
Three point charges q1 = 5.0 nC, q2 = 1.0 nC and O. E. Oyewande
q3 = −3.0 nC are located at 0.0 cm, 2.0 cm and 4.0 cm on
Electric Charge
the x-axis of a coordinate system, respectively. Calculate the
Electric Field
total electric force F⃗23 exerted by q2 and q3 on q1 .
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
Solution. To avoid ambiguity, we must use the notation
F⃗i on j . DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
see ex 1 (a) According to Coulomb’s law [equation (1)],
Electric Potential

|q1 ||q2 |
5× 10−9 ·1× 10−9 Capacitors

F2 on 1 = k = 8.988 × 109 · . MCQ
r 2
(2 × 10 − 0 × 10−2 )2
−2
Ans MCQ

5 × 10−9+(−9) 8.988 × 5
= 8.988 × 109 · 2
= ×109+(−18)−(−4)
(2 × 10−2 ) 22
⇒ F2 on 1 = 11.235 × 10−5 = 0.00011235 N.
Too many zeros, hence, the answer is better expressed as
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 2 (contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

F2 on 1 = 112.35 × 10−6 N = 112.35µN. O. E. Oyewande

Direction: F⃗2 on 1 is towards the negative x-axis since q2 Electric Charge

pushes q1 away due to its like (+ve) charge with q1 . Electric Field

Current Electricity
|q1 ||q3 | 9

5 × 10−9 · 3 × 10−9 and Ohm’s law
F3 on 1 =k = 8.988 × 10 · .
r2 [(4 − 0) × 10−2 ]2 DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

5×3 8.988 × 15 Electric Potential

= 8.988×109+(−9)+(−9) · 2
= ×109+(−18)−(−4)
2 −2
4 × (10 ) 16 Capacitors

MCQ

⇒ F3 on 1 = 8.426 × 10−5 = 84.26 × 10−1 × 10−5 = 84.26µN. Ans MCQ

This is attractive due to the opposite charges of q3 and q1 .

Thus, F⃗3 on 1 is directed towards +ve x-axis. The net
electric force on q1 , F⃗23 , is, therefore, 112.35µN - 84.26µN
= 28.09µN directed towards the negative x-axis. (See Farai
for addition of vectors)
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Example (3. Electric Force > Grav. Force (See Slide 8)) Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
Compare the magnitude of the electric force, FE . and the O. E. Oyewande
gravitational force, FG , between two helium nuclei (α
Electric Charge
particles), if the mass of a helium nucleus is
Electric Field
m = 6.64 × 10−27 kg.6
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
Solution. According to Newton’s law of universal
gravitation7 , the gravitational force between two objects of DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
masses M and m is
Electric Potential

Mm m2 |q1 ||q2 | q2 Capacitors

FG = G 2 = G 2 ; whereas FE = k = k
r r r2 r2 MCQ

Ans MCQ

2
FE kq 2 8.988 × 109 × 3.2 × 10−19
⇒ = = ≃ 3.1×1035
FG Gm2 6.67 × 10−11 × (6.64 × 10−27 )2
⇒ FE ≃ 3.1 × 1035 FG .That is, FE >> FG .

6
See slide 6 for its charge.
7
Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 /kg2 .
 PHY104 Basic
Exercise 4 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
Three point charges q1 = 2.0 µC, q2 = q1 and q3 = 4.0 µC and Ohm’s law

are located at (0, 0.30), (0, −0.30) and (0.40, 0) on the DC Circuits

x − y plane of a coordinate system, respectively; distances Wheatstone Bridge

are in metres. Calculate the total electric force F⃗12 exerted Electric Potential

by q1 and q2 on q3 8 . [See Farai for revision of addition of Capacitors

MCQ
several vectors (parallelogram law)]
Ans MCQ

8
Answer: 0.46 N along the +x-direction.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

ELECTRIC FIELD DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
“Action at a Distance” Versus Electric Field Principles of
Physics II.
▶ So far we have only considered the force exerted by a Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
charge as a non-contact force that acts from a distance,
through empty space, on another charge without Electric Charge

physical contact. This is known as action at a distance. Electric Field

▶ The concept of electric field is a widely acceptable Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
alternative to action at a distance (i.e., forces somehow DC Circuits
being exerted through empty space without contact). Wheatstone Bridge

▶ Every charge has an electric field around it (slide 36) Electric Potential

which affects space; affecting charges in that Capacitors

MCQ
surrounding space.
Ans MCQ
▶ F⃗i on j is experienced by charge qj when it comes into
contact with the electric field of charge qi , and
vice-versa for F⃗j on i . I.e., electric force F⃗i on j is exerted
by the electric field of qi .
▶ Likewise, gravitational force of a mass is exerted by its
gravitational field. But contact forces are not due to
fields.
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field of Point Charges Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Electric field of every charge q extends to all points in O. E. Oyewande

space.
Electric Charge
▶ The electric field strength decreases with increasing Electric Field
distance from the source (charge q). Fig. copied from Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
page 697 of YFF.
DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field: Definition Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ The electric field at a point is the force9 F⃗i on 0 per unit
O. E. Oyewande
charge |q0 | experienced by a test point charge q0 at
that point10 . Electric Charge

F⃗i on 0 Electric Field

E⃗ = (2) Current Electricity
|q0 | and Ohm’s law

▶ Since electric field varies from point to point in space, it DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
varies over the points on a large charged object. This is
Electric Potential
why only a point charge can be used as test charge as
Capacitors
in the definition.
MCQ
▶ According to (2), F⃗i on 0 = |q0 |E⃗ . Ans MCQ

▶ How to deduce the direction of F⃗i on 0 was illustrated on

slide 26 and discussed on slides 29 and 31.
▶ Deduction of the direction of E⃗ was illustrated on slide
36.
9
net force on q0 due to the fields of all the charges qi in the vicinity
10
In short, the electric field at a point is the force per unit point
charge there.
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field Due to Single Charge: Value E and Principles of
Physics II.

Vector E⃗ Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
F⃗i on 0 |qi ||q0 | |qi | |qi |
E⃗ = .(1)&(2) ⇒ E = 2
= 2
=k 2 Electric Field
|q0 | 4πϵ0 r |q0 | 4πϵ0 r r Current Electricity
(3) and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

▶ Thus, the magnitude E of the electric field E⃗ , due to Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
charge qi , at different points (distances r from charge
Capacitors
qi ) in space is:
MCQ
|qi |
E= (4) Ans MCQ
4πϵ0 r 2
▶ The electric field vector E⃗ is:
|qi | ⃗r
E⃗ = rˆ; where rˆ = . (5)
4πϵ0 r 2 r
▶ That is, rˆ is a unit vector directed from the source of
the electric field (i.e., charge qi ) towards the specific
point.
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field is a Vector Field Principles of
Physics II.
▶ ⃗r is the displacement vector of the point(s) in space Part I - Electricity

from the source of the electric field. Thus, (5) is for a O. E. Oyewande

positive charge source (see slide 36), while for a Electric Charge
negative charge source: Electric Field

|qi | qi Current Electricity

E⃗ = − 2
rˆ. But both are combined in: E⃗ = rˆ. and Ohm’s law
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r 2 DC Circuits
(6) Wheatstone Bridge
▶ (5) [E ∝ 1/r 2 ] confirms the statement (slide 36) that Electric Potential
electric field strength/magnitude/length decreases with Capacitors
increasing r . MCQ
▶ The strength/length (of E⃗ -arrow) is the same for all Ans MCQ

points on the same radius r about the source, but vary

with r .
▶ Observe that the figs. on slide 36 show an array of
points on one radius (all their E⃗ -arrows have same
length) and a bigger radius (all E⃗ -arrows have same
shorter length). A vector like E⃗ that has values E⃗p for
every point p in space is a vector field.
 ▶ (6) imply F⃗i on 0 = q0 E⃗ . I.e., direction of F⃗i on 0 is ±E⃗ PHY104 Basic
Principles of
(same as or opposite that of E⃗ ) if q0 > 0 or < 0, resp. Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ E is also electric field intensity (i.e., intensity is a O. E. Oyewande
scalar).
Electric Charge
▶ However, electric field strength/intensity are commonly
Electric Field
used as synonyms for electric field (E⃗ ) and taken as
Current Electricity
vectors. and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
Example (4. Electric Field at a Point) Wheatstone Bridge

Calculate the electric field E⃗ of charge q = −0.005 µC, on Electric Potential

the origin (0, 0) of a coordinate system, at a point (1, 2). Capacitors

MCQ
Solution.
Ans MCQ
−6
qi qi 9 −0.005 × 10
By (6), E⃗ = r
ˆ = k r
ˆ = 8.988×10 · rˆ.
4πϵ0 r 2 r2 5
(see slide 41 for calc. of r ) E⃗ = −8.988·0.001×109−6 rˆ = −8.988ˆ
r
I.e., magnitude of the electric field of charge q at point
(1, 2) is 8.988 N/C and directed away from the point and
towards q (−ˆ r ).
 PHY104 Basic
Illustration: Position Vectors and Displacement Principles of
Physics II.
Vector Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ
▶ ⃗r = (1, 2) − (0, 0) = (1, 2) = 1î + 2ĵ
√ √ Ans MCQ

⇒ r = 12 + 22 = 5.
√ q √
▶ Alternatively, r = ⃗r · ⃗r = (1î + 2ĵ) · (1î + 2ĵ) = 5.
▶ In general, displacement vector d⃗ between two points p1
(position vector ⃗a=(x1 , y1 )) and p2 (position vector
⃗b=(x2 , y2 )) is d=
⃗ ⃗b − ⃗a=(x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ). d⃗ is
calculated as ⃗r .
 PHY104 Basic
Exercise 5 Principles of
Physics II.
1. Calculate the electric field E⃗ of charge q = 0.5 µC, on Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
(−1, 1) of a coordinate system, at a point (1, 2).
2. What is the direction of the (a) electric field E⃗ , of a
Electric Charge

Electric Field
positive charge qi , at any arbitrary point at which a
Current Electricity
+ve test charge q0 may be placed; and (b) force F⃗i on 0 , and Ohm’s law

on q0 , due to E⃗ ? DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
3. Repeat Q 2 for negative qi .
Electric Potential
4. Repeat Q 2 for negative q0 . Capacitors

5. Repeat Q 2 for negative qi and negative q0 . MCQ

Ans MCQ
6. Now, recall the equation F⃗i on 0 = q0 E⃗ discussed
(direction properties) on slide 40. Verify that this
equation does not contradict any of the valid results of
questions 2 - 5.
So far we have considered electrostatics (physics of static
electricity). We now consider one electrodynamics (physics
of current electricity) example.
 PHY104 Basic
Example (5. Electrodynamics: Electron in a Uniform Principles of
Physics II.
Electric Field) Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
A nearly uniform electric field is produced in a small gap
between two parallel conducting plates when the terminals Electric Charge

(+ve and -ve) of a battery are connected to them. Suppose Electric Field

the gap is 1.0 cm, the battery is 100 V, and the field is Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
vertically upward (see illustration on slide 44) with DC Circuits
E = 1.00 × 104 N/C. Calculate: (a) the acceleration of an Wheatstone Bridge
electron released from the upper (-vely charged) plate; (b) Electric Potential
its (i) speed and (ii) kinetic energy upon reaching the lower Capacitors
plate; (c) time taken to move from upper to lower plate. MCQ

Solution. (a) The combined force on the electron [repulsive Ans MCQ

push on the electron by the negative charge(s) and attractive

pull on it by the positive plate] is effected by the uniform
electric field (combined field of the +ve and -ve plates) and
given by F⃗ = q E⃗ = −e E⃗ . Where E⃗ is directed upwards but
F⃗ , directed oppositely to E⃗ , is downwards. By Newton’s
second law, F⃗ = m⃗a.
 PHY104 Basic
Illustration: Uniform Electric Field Between Two Principles of
Physics II.
Plates Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 5(a) (Contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

−e E⃗ eE
⇒ −e E⃗ = m⃗a ⇒ ⃗a = ⇒a= Electric Charge
, directed towards +ve plate.
m m Electric Field

Current Electricity
The values of e and m were provided earlier (slide 7). and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
1.602 × 10−19 · 1.00 × 104 1.602
⇒a= −31
= ×10−19+4+31 = 0.1759×10
Wheatstone16 Bridge
.
9.109 × 10 9.109 Electric Potential

Capacitors
The electron was given an acceleration of 1.759 × 1015 MCQ
m/s2 , towards the positive plate, by the electric field. Ans MCQ
(b)(i) Applicable kinematics equation: v 2 = u 2 + 2ax; initial
speed u = 0 m/s since the electron was accelerated from
rest, distance x = 1.0 cm = 1.0 × 10−2 m. Thus, the final
speed v is given by:

v 2 = 02 + 2 × 1.759 × 1015 × 1.0 × 10−2 = 3.518 × 1013 .

 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 5(b)(i) (Contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

p √ O. E. Oyewande
⇒ v = + 3.518 × 1013 = 3.518 × 1013/2 = 1.875 × 106.5 .
Electric Charge

The negative square root is ruled out since v (speed) is the Electric Field

magnitude of ⃗v (velocity) and can only be positive (v ≥ 0); Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
unlike ⃗v , which has direction and can, therefore, be positive DC Circuits
or negative. Wheatstone Bridge
√ Electric Potential
⇒ v = 1.875×106+0.5 = 1.875×106 × 10 = 5.929×106 m/s. Capacitors

MCQ
I.e, electron speed is 5.929 ×106 m/s. Note: direction of ⃗v
Ans MCQ
is same as u⃗ and ⃗a (i.e., v = u + 2ax → ⃗v 2 = u⃗2 + 2⃗a2 x);
2 2

to +ve plate.
1 1
2
(b)(ii): K.E = mv 2 = × 9.109 × 10−31 × 5.929 × 106
2 2
9.109 × 5.9292
= ×10−31+12 = 160.12×10−19 = 1.601×10−17 J.
2
 PHY104 Basic
Solution 5(c). Classical Versus Quantum Theory Principles of
Physics II.
I.e., the acquired kinetic energy of the electron (from initial Part I - Electricity

0 J) upon reaching the positive plate is 1.601 × 10−17 J. O. E. Oyewande

v −u 5.929 × 10Electric
6 − 0Charge
(c). Kinematics equation: v = u+at ⇒ t = = Electric Field
15
a 1.759 × 10
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
5.929
= × 106−15 = 3.371 × 10−9 s = 3.371 ns. DC Circuits
1.759 Wheatstone Bridge

e − travels from -ve to +ve plate, under this E⃗ , in 3.371 ns. Electric Potential

▶ Note: we assumed the usual physics laws (Newton’s law Capacitors

MCQ
and kinematics equations), which are valid for everyday
Ans MCQ
life concerning objects visible to naked eye, to study the
dynamics of the electron; an invisible sub-atomic
particle.
▶ The results, though fair estimates, are not really
accurate11
11
The definitions are valid but the concept of rectilinear motion
where ⃗
x and ⃗
v are simultaneously known or calculated is invalid for
atomic world.
 PHY104 Basic
Exercise 6 (YFF Page 699) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

because the laws of quantum physics apply instead of these Electric Charge
classical laws. Electric Field

Exercise 6 Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law

1. A negative point charge moves along a straight-line DC Circuits

path directly toward a stationary positive point charge. Wheatstone Bridge

Which aspect(s) of the electric force on the negative Electric Potential

point charge will remain constant as it moves? Capacitors

(A) Magnitude; (B) direction; (C) both magnitude and MCQ

Ans MCQ
direction; (D) neither magnitude nor direction.
2. Repeat question 1 for motion of the negative point
charge along a circular orbit around the positive point
charge.
 PHY104 Basic
Resultant/Combined Electric Field Due to Many Principles of
Physics II.
Charges Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Example (6. Electric Field Due to a Dipole) Electric Charge

A dipole is a pair of point charges with equal magnitude but Electric Field

opposite sign. Such a dipole consisting charges q1 = +12 nC Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
and q2 = −12 nC which are 0.100 m apart is illustrated with DC Circuits
three points a, b, and c, on slide 50. Calculate (a) the Wheatstone Bridge
electric field of q1 , (b) q2 , and (c) the total electric field Electric Potential
(i.e., electric field of dipole) at (i) point a; (ii) point b; (iii) Capacitors

point c. MCQ

Ans MCQ
Solution
q1 12 × 10−9
(a)(i). E⃗1a = k 2 rˆ1a = 8.988×109 · rˆ1a = 29960ˆ
r1a
r1a 36.0 × 10−4

q1 8.988 × 12
(a)(ii). E⃗1b = k 2 r1b
ˆ = r1b = −67410ˆ
rˆ1b = 67410ˆ r1a
r1b 16.0 × 10−4
 PHY104 Basic
Illustration: An Electric Dipole Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 6(a) (Contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

q1 12 × 10−9
(a)(iii). E⃗1c = k 2 rˆ1c = 8.988×109 · rˆ1c = 6382ˆ
r1c Electric Charge
r1c 169 × 10−4 Electric Field

Current Electricity
r1a cos α + jˆcos(90 − α)] = 6382[ˆ
= 6382[ˆ r1a cos α + jˆsin α] and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
▶ As much as possible we try to use the same unit vector Electric Potential

(ˆr1a ) for ease of finding the resultant vector later. Also, Capacitors

rˆ1a = i.ˆ MCQ

Ans MCQ
▶ Hence, we resolved rˆ1c to its components along rˆ1a = iˆ
direction 12 and the perpendicular jˆ direction.
q2 −12 × 10−9
(b)(i). E⃗2a = k 2 rˆ2a = 8.988×109 · rˆ2a = −67410ˆr2a
r2a 16.0 × 10−4
12
In general, the component ⃗ v along a direction dˆ (unit
vd of a vector ⃗
vector), inclined at angle θ to ⃗ v , is
vd = (dˆ · ⃗
⃗ v )dˆ = |d||⃗
ˆ v | cos θdˆ = |⃗ ˆ
v | cos θd.
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 6(b) (Contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

= −67410ˆ
r2a = −67410 (−ˆ r1a = 67410iˆ
r1a ) = 67410ˆ Electric Charge

Electric Field
q2 8.988 × (−12)
(b)(ii). E⃗2b = k 2 r2b
ˆ = ×104 rˆ2b = −5502.9ˆ
r2b Current Electricity
r2b 196.0 and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
= −5502.9 (−ˆ r1a = 5502.9iˆ
r1a ) = 5502.9ˆ Wheatstone Bridge

q2 −12 × 10−9 Electric Potential

(b)(iii). E⃗2c = k 2 rˆ2c = 8.988×109 · r

ˆ 2c = −6382ˆ
r2cCapacitors
r2c 169 × 10−4 MCQ

r2a cos α13 +jˆcos(90−α)] = −6382[−iˆcos α+jˆsin α]

= −6382[ˆ Ans MCQ

(c)(i). E⃗a = E⃗1a + E⃗2a = 29960iˆ + 67410iˆ = 97370i.

ˆ

(c)(ii). E⃗b = E⃗1b + E⃗2b = −67410iˆ + 5502.9iˆ = −61907.1iˆ

13
Since the triangle is isosceles the base angles are equal.
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 6(c) (Contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

(c)(iii). E⃗c = E⃗1c +E⃗2c = 6382[iˆcos α+jˆsin α]+6382[iˆcos α−jˆsinElectric

α] Charge
Electric Field
⇒ E⃗c = 2×6382iˆcos α. To find cos α consider the triangle below:
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ
By cosine rule: Ans MCQ

p 2 = q 2 +r 2 −2qr cos P; q 2 = p 2 +r 2 −2pr cos Q; r 2 = p 2 +q 2 −2pq cos R.

Using the Fig. of slide 50 ⇒ 132 = 132 +102 −2×13×10×cos α

   
100 5 −1 5 ◦
⇒ 260 cos α = 100 ⇒ cos α = = α = cos = 67.38
260 13 13
E⃗ Due to Charge Distributions; Charge Densities
PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
5
E⃗c = 2 × 6382iˆcos α = 12764 × iˆ = 4909.23i.
ˆ Electric Charge
13
Electric Field
▶ In general, E⃗ due to several charges is a vector sum of Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
E⃗i due to each charge (principle of superposition of E⃗ ).
DC Circuits
▶ Where the charges can not be distinctly separated but Wheatstone Bridge
are spread over space such as line, area, volume, then Electric Potential

the charge density λ (charge per unit line; total charge Capacitors

Q/length of line), σ (Q/A), ρ (Q/V ), (linear, surface, MCQ

volume charge densities) respectively, must be known Ans MCQ

and each infinitesimal segment dl, dA, dV , resp. has

infinitesimal charge dQ = λdl, dQ = σdA, dQ = ρdV ,
resp.
▶ And the combined field E is an integral (infinite sum)
over the infinitesimal fields dE .
 PHY104 Basic
(Resp. to Feedback) On Direction Vector rˆ: Principles of
Physics II.
Summary 1 Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
Vectors must be expressed with two components: magnitude
(|⃗v | = v ) and direction (ˆ
r ). E.g., Electric Charge

Electric Field
qi qi qj
(a) E⃗i = k 2 rˆ, (b) F⃗i = k 2 rˆ; Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
r r
DC Circuits

where rˆ is a direction away from qi towards a relevant point. Wheatstone Bridge

For (a), the magnitude of E⃗i = E = k|qi |/r 2 while its Electric Potential

direction is rˆ. For instance, if qi is a positive charge and qj a Capacitors

negative charge, then qi = +|qi | and qj = −|qj | MCQ

Ans MCQ

+|qi | |qi | −|qj | |qj |

⇒ E⃗i = k 2 rˆ = k 2 (+ˆr ); E⃗j = k 2 rˆ = k 2 (−ˆr)
r r r r
I.e., the sign (+ or -, resp.) becomes a part of the direction.
This means the field of the positive charge has magnitude
k |qr 2i | and direction +ˆ
r (points away from +ve charge).
⃗
While E of the
 PHY104 Basic
(Response to Feedback) On Direction rˆ: Principles of
Physics II.
Summary 2 Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
|q |
negative charge has magnitude k r 2j and direction −ˆ r
Electric Charge
(points to -ve charge). Turn to slide 36 for the illustration.
Electric Field
For (b), the direction of F⃗ is not given by Coulomb’s law
Current Electricity
which is why we did not incorporate it (as done for E⃗ ) into and Ohm’s law

the equation earlier. But, consistent with the definition of rˆ DC Circuits

for E⃗ , and using the above charges qi (+ve) and qj (-ve): Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

+|qi |(−|qj |) |qi qj | |qi qj | Capacitors

⇒ F⃗i on j =k 2
rˆ = k 2 (−ˆ r ); F⃗j on i = k 2 (−ˆ r ).MCQ
r r r
Ans MCQ

This means F⃗i on j (force exerted by +ve charge qi on -ve

|q q |
charge qj ) has magnitude k ri 2 j and direction −ˆ r ; i.e.,
points towards the +ve charge exerting it (i.e., pulls -ve
charge qj to the positive charge qi ). F⃗j on i (force exerted by
|q q |
-ve charge qj on +ve charge qi ) also has magnitude k ri 2 j
and direction −ˆr , but in this case
 PHY104 Basic
(Response to Feedback) On Direction rˆ: Principles of
Physics II.
Summary 3 Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
the reference charge exerting the force is the -ve charge qj ,
and means F⃗j on i points towards this -ve charge exerting it Electric Charge

Electric Field
(i.e., pulls +ve charge qi to the -ve charge qj ).
Current Electricity
If the charges have same sign (e.g., qj and qk both -ve), then and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
−|qj |(−|qk |) |qj qk | |qj qk |
⇒ F⃗j on k =k 2
rˆ = k 2 (+ˆ r ); F⃗k on j = k 2 (+ˆ r ).
Wheatstone Bridge
r r r Electric Potential

This means F⃗j on k (force exerted by -ve charge qj on -ve Capacitors

|q q | MCQ
charge qk ) has magnitude k rj 2 k and direction +ˆr ; i.e., Ans MCQ
points away from the -ve charge qj exerting it (i.e., pushes
-ve charge qk away from the -ve charge qj that exerts the
force); and vice-versa for F⃗k on j .
For simplicity vectors are commonly expressed only with
their magnitudes while the direction is expressed in words.
You are free to adopt this approach if you would not mix-up
the directions. Or,
 PHY104 Basic
(Response to Feedback) On Direction rˆ: Principles of
Physics II.
Summary 4 Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

you could use a simpler and more familiar expression of the Electric Charge

direction in terms of the unit vectors i, ˆ jˆ (and k̂)14 . In this Electric Field

case you need to picture the charges that are aligned on the Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
x-axis with their directions given in terms of iˆ (instead of rˆ), DC Circuits
while the direction of those not aligned with them is Wheatstone Bridge
cos θiˆ + sin θjˆ (instead of rˆ). In this case, you could write Electric Potential
(see detailed illustration on slide 59): Capacitors

MCQ
qi ˆ qi ˆ qi  
E⃗i = k 2 i, or E⃗i = k 2 j, or E⃗i = k 2 cos θ15 iˆ + sin θjˆ Ans MCQ
r r r
qi qj ˆ qi qj ˆ qi qj  
Also, F⃗i = k 2 i, or F⃗i = k 2 j, or F⃗i = k 2 cos θiˆ + sin θjˆ .
r r r

14
This approach was taken on slides 51 - 53
15
θ is the angle between a straight line (that connects the charge to
the relevant point) and the +ve x-axis. See the illustration on slide 59.
 PHY104 Basic
Illustration Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
Repeat: E⃗ Due to Charge Distributions; Charge
PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Densities Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
▶ In general, E⃗ due to several charges is a vector sum of Electric Field

E⃗i due to each charge (principle of superposition of E⃗ ). Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
▶ Where the charges can not be distinctly separated but DC Circuits
are spread over space such as line, area, volume, then Wheatstone Bridge
the charge density λ (charge per unit line; total charge Electric Potential

Q/length of line), σ (Q/A), ρ (Q/V ), (linear, surface, Capacitors

volume charge densities) respectively, must be known MCQ

and each infinitesimal segment dl, dA, dV , resp. has Ans MCQ

infinitesimal charge dQ = λdl, dQ = σdA, dQ = ρdV ,

resp.
▶ And the combined field E is an integral (infinite sum)
over the infinitesimal fields dE .
 PHY104 Basic
Case 1: Electric Field of a Charged Line Segment Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ

▶ The sketch (YFF) shows a uniformly distributed charge

Q on a line (y ⇒ dl = dy ) of length a − (−a) = 2a on
Y -axis. The electric field (due to charge dQ) d E⃗ at
point P is
 PHY104 Basic
Infinitesimal Components of the Field of a Principles of
Physics II.
Charged Line Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
dQ λdy Qdy Qdy
d E⃗ = 2
rˆ = 2
rˆ = 2
rˆ = rˆ Field
Electric
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 · 2a · r 4πϵ0 · 2a · (x 2 + yCurrent
2)
Electricity
and Ohm’s law
Now, direction of rˆ varies for dQ over the line, hence, it is DC Circuits

much easier to work with the components d E⃗x (always along Wheatstone Bridge
ˆ and d E⃗y (along j).
i) ˆ Where, d E⃗ = d E⃗x + d E⃗y and Electric Potential

E⃗ = E⃗x + E⃗y = Ex iˆ + Ey j.
ˆ Capacitors

MCQ

Qdy xˆ Ans MCQ

d E⃗x = dE cos α16 iˆ = 2 2
i
4πϵ0 · 2a · (x + y ) r
Qxdy Qxdy
= p iˆ ⇒ d E⃗x = ˆ
3 i.
4πϵ0 · 2a · (x 2 + y 2 ) x 2 + y 2 2 2
8πϵ0 a (x + y ) 2

16
Since opposite angles are equal when two straight lines cross, the
bigger triangle in the Fig. of slide 61 has α as shown. This indicates
cos α = x/r .
 PHY104 Basic
Components of Field of a Charged Line Segment Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

Qdy yˆ O. E. Oyewande
d E⃗y = dE cos (90 − α) jˆ = dE sin αjˆ = 2 2
j
8πϵ0 a (x + y ) r Electric Charge

Qydy Electric Field

⇒ d E⃗y = 3 jˆ Current Electricity
8πϵ0 a (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 and Ohm’s law

y =+a
dy DC Circuits
Z Z
X Qx ˆ
Hence, E = dEi → dE . ⇒ E⃗x = i .
Wheatstone Bridge
8πϵ0 a y =−a (x 2 + y 2 ) 23
i Electric Potential
Z
17 dx 1 x Capacitors
Standard Int. : 3 = 2
√ ; To apply:x → y , aMCQ
→ x.
(x 2 + a2 ) 2 a x +a 2 2
Ans MCQ
17
You should know how to evaluate this integral and others from your
maths (calculus) course. But in this course we shall simply get the
result (as a standard integral) from a Table of Integrals (ToI) [see
Appendix page A4 (pp. 1551) of YFF for a simple ToI]. YFF ToI is
displayed on slide 64.
17
You should know how to evaluate this integral and others from your
maths (calculus) course. But in this course we shall simply get the
result (as a standard integral) from a Table of Integrals (ToI) [see
Appendix page A4 (pp. 1551) of YFF for a simple ToI]. YFF ToI is
 PHY104 Basic
YFF Table of Integrals (Page 1551 of YFF) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Components of Field of a Charged Line Segment Principles of
Physics II.
(Contd.) Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
!
y =+a
Qx ˆ 1 y Electric Charge
⇒ E⃗x = i Electric Field
8πϵ0 a x 2
p
y + x2
2
y =−a Current Electricity
! and Ohm’s law
Q ˆ a (−a) Q ˆ 2a DC Circuits
= i √ −p = i√ .
8πϵ0 ax a + x2
2 (−a)2 + x 2 8πϵ0 ax a + x Wheatstone Bridge
2 2
Electric Potential
Q Qydy
∴ E⃗x = √ ˆ
i. Now, d E⃗y = ˆ
3 j
Capacitors

4πϵ0 x a2 + x 2 8πϵ0 a (x 2 + y 2) 2 MCQ

Ans MCQ
Q ˆ y =+a
Z
ydy
⇒ E⃗y = j .
8πϵ0 a y =−a (x 2 + y 2 ) 32

The previous standard integral does not have y (i.e., x) in

the numerator and is, therefore, not applicable. Hence, we
look for this required form in the table of integrals (see slide
64).
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field of a Charged Line Segment Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
Z
xdx 1
Standard Integral: 3 = −√ ; To apply:x → yElectric
, a →Chargex.
(x 2 + a2 ) 2 x2+ a2 Electric Field

! Current Electricity
y =+a and Ohm’s law
Q ˆ 1
⇒ E⃗y = j −p . DC Circuits
8πϵ0 a y + x2
2
y =−a Wheatstone Bridge
" !# Electric Potential
Q ˆ 1 1
= j −√ − −p . ⇒ E⃗y = 0j.
ˆ Capacitors
8πϵ0 a a + x2
2 (−a)2 + x 2 MCQ

Ans MCQ
Q
∴ E⃗ = E⃗x + E⃗y = √ ˆ
i. (7)
4πϵ0 x a2 + x 2
Direction of E⃗ depends on Q (or linear charge density λ);
ˆ if positive, or negative x-axis (−i)
towards positive x-axis (i) ˆ
if negative.
To see an implication of (7), use Q = λl = 2aλ.
 PHY104 Basic
Implications of Field of a Charged Line Segment Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
2aλ λ λ
⇒ E⃗ = √ iˆ = 1
√ iˆ = iˆ
q √ Electric Charge
4πϵ0 x a2 + x 2 2πϵ0 x a a2 + x 2 12
2πϵ0 x a2 a2 Electric
+ x 2Field
Current Electricity
λ λ and Ohm’s law
= q ˆ
i. ⇒ E⃗ = q iˆ DC Circuits
12 x2
2πϵ0 x a2
(a2 + x 2) 2πϵ0 x 1 + a2 Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
Alternatively,
2aλ
√
4πϵ x a2 +x 2
iˆ = raλ ˆ
i =
λ
q
2
iˆ Capacitors
0 2 x2
2πϵ0 x a 1+ 2 2πϵ 0 x 1+ x 2 MCQ
a a
Ans MCQ
▶ If a is very large compared to x 18 (see the Fig. on slide
61), i.e., a >> x, then x 2 /a2 ≃ 0 ⇒ E⃗ = 2πϵλ0 x i.
ˆ
▶ If a is very small compared to x (i.e., a << x), then
x 2 /a2 >> 1 ⇒ 1 + x 2 /a2 ≃ x 2 /a2
⇒ E⃗ = 2πϵλa0 x 2 iˆ = 4πϵQ0 x 2 iˆ
18
This means that the charged line is very long; or the point P is very
close.
 PHY104 Basic
Case 2: Electric Field Due to a Circular Plate Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
Modified YFF sketch shows a uniformly distributed charge Q on a Capacitors
circular (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π) plate (⇒ dA = db × dh = rdθ × dr 19 ) of MCQ
radius R (0 ≤ r ≤ R). The electric field (due to charge dQ) d E⃗ at Ans MCQ
P is

19
dA is infinitesimal area of base db (length of arc rdθ) and height
dr . This infinitesimal area dA appears non-uniform⇒ A ̸= b × h,
instead A = 12 bh; butA due to the curvature of the circumference, dA is
actually a foldedRrectangle (uniform shape; inset Fig.) of b = Rθ
2π
(circumference= θ=0 Rdθ = 2πR)
 PHY104 Basic
Infinitesimal Component of the Field of Charged Principles of
Physics II.
Plate Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

dQ ˆ′ 20 σdA ˆ′ σrdrdθ21 ˆ′ Electric Charge

d E⃗ = r = r = r
4πϵ0 r ′ 2 4πϵ0 r ′ 2 4πϵ0 r ′ 2 Electric Field

Current Electricity
Now, direction of rˆ′ varies for dQ over the plate, hence, it is and Ohm’s law

much easier to work with the components d E⃗x and d E⃗y . DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

σrdrdθ x ˆ σxrdrdθ Electric Potential

d E⃗x = dE cos αiˆ = ′ 2 r′
i= ˆ
3 i Capacitors
4πϵ0 r 2 2
4πϵ0 (x + r ) 2
MCQ

Ans MCQ
σx ˆ r =R θ=2π rdrdθ
Z Z
⃗
⇒ Ex = i .
4πϵ0 r =0 θ=0 (x 2 + r 2 ) 32
20 ′
r is the former r (distance from dQ to P); different from new r
(former y ).
21
That is, picturing the area element from the centre of the plate as a
uniform object with height h = dr and base b = rdθ (length of arc).
R 2π RR 2
⇒ dA = b × h = rdθdr . Check: A = 0 dθ 0 rdr = 2π R2 = πR 2 .
 PHY104 Basic
Implications of Field of a Charged Plate Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
2π  r =R
r =R
σx iˆ(2π − 0)
Z 
σx ˆ rdr 1 Electric Field
22 .
= i (θ) 3 = −√ Current Electricity
4πϵ0 0 r =0 (x 2 + r 2 ) 2 4πϵ0 r 2 + x 2 andrOhm’s
=0 law
DC Circuits
   
σx ˆ 1 1 σx ˆ 1 1 Wheatstone Bridge
= i2π − √ +√ = i −√ .
4πϵ0 R2 + x2 02 + x 2 2ϵ0 x R 2 + x 2Electric Potential
Capacitors
To find out the result if the sheet is infinitely large
MCQ
(R >> x ⇒ x/R ≃ 0 or R → ∞), re-write: Ans MCQ
! !
σx 1 1 σx 1 1
E⃗x = iˆ −p = iˆ − p
2ϵ0 x x 2 (R 2 /x 2 + 1) 2ϵ0 x x (R 2 /x 2 + 1)

22
See slide 66 for the evaluation of a similar integral.
 PHY104 Basic
Field of a Charged Infinite Plate Points Away Principles of
Physics II.
From It Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
!
σx ˆ1 1 σx ˆ1  x Electric Field
= i 1− p = i 1− if R >> x. Current Electricity
2ϵ0 x (R /x 2 + 1)
2 2ϵ0 x R and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
σ ˆ
Since x/R ≃ 0 if R >> x, E⃗Inf. Plate = i. (8) Wheatstone Bridge
2ϵ0 Electric Potential

That is, E⃗ of a charged infinite plate/sheet is constant,

Capacitors

MCQ
points away from, and is perpendicular to, plate at every
Ans MCQ
point dQ.
Exercise 7
Show that for the charged circular plate, d E⃗y = 0j.
ˆ
Application: Parallel infinite plates (slide 72; see slide 44
also). Lower plate (sheet 1) is +vely charged (+ve surface
charge density), while sheet 2 has -ve charge density).
 PHY104 Basic
Field of Two Oppositely Charged Infinite Plates Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
Note: direction rˆ is always jˆ above (or in front of) 23
and −jˆ below (or behind) 24 the relevant plate. This
default direction is only reversed by the -ve sign of the
-ve charge.

23
I.e., rˆ upwards.
24
I.e., rˆ downwards.
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field Lines Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

▶ An Electric Field Line (EFL) is an imaginary line or O. E. Oyewande

curve drawn through a region of space such that its Electric Charge
tangent at any point is in the direction of E⃗ at that Electric Field
point. Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
▶ The spacing of EFLs give an idea of E at each point in
DC Circuits
the region; EFLs closer together indicate higher E (or Wheatstone Bridge
stronger E⃗ ), while EFLs farther apart indicate lower E Electric Potential
(or weaker E⃗ ). Capacitors

▶ Since E⃗ has a unique direction at any point, only one MCQ

EFL can pass through each point of E⃗ . Hence, EFLs Ans MCQ

can never intersect.

▶ In a uniform electric field, the field lines are uniformly
spaced. straight, and parallel (see slide 44).
▶ YFF illustration of electric field lines for three different
charge distributions is shown on slide 74.
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Field Lines (YFF Page 705) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Copyright Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

©O. E. Oyewande, January 2024.

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

CURRENT ELECTRICITY DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Current Electricity Principles of
Physics II.
▶ An electric current is a flow of charge from region to Part I - Electricity

region. O. E. Oyewande

▶ The free electrons in a conductor move randomly Electric Charge

(v ∼ 106 m/s) in all directions and there in to net flow Electric Field
of electrons e − (i.e., no electric current) because there Current Electricity

is no electric field E⃗ .
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
▶ If conductor’s ends are connected to a voltage source a
Wheatstone Bridge
p.d. occurs between them and steady E⃗ causes net flow Electric Potential
of e − with drift velocity ⃗vd ∼ 10−4 m/s towards Capacitors
direction of F⃗ = q E⃗ . MCQ
▶ Electric current I through a cross-sectional area A is Ans MCQ
defined as the net charge flowing through it per unit
time; i.e., I = Q/t.
▶ Thus, current is a scalar quantity and its direction is
irrelevant.
▶ By convention the direction of charge flow
(conventional current) is taken to be the direction of
flow of +ve charges (i.e., from +ve to -ve terminal)
 PHY104 Basic
Scalar and Vector Current Density. Ohm’s Law Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Consider charges (each of magnitude |q|), concentration
O. E. Oyewande
(number of charges per unit area) n, flowing with drift
speed vd through a cylindrical wire of uniform Electric Charge

cross-section A. Electric Field

Current Electricity
In time dt, they flow through an and Ohm’s law

infinitesimal section of length DC Circuits

dx = vd dt and volume Avd dt of this Wheatstone Bridge

wire. Total charge in the section is Electric Potential

dQ = q × n × vol. = qnAvd dt. Capacitors

MCQ

dQ I Ans MCQ
I = = qnAvd . J = = |q|nvd J⃗ = qn⃗vd (9)
dt A

where J and J⃗ are the scalar and vector current density,

resp.
▶ Ohm’s law: J⃗ ∝ E⃗ at given temperature. 25
25
Valid only for some materials (e.g., metals). For others dependence
of J⃗ on E⃗ and properties of the material is complicated.
 PHY104 Basic
Resistivity Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Resistivity ρ of a material is ratio of E to J (ρ = E /J). Part I - Electricity

Unit of J is A/m2 , thus, unit of ρ is (V/m)/(A/m2 ) O. E. Oyewande

=26 Vm/A. Electric Charge

▶ ρ of a metallic conductor always increase with Electric Field

temperature as: Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law

ρ(T ) = ρ0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] ; (10) DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
valid up to T ≃ 100 ◦ C, α is the T coefficient of ρ, Electric Potential
while ρ0 = ρ(T0 ) (i.e., ρ at reference temperature Capacitors
T0 = 0 or 20 ◦ C). MCQ
▶ If wire has length L, then voltage across it Ans MCQ

V = Er = EL.
I V I ρL
E = ρJ = ρ ⇒ =ρ ⇒V = I (11)
A L A A
▶ If Ohm’s law is obeyed, ρ (L,& A) is constant and
26
V = RI
E is also N/C, etc. but V/m (from V = Er ) is more appropriate
here.
 PHY104 Basic
Alternative Form of Ohm’s Law. Resistance Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Thus, Ohm’s law J⃗ ∝ E⃗ or E = ρJ (rho = constant)
O. E. Oyewande
imply V = IR: also Ohm’s law. I ∝ R1 ⇒ more I goes
Electric Charge
to path of least R. R is resistance of the wire (material)
Electric Field
to current flow.
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
ρL
R= . R(T ) = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] (12) DC Circuits
A
Wheatstone Bridge

▶ Unit of R is (Vm/A)m/m2 = V/A = Ω (Ohms). Electric Potential

Capacitors

Class Exercise 4. MCQ

A copper wire has cross-sectional area of 8.20 × 10−7 m2 Ans MCQ

and carries a current of 1.67 A. Show that (a) E = 0.035

V/m; (b) the potential difference between two points
separated by 50.0 m in the wire is 1.75 V; (c) the resistance
of a 50.0 m length of the wire is 1.05Ω; (d) R(T ) at (i)
T = 0◦ and (ii) 100◦ C are 0.97 Ω and 1.38 Ω, resp., if the
result for (c) is for T0 = 20◦ C.α = 0.00393 ◦ C−1 .
 PHY104 Basic
Electromotive Force (Emf). Internal Resistance Principles of
Physics II.
▶ When a voltage source is connected across the ends of Part I - Electricity

a conductor, a current is generated by the E⃗ of the O. E. Oyewande

source. Electric Charge

▶ Conventional current (flow of charges) through the Electric Field
conductor is from +ve (higher V ) to -ve terminal of the Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
voltage source.
DC Circuits
▶ But within the source current is from -ve (lower V ) to
Wheatstone Bridge
+ve terminal. I.e., +ve charges want to flow (internal Electric Potential
conventional current) to repulsive +ve terminal. This Capacitors
requires energy per unit charge or electromotive force MCQ
from the device or source. Ans MCQ
▶ Unit of emf is thus same as potential V : J/C = Volts
(V).
▶ An ideal emf source has no internal resistance r and its
emf E is therefore equal to the p.d. or voltage across
the circuit or conductor. E = V = IR; R is external
resistance (of circuit).
▶ A real one (r ̸= 0) has internal voltage drop v = Ir .
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Example 10. Power in Electric Circuits Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
What are the Ammeter (current
O. E. Oyewande
measuring device) and Voltmeter
(voltage/p.d. measuring device) Electric Charge

readings? Electric Field

Solution Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law

E 12 DC Circuits
I = = = 2 A.
R +r 4+2 Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
V = E − Ir = 12 − (2)(2) = 8 V.
▶ Power is the rate of doing work. Power input to Capacitors

MCQ
Device (R)
Ans MCQ
dW dU dQ dt
P= =− = Vab = Vab I . ∴ P = IV
dt dt dt dt
(14)
V V2
P= V ⇒P= . Or, P = I (IR) ⇒ P = I 2 R.
R R
(15)
▶ Power output from source (E, r ):
P = IV = I (E − Ir )
 PHY104 Basic
Power in Electric Circuits: Emf Source Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

⇒ P = EI − I 2 r = Pconversion − Pdissipation . (16) O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
Pconversion is the rate of conversion of chemical to electrical
Electric Field
energy.
Current Electricity
▶ Power input to a source (E, r ). and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
Instead of a voltage drop Ir in the emf Wheatstone Bridge
source due to r there is an externally Electric Potential
fueled (input) voltage increase Ir . Capacitors

V = E + Ir . MCQ

Ans MCQ
P = I (E + Ir ) ⇒ P = EI + I 2 r . (17)

Pconversion = EI is the rate of conv. of

electrical to chemical energy, while
Pdissipation = I 2 r is the rate of
dissipation of energy in the internal r
of the source.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Class Exercise 5. Part I - Electricity

For the YFF circuit sketch below, show that the (a) rate of O. E. Oyewande

energy conversion (chemical to electrical) in the battery is Electric Charge

24 W; (b) rate of energy dissipation in the battery is 8 W; Electric Field
(c) battery’s net power output is 16 W; (d) electrical power Current Electricity
input to the 4 − Ω resistor is 16 W; (e) rate of energy and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
dissipation in the 4 − Ω resistor is 16 W.
Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Short-Circuit Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

A short-circuit is an abnormal (usually unintentional) Electric Charge

condition of bypass of an existing circuit for one of lower Electric Field
resistance. E.g., connecting the terminals of the battery to Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
each other to form a (essentially) zero-resistance circuit.
DC Circuits

Class Exercise 6. Wheatstone Bridge

For the YFF short-circuit on the left, Electric Potential

show that the (a) current I is 6 A; (b) Capacitors
MCQ
rate of energy conversion (chemical to
Ans MCQ
electrical) in the battery is 72 W; (c)
rate of energy dissipation in the battery
is 72 W; (d) battery’s net power output
is 0 W.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Types of Current Electricity Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ There are two types of current electricity: Direct
O. E. Oyewande
Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC).
Electric Charge
▶ DC is current that flows in one direction independent of
Electric Field
time.
Current Electricity
▶ AC is current that alternates (i.e., changes) direction and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
with time with a specific frequency.
Wheatstone Bridge
▶ The mains source (sockets for electric appliances in Electric Potential
buildings) is an alternating voltage source with voltage Capacitors
of 220 - 230 V and frequency of 50 Hz (Hertz). MCQ

▶ Electronic appliances (laptop, TV, radio, etc.) use DC Ans MCQ

and have inbuilt or external AC Voltage (sockets)

adapter that converts AC to DC to power them.
▶ Resistors are essential components of electric circuits for
controlling amount of currents through other
components since some need higher currents while
others need lower.
 PHY104 Basic
Direct-Current Circuits: Resistors in Series or Principles of
Physics II.
Parallel Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Equivalent resistance R for series or parallel combination of

Electric Charge
N resistors is, respectively: Electric Field

Current Electricity
1 1 1 1 and Ohm’s law
R = R1 +R2 +· · ·+RN or = + +· · ·+ (18)
R R1 R2 RN DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ

For series: V = V1 + V2 + · · · + VN ; I1 = I2 = · · · = IN = I .
For parallel: V1 = V2 = · · · = VN = V ;
I = I1 + I2 + · · · + IN .
 PHY104 Basic
DC Circuits: Two Resistors Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

For the case of two resistors in parallel: O. E. Oyewande

1 1 1 R2 + R1 R1 R2 Electric Charge
= + = ⇒R= Electric Field
R R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 + R2
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
R1 I2
I1 ̸= I2 ; I = I1 + I2 .V1 = V2 ⇒ I1 R1 = I2 R2 ⇒ = DC Circuits
R2 I1 Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors
Class Exercise 7. MCQ
Assuming emf source for YFF resistorAns MCQ
network circuit on left has negligible r ,
show that the (a) equivalent resistance is
6 Ω; (b) current through the 4-Ω resistor
is 3 A; (c) current through the 6-Ω
resistor is 1 A; (d) current through the
3-Ω resistor is 2 A.
 PHY104 Basic
Circuit Networks with Junctions and Loops Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Some DC resistor networks are not in series and/or
O. E. Oyewande
parallel combinations. E.g., circuits containing junctions
Electric Charge
and loops. Such are analysed with Kirchhoff’s rules.
Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ

▶ A loop is any closed conducting path. While a junction

is where three or more conductors meet. In above YFF
Fig. (I) efdc is Loop 1, eabc is Loop 2, while abdf is
Loop 3. In Fig.(II) facde is Loop (1), abdef is Loop
(2); identify Loops (3) and (4).
 PHY104 Basic
Kirchhoff’s Rules Principles of
Physics II.
P
1. The sum of I at any junction is zero; i.e., I = 0. Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
(Kirchhoff’s junction rule; valid at any junction)
P
2. Sum of p.d.(V ) around any loop is zero; i.e., V = 0. Electric Charge

(Kirchhoff’s loop rule; valid for any closed loop) Electric Field

▶ Rule 1 is based on conservation of electric charge: the Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
total charge entering a junction per unit time (current DC Circuits

entering) must equal the total charge leaving the Wheatstone Bridge

junction per unit time. Electric Potential

▶ Loop rule means the electrostatic force is Capacitors

conservative27 : the algebraic sum of potential MCQ

Ans MCQ
differences across successive circuit elements going
round a loop is zero.
▶ Loop sign convention: traveling from - (lower V ) to +
is +ve (i.e., +E for source), and -ve otherwise (i.e.,
−V = IR for resistor).
27
Like fundamental fields; e.g., grav. field is conservative means sum
of △U as a stone completes a loop going up (△U > 0) and down
(△U < 0) is zero.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
▶ Note: Polarity of R or circuit device (contains R) is Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
determined by source (or source with higher emf if there O. E. Oyewande
are 2 or more): R terminal closest to +ve terminal of
Electric Charge
source is +ve.
Electric Field
▶ Junction sign convention: current into a junction is
Current Electricity
positive while current out is negative. and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
▶ The junction rule relates the electric currents I in the
Wheatstone Bridge
circuit by equating the I at each junction in the circuit,
Electric Potential
thereby reducing the number of unknown I (thus Capacitors
simplifying the problem). MCQ
▶ The loop rule relates the potential differences V = IR Ans MCQ

in each closed loop; where all R are known, which imply

it essentially provides different equations for the
unknown I s. Hence, the loop rule provides as many
equations involving the remaining unknown I s as are
necessary to find them simultaneously.
 PHY104 Basic
Example (11: Appl. of KRs Principles of
Physics II.
to Single Loop) Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
The circuit contains two
batteries (each with emf and Electric Charge

internal resistance) and two Electric Field

resistors. Calculate (a) I ; (b) Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
Vab ; (c) power output of each DC Circuits
battery. Wheatstone Bridge
Solution Electric Potential
Conventional current is anti-clockwise (ACW) (from +ve to Capacitors
-ve of battery with higher emf) as indicated by the arrows on MCQ
the blue loop but we are free to assume any direction Ans MCQ

provided we take note of this on the result (i.e., chosing CW

direction will lead to negative instead of positive power
output for the battery with higher emf). There is no
junction, hence, we need not apply junction rule; same
current I flows through each device. Devices which have no
polarity (e.g., resistor) are polarised with the rule highlighted
in blue on slide 94.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Here is the polarised Fig. Part I - Electricity

(a) Starting from point b, O. E. Oyewande

applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule Electric Charge

and following loop direction: Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
⇒ (+12)+(−V2Ω )+(−V3Ω )+(−V4Ω )+(−4)+(−V7Ω ) = 0
Wheatstone Bridge
8 Electric Potential
⇒ 12−2I −3I −4I −4−7I = 0 ⇒ 16I = 8 ⇒ I = = 0.5 A.
16 Capacitors

(b) Vab is the potential of a relative to b, using KR we MCQ

analyse along any path from b to a. Using the Ans MCQ

anticlockwise/upper path (also ignoring I direction in this

case since we chose a path):
Vab = +12+(−V2Ω )+(−V3Ω ) = 12−(0.5×2)−(0.5×3) = 9.5 V.
(c) The internal dissipation (r ) had been counted or
analysed with the external (R), hence, the power output
meant is the one due to the emf; i.e., P = EI .
Using the sign convention with our CW I : PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
P = 12(0.5) = 6 W and P = −4(0.5) = −2 W. Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

The opposite signs mean one (bigger) is charging the other. Electric Charge
The bigger would have been -ve if the direction of I had Electric Field
been chosen as CW instead of the adopted ACW of Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
conventional I . This is because the loop sign convention was
DC Circuits
designed for conventional I .
Wheatstone Bridge

Example (12: Complex Electric Potential

Capacitors
Circuit Network)
MCQ
Fig. shows a complex network Ans MCQ
of several resistors (5 in
number), known as a bridge
circuit. Calculate the (a)
current in each resistor; (b)
equivalent resistance of the
several resistor network. (c)
potential difference Vab .
 PHY104 Basic
Solution to Example 12: Polarity; Junction Rule Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
The polarised Fig. and the I direction are as shown here. O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
Note that the polarity of the bridge (middle 1 Ω resistor) and
direction of I3 could have been the other way. (a) Junction
rule at a ⇒ (+I1 ) + (+I3 ) + (−I4 ) = 0 ⇒ I4 = I1 + I3
Junction rule at c ⇒ (+I ) + (−I1 ) + (−I2 ) = 0 ⇒ I = I1 + I2
Junction rule at b
⇒ (+I2 ) + (−I3 ) + (−I5 ) = 0 ⇒ I5 = I2 − I3
 PHY104 Basic
Junction Rule → Reduced Unknown I . Loop Rule Principles of
Physics II.
Junction rule at d ⇒ (+I4 ) + (+I5 ) + (−I ) = 0 Part I - Electricity

⇒ I = I4 + I5 = I1 + I3 + I2 − I3 ⇒ Current equation for O. E. Oyewande

junction c. Thus, junction rule has reduced five unknown I Electric Charge
to three (see this Fig.). Electric Field

Next is Loop rule. Starting

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
from loop ScadS: DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
+13 − I1 (1) − (I1 + I3 )(1)Electric
= 0Potential
Capacitors
⇒ 13 − I1 − I1 − I3 =MCQ
0
⇒ 2I1 + I3 = 13 (i) Ans MCQ
Loop cabc:

−I1 (1) + [+I3 (1)] + [+I2 (1)] = 0 ⇒ −I1 + I3 + I2 = 0 (ii)

abda ⇒ +I3 (1)+[−(I2 −I3 )(2)]+[+(I1 +I3 )(1)] = 0 ⇒ I1 −2I2 +4I3 = 0 (iii)
 PHY104 Basic
Sufficient Simultaneous Equations for Unknown I Principles of
Physics II.
We now have 3 simultaneous linear equations for 3 unknown Part I - Electricity

I (I1 , I2 , I3 ).28 Had it been 4 unknowns we would have O. E. Oyewande

needed to use another loop (e.g., ScbdS, or ScabdS, etc.). Electric Charge
These 3 simultaneous equations can be solved by o’level or Electric Field
advanced (with or without matrices) Gaussian elimination Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
(combined substitution and elimination methods) along the
DC Circuits
route most convenient for you.
Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
(i) ⇒ I3 = 13 − 2I1 → (ii) ⇒ −I1 + (13 − 2I1 ) + I2 = 0.
Capacitors

⇒ 3I1 −I2 = 13. (iv) While (iii) ⇒ I1 −2I2 +4 (13 − 2I1 ) = 0. MCQ

Ans MCQ
⇒ 7I1 +2I2 = 52 (v). Using (iv ) and (v ) to solve for I1 and I2 :
(iv) ⇒ I2 = 3I1 −13. And in (v) ⇒ 13I1 −26 = 52 ⇒ I1 = 6 A
(iv) ⇒ I2 = 18 − 13 = 5 A. Then (i) ⇒ I3 = 13 − 12 = 1 A.
I = I1 +I2 = 6+5 = 11 A. I4 = I1 +I3 = 7 A. I5 = I2 −I3 = 4 A.
28
In general, you need N simultaneous linear equations to find N
unknowns of a linear equation.
 PHY104 Basic
Example 12 Solution: Equivalent R and P.D. Vab Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
(b) R = V /I = 13/11 = 1.18 Ω.
(c) To find Vab , sum up p.d.s from point b to a along any Electric Charge

path. Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
Using path bca : Vab = +I2 (1) + [−I1 (1)] = 5 − 6 = −1 V. DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
Using path bda : Vab = −(I2 −I3 )(2)+[+(I1 +I3 )(1)] = −8+7
Electric Potential

i.e., Vab = −1 [Link] path ba : Vab = −I3 (1) = −1 V. Capacitors

MCQ
Thus, evaluating Vab along any path gives the same result Ans MCQ
and one should just choose the shortest path ba.
The negative sign means we have gone from higher potential
to lower. Recall that Vab = Va − Vb , hence, Vab = −1
⇒ Va = Vb − 1. That is, the potential at a is 1 V less than
Vb (the potential at b).
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Wheatstone Bridge Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
The Wheatstone bridge is a
O. E. Oyewande
circuit network that is used to
determine the value of an Electric Charge

unknown resistance X by Electric Field

comparison with three variable Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
resistances M, N, and P [of DC Circuits
variable resistors (rheostats)]. Wheatstone Bridge
For each setting, the Electric Potential
resistance of each resistor is Capacitors
known. MCQ
With switches S1 and S2 closed, these resistors are varied Ans MCQ
until the bridge is balanced (i.e., current in the
Galvanometer G is zero).
▶ Kirchhoff’s rules can be applied to show that when the
Wheatstone bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance
is given by:
MP
X = (19)
N
 PHY104 Basic
Derivation of X Via Analysis of WB Circuit Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
With switches S1 and S2 closed
O. E. Oyewande
current flows and after the
resistances variations to get zero Electric Charge

deflection of G [⇒ I = 0 on bridge Electric Field

(i.e., V = 0 across it) ⇒ no bridge], Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
the three resistors were found to DC Circuits
have resistances M, N, and P, while Wheatstone Bridge

X is unknown. Electric Potential

Capacitors
Points b and c are no longer junctions due to zero current MCQ
on the bridge. ⇒ I3 = I1 and I4 = I2 . By junction rule, Ans MCQ

junction a ⇒ I = I1 + I2 . Loop rule: loop acdba

⇒ −I2 P−I2 X +I1 M+I1 N = 0. ⇒ I1 (M+N)−I2 (P+X ) = 0

Loop SabdS ⇒ E − I1 N − I1 M = 0 ⇒ I1 (M + N) = E
Loop SacdS ⇒ E − I2 P − I2 X = 0 ⇒ I2 (P + X ) = E
 PHY104 Basic
Loop Analysis: Network is Series-Parallel Comb. Principles of
Physics II.
The result of second and third loops repeat that of first loop; Part I - Electricity

that is, I1 (M + N) = I2 (P + X ). Now, without bridge, O. E. Oyewande

network → series-parallel combination of the resistors (see Electric Charge

Fig.), where V1 = I1 N = I2 P and V2 = I1 M = I2 X . Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ

Using I1 N = I2 P or I1 M = I2 X and the results of loops

SabdS and SacdS for I1 and I2 , respectively:
E E M X
I1 M = I2 X ⇒ M= X ⇒ =
M +N P +X M +N P +X
MP
⇒ MP + MX = MX + NX ⇒ MP = NX ∴ X = .
N
 PHY104 Basic
Exercise 8. Example 13 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Exercise 8 Electric Charge

Use the condition I1 N = I2 P and the results of loops SabdS Electric Field
and SacdS to derive the balanced Wheatstone bridge Current Electricity
equation for the unknown resistance X . and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
Example (13. Calculating Unknown Resistance in a Wheatstone Bridge

Bridge Circuit) Electric Potential

Capacitors
If the bridge balances (galvanometer G shows zero
MCQ
deflection) when N = 15.00 Ω, P = 33.48 Ω, and M =
Ans MCQ
850.00 Ω, calculate the unknown resistance X .
Solution

MP 850.00 × 33.48
X = = = 1.9 kΩ.
N 15.00
 PHY104 Basic
Potentiometer Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ
The potentiometer (=potential difference+metering) is an Ans MCQ
instrument for measuring the unknown voltage (emf E2 ) and
internal resistance r of a source, without drawing any
current from the source, by comparing it to a known voltage
E1 . It does this using a measurable and adjustable potential
difference (or R; using rheostat) to balance and determine
an unknown potential difference (e.g., source emf).
 PHY104 Basic
Potentiometer Formulae Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
Like the Wheatstone bridge, it can be analysed with O. E. Oyewande
Kirchhoff’s or simple DC circuit rules.
Electric Charge
▶ P is the null point, which is the point on the wire Electric Field
(lenght l) when G shows no deflection (zero current in Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
secondary circuit). In the figure, total length L (AB) of
DC Circuits
wire is 440 cm, l is 155 cm. To compare cells E2 and E3
Wheatstone Bridge
null points and lenghts are (P, l) and (P2 , l2 ),
Electric Potential
respectively.
Capacitors
▶ Voltage across potentiometer wire AB (length L) is MCQ
VAB = V0 . Ans MCQ

Determination of emf E2 of the cell in the secondary

circuit; this is known as calibration.
E1
IR (r +R) R l l
E2 = VAP = VA −VP = l= l = V0 ∴ E2 = V0
L L L L
 PHY104 Basic
Potentiometer Formulae (Contd.) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
Comparison of EMF of
Electric Charge
Two Cells.
Electric Field

Current Electricity
E2 /E3 = l/l2 and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
Measurement of Internal Resistance r . Capacitors
This circuit involves the use of a MCQ
resistance box to vary resistance so that Ans MCQ
the resistance can be known after each
variation.
 
l
r =R −1
l2
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Work and Kinetic Energy Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Work W done by a force F⃗ to produce a displacement ⃗r
O. E. Oyewande
of an object is W = F⃗ · ⃗r = |F⃗ ||⃗r | cos θ = Fr cos θ; θ is
the angle between F⃗ and ⃗r .Thus, 0 ≤ W ≤ Fr 29 . Electric Charge

Electric Field
▶ Work-Energy Theorem: Work done by the net force on
Current Electricity
an object equals the change in the object’s kinetic and Ohm’s law

energy: DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
1 1 Electric Potential
W = △K = m△v 2 30 = m vf2 − vi2 ;


(20)
2 2 Capacitors

MCQ
K , m, vf and vi are the object’s kinetic energy, mass, Ans MCQ
final and initial speed, respectively.
▶ Now, some forces allow the mechanical energy K to be
stored as the second form of mechanical energy known
as potential energy U, for conversion back to K .
29
W = 0 if θ = 90◦ (or π2 radians), while W = Fr if θ = 0.
30
△K and △v 2 means change in K (i.e. Kf − Ki ) and v 2 ,
respectively.
 PHY104 Basic
Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Such forces are called conservative. E.g., gravitational Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
force, elastic (i.e., spring or rubber band) force, and
electric force. Electric Charge

▶ For instance, when a stone is thrown up the Electric Field

gravitational force does negative work 31 on it, Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
continually storing its K (to be re-used reversibly by the DC Circuits
gravitational field, later) as U (i.e., K decreases, while Wheatstone Bridge
U increases) as it goes up until all its K is completely Electric Potential
converted to its U in the field and it comes to rest at Capacitors

the maximum height. MCQ

▶ Then the gravitational force does positive work on it by Ans MCQ

converting the stored U into K to bring it back down.

▶ Examples of non-conservative forces are friction (solid
resistance), viscosity (fluid resistance), chemical
reaction forces. The first two dissipate E irreversibly
and the lost E can never be regained.
31
Its speed decreases (v < u), hence, W = △K (see slide 111) is
−ve.
 PHY104 Basic
Work W and Potential Energy U Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ This is because the lost energy E is not stored as U.
O. E. Oyewande
Hence, there is no potential energy U for NC forces.
▶ The third NC force increase E (non-dissipative) Electric Charge

Electric Field
irreversibly and the chemicals lost in the reaction can
Current Electricity
never be regained. and Ohm’s law

▶ Since K due to conservative forces can be reversibly DC Circuits

stored as U (ignoring dissipative force like friction), Wheatstone Bridge

mechanical energy is conserved for such processes. Electric Potential

Capacitors

⇒ K + U = constant (c) ⇒ △ (K + U) = △c = 0 MCQ

Ans MCQ
⇒ △K + △U = 0 ⇒ △K = −△U ⇒ W = △K = −△U
∴ W = −△U. ⇒ W = − (Uf − Ui ) = Ui − Uf

[e.g., W = mg (hi − hf )]. I.e., a conservative (e.g.,

gravitational) force does negative work on an object as
its K decreases (Kf < Ki ) and its U increases
(Uf > Ui ); e.g., as the stone goes up.
U (of Charge q) Due to Uniform E⃗
PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ W done by conservative forces to move an object from
O. E. Oyewande
an initial point i to a final point f depends only on
those i and f values (endpoints) of K or U and not on Electric Charge

the various possible points (path or trajectory) for Electric Field

which i or f does not change. Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
▶ E.g., a ball kicked around a level field with different K s DC Circuits

(from artificial NC forces of human kicks) has same Wheatstone Bridge

U = mgh and W = 0 Nm32 since △h = 0. Electric Potential

▶ Electric force is conservative, where electric potential Capacitors

MCQ
energy:
Ans MCQ
U = Fr 33 = qEr (21)
▶ Work done by an electric field on charge q is

W = −△U = − (Uf − Ui ) = −qE (rf − ri ) (22)

32
I.e., work done by the gravitational field is 0 Nm though work done
by the NC forces (kicks) is not zero.
33
Same formula as gravitational potential U = mgh.
Work Done by E⃗ on Charge q
PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
▶ Apart from using (22) to calculate W by electric field E⃗
on q, it can also be used to know when E⃗ does +ve or Electric Charge

Electric Field
-ve work on a charge (i.e., similar to same knowledge
Current Electricity
for an object in a gravitational field). Sign of (rf − ri ) and Ohm’s law
and q (since E = |E⃗ | is always +ve) determine this DC Circuits

information. Note: E⃗ is along −j. ˆ Wheatstone Bridge

▶ E.g., if q is +ve and along −jˆ then (rf − ri ) is -ve and Electric Potential

W > 0 (+ve) while △U < 0 (-ve). W > 0 means E⃗ Capacitors

MCQ
does +ve work by using its stored U, and U thereby
Ans MCQ
decreases (△U < 0).
▶ Note that (22) works for sign of W (and △U) assuming
E⃗ is along −jˆ (direction of gravitational field) (see YFF
illustration below) or −i.ˆ If E⃗ is reversed (to jˆ or i)
ˆ
W = −qE (ri − rf ).
 PHY104 Basic
Sign of W and △U For Charge in Uniform Principles of
Physics II.
Electric Field Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
Table: Explanation of sign of W (i.e., whether field does ±ve
Electric Field
work) and △U (whether U increases or decreases) using (22).
Uniform E⃗ is downwards (along -j)
ˆ like uniform grav. field (see Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
slides 9 and 10). DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Direction of q Sign of q Sign of (rf − ri )34 Sign W SignElectric 35

△UPotential
-jˆ +ve -ve +ve Capacitors
-ve
MCQ
jˆ +ve +ve -ve +ve
Ans MCQ
-jˆ -ve -ve -ve +ve
jˆ -ve +ve +ve -ve

34
ri and rf are initial and final positions, resp. If charge is along -jˆ
then ri > rf [(rf − ri )< 0; -ve], while ri < rf [(rf − ri ) > 0; +ve] if
charge is along +j. ˆ
35
If (rf − ri ) > 0 then △U > 0 (U increases), while △U < 0 (U
decreases) if (rf − ri ) < 0.
YFF Illustration: W and U of Uniform E⃗
PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
(Positive Charge) Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ

Blue (dashed) arrow indicates direction of motion of charge.

YFF Illustration: W and U of Uniform E⃗ (Neg
PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Charge) Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Other Explanation Without Using (22) Principles of
Physics II.
▶ (i) +ve charge is naturally pulled (with force F⃗ ) by -ve Part I - Electricity

plate (Coulomb attraction), no external work required. O. E. Oyewande

Work is done by E⃗ (W is +ve) using up stored U (U Electric Charge

decreases). Electric Field
▶ (ii) +ve charge is naturally pushed (with force F⃗ ) by Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
+ve plate (Coulomb repulsion), external work therefore
DC Circuits
required for +ve charge to move to +ve plate (W of E⃗
Wheatstone Bridge
is -ve). The ext. work done is stored by E⃗ as U (U Electric Potential
increases). Capacitors
▶ (iii) -ve charge is naturally pushed (with force F⃗ ) by -ve MCQ
plate (Coulomb repulsion), external work therefore Ans MCQ
required for -ve charge to move to -ve plate (W of E⃗ is
-ve). The ext. work done is stored by E⃗ as U (U
increases).
▶ (iv) -ve charge is naturally pulled (with force F⃗ ) by +ve
plate (Coulomb attraction), no external work required.
Work is done by E⃗ (W is +ve) using up stored U (U
decreases).
 PHY104 Basic
Electric Potential Principles of
Physics II.
▶ Electric Potential V is the electric potential energy U Part I - Electricity

per unit charge. I.e., V = Uq (in Nm/C=J/C=Volt, V). O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge
q′ qq ′
(21) : U = qEr ⇒ U = q r ⇒ U = (23) Electric Field
4πϵ0 r 2 4πϵ0 r Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
U is the potential energy of a test charge q at a
DC Circuits
distance r from a point charge q ′ in the field of q ′ .
Wheatstone Bridge

q′ 36 V q Electric Potential
⇒V = or = ; (24)
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r Capacitors

MCQ
where V is the electric potential at a distance r away
Ans MCQ
from q.
▶ The electric potential V due to N charges or
distribution of charges are, respectively:
i=N Z
1 X qi 1 dq
V = or V = . (25)
4πϵ0 ri 4πϵ0 r
i=1
36
doing away with the notation q ′ , since there is now only one q
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

CAPACITORS DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Capacitors and Capacitance Principles of
Physics II.
▶ A capacitor is a device that stores electric pot. energy Part I - Electricity

U. It consists of two closely spaced conductors37 that O. E. Oyewande

carry opposite charges of equal magnitude (slide 123). Electric Charge

▶ Separation between the conductors must be small Electric Field

relative to their dimension. Positively charged Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
conductor has potential Va DC Circuits
▶ Capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the Wheatstone Bridge

magnitude of the charge to the potential difference Electric Potential

between its conductors: Capacitors

MCQ
Q
C= ; unit is C/V or Farad, F. 1 C/V = 1 F. Ans MCQ
Vab
▶ Vab = Va − Vb = pot. diff. of plate a relative to b.
▶ The higher the capacitance, the higher the energy
stored. Thus C is a measure of energy storage ability of
a capacitor.
37
The conductors may be separated by an insulating material or a
vacuum.
 PHY104 Basic
A Charged Parallel Plate Capacitor (YFF) Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 ▶ Electric field E of an infinite plate38 was shown to be PHY104 Basic
Principles of
E = ϵσ0 = Q/ϵ0 A, where σ, Q, and A are the magnitude Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
of surface charge density, magnitude of charge, and O. E. Oyewande
surface area, respectively.
Electric Charge
(21) ⇒ V = Er , (26) Electric Field

Current Electricity
V = Vab and r = d are the voltage or potential and Ohm’s law

difference and separation of the plates, resp. Thus, DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
Qd Q A
Vab = . C= = ϵ0 ; (27) Electric Potential
ϵ0 A Vab d Capacitors
2 2 2
C m2 C C MCQ
unit: Nm 2 m = 1 Nm = 1 J = 1 F.
Ans MCQ
▶ ⇒ C of a capacitor only depends on its geometry (i.e.,
A and d); in a direct and inverse variation, resp.
▶ As A increases or d decreases, energy storage ability
increases.
38
We consider this condition for a capacitor in vacuum (i.e., one
whose conductors are separated by vacuum) since the separation is
small relative to the area or dimension of plates (i.e., x << R); see
recalls on slides 71 and 72.
 PHY104 Basic
Principles of
Class Exercise 1. Freely discuss and do these exercises Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
together.
O. E. Oyewande
The parallel plates of a 1.0 F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart.
Show that (a) their area is 1.1 × 108 m2 ; (b) the volume of Electric Charge

this capacitor is 1.1 × 105 m3 . (T-H-I-S is HUGE for just 1 F Electric Field

Current Electricity
capacitor) and Ohm’s law

Much smaller geometry for higher capacitance than 1 F DC Circuits

can be achieved by using an appropriate substance or Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
insulator between the plates instead of vacuum.
Capacitors
Class Exercise 2 MCQ
The parallel plates of a capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm Ans MCQ

apart and have an area of 2.00 m2 . If the terminals of a 10.0

kV battery are connected across it, show that (a) the
capacitance is 3.54 nF; (b) the charge on each plate is 35.4
µC 39 ; (c) E is 2.00 MN/C.

39
I.e., the positive plate, which is at higher potential has charge
+Q = +35.4 µC, while the other plate has charge −Q = −35.4 µC.
 PHY104 Basic
Equivalent Capacitance Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

▶ Equivalent capacitance C of a series or parallel Current Electricity

and Ohm’s law
combination of capacitors is the capacitance of a single DC Circuits
capacitor for which the charge Q is the same as for the Wheatstone Bridge
combination. Electric Potential

▶ In other words, it is the total or combined capacitance Capacitors

C of the series or parallel combination of capacitors. MCQ

Ans MCQ
▶ If capacitors 1, 2, and 3 are in series or parallel then
 PHY104 Basic
Capacitors in Series and Parallel Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

1 1 1 1 Electric Charge
= + + or C = C1 + C2 + C3 (28)
C C1 C2 C3 Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ

For series: V = V1 + V2 + V3 ; Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q of equiv.

capacitor. For parallel: Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ;
V1 = V2 = V3 = V .
 PHY104 Basic
Example (9. C , Q, and V of Combinations of Principles of
Physics II.
Capacitors) Part I - Electricity

Two capacitors of capacitances 3.0 µF and 6.0 µF are O. E. Oyewande

connected in (a) series; (b) parallel, with a voltage (p.d.) of Electric Charge
18 V across them in each case. Calculate the (i) equivalent Electric Field
capacitance, (ii) charge, (iii) p.d. for each capacitor. Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
Solution DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a)(i) = + = −6
+ = + 106 Capacitors
C C1 C2 3.0 × 10 6.0 × 10−6 3 6 MCQ

Ans MCQ
1 1 1
= × 106 = ⇒ C = 1 × 10−6 = 2µF.
2 C 2
(ii) For series: Q1 = Q2 = Q of equivalent capacitor.

Q
C= ⇒ Q = CV = 2 × 10−6 × 18 = 36µC.
V
 PHY104 Basic
(iii) For series combination the potential difference is Principles of
Physics II.
different. Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
Q1 Q1 36 × 10−6
C1 = ⇒ V1 = = = 12 V.
V1 C1 3 × 10−6 Electric Charge

Electric Field

Q2 36 × 10−6 Current Electricity

V2 = = −6
= 6 V. Alternatively, V2 = V −V1 = 18−12 = 6V.
and Ohm’s law
C2 6 × 10 DC Circuits

(b)(i) C = C1 +C2 = 3.0×10−6 +6.0×10−6 = (3.0 + 6.0) 10−6 =Wheatstone

9µF. Bridge
Electric Potential
(ii) For parallel combination the charge is different, V is Capacitors
same. MCQ

Ans MCQ
Q1
C1 = ⇒ Q1 = C1 V1 = C1 V = 3.0 × 10−6 × 18 = 54µC.
V1

Q2 = C2 V = 6.0 × 10−6 × 18 = 108µC.

Alternatively, Q2 = Q−Q1 = 9 × 10−6 × 18 −54×10−6 = 108µC.

(iii) For parallel comb. V is same; V1 = V2 = V = 18 V.

 PHY104 Basic
Class Exercise 3: Five-Capacitor Network. Principles of
Physics II.
Dielectrics Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

Show that the equivalent capacitance of the above MCQ

five-capacitor network is 6 µF. Dielectrics Ans MCQ

▶ A dielectric is a non-conducting material which may be

used to separate the plates of a capacitor instead of
vacuum.
▶ Using a dielectric increases the maximum possible p.d.
between capacitor plates, and prevents Dielectric
Breakdown.
 PHY104 Basic
Dielectric Constant Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
▶ Dielectric breakdown is partial ionisation of insulators
when subjected to sufficiently large E⃗ , which makes O. E. Oyewande

them conduct. Electric Charge

▶ Dielectric constant K is the ratio of the capacitance C Electric Field

Current Electricity
of a capacitor in dielectric (with voltage V and electric and Ohm’s law
field E⃗ ) to the capacitance C0 of a capacitor in vacuum DC Circuits

(with V0 and E⃗0 ). Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential
C V0 E0 Capacitors
K= = = (29)
C0 V E MCQ

Ans MCQ
▶ Thus, C (using dielectric) increases (rel. to vacuum) by
factor of K (i.e., C = KC0 ) while V decreases by a
factor of K .
A A
C = KC0 = K ϵ0 =ϵ . (30)
d d
ϵ = K ϵ0 = permittivity of the dielectric.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 1 - 3 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
1
= 9 × 109 Nm2 /C2 ; ϵ0 = 9 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2 .
4πϵ0 Electric Charge

Electric Field
e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.; π = 3.142
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
1. Which of the following is TRUE about electric charges?
DC Circuits
I. They are responsible for electromagnetic force and strong force.
II. Their field E ∝ r 2 . III. Their field extends to infinity. IV. They Wheatstone Bridge

are responsible for electromagnetic force and weak force. Electric Potential

2. Which of the following statements are TRUE? Capacitors

I. The charge of an exotic baryon, pentaquark |uudc c̄⟩, is +e. II. MCQ

Proton charge arise from a quark and antiquark pair (meson). III. Ans MCQ

Particles of all the fundamental fields (gauge bosons) have no

charge. IV. An electron is not composed of any elementary
particle(s) and its charge does not arise from their charge.
3. Which of the following are both FALSE? I. A neutral plastic rod
that is rubbed with hair acquires positive charge. II. Charges are
transferred from a charged to an uncharged object by induction.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 3 - 6 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
3. III. Earthing is an essential part of charging by induction. IV. O. E. Oyewande
Charge induction is a charging method with or without earthing.
4. Three point charges q1 = 5.0 nC, q2 = 1.0 nC and q3 = −3.0 Electric Charge

nC are located at 0.0 cm, 2.0 cm and 4.0 cm on the x-axis of a Electric Field

coordinate system, respectively. Calculate the electric force |F⃗23 | Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
exerted by q2 and q3 on q1 .
DC Circuits
5. A dipole lies on the positive x-axis with its positive charge at
Wheatstone Bridge
the origin. The magnitude of each charge of the dipole is 12 nC
Electric Potential
and they are separated by 10 cm. Calculate the electric field of the
Capacitors
dipole at x=6 cm.
MCQ
6. Two parallel charged conducting plates each of length l are
separated by a distance d << 1 and are oriented perpendicular to Ans MCQ

the x-axis with the positive plate on the right. Which of the
following statements are TRUE?
I. The condition d << 1 imply that the plates have infinite
dimensions with respect to their E⃗ at close points. II. The total
electric field of the plates at any point before the negative plate is
−σ/ϵ0 i.ˆ
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 6 - 8 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

III. The total electric field of the plates at any point between the O. E. Oyewande

ˆ IV. The total electric field of the plates at any

plates is −σ/ϵ0 i. Electric Charge
point between the plates is σ/ϵ0 j. ˆ
Electric Field
7. A positive charge q+ travel in the uniform electric field between
Current Electricity
a positively charged plate P+ which is parallel and sufficiently and Ohm’s law
close to a negatively charged plate P− . Which of the following DC Circuits
statements are FALSE? Wheatstone Bridge
I. When q+ travel towards P+ the electric field does negative work Electric Potential
on q+ . II. When q+ travel towards P+ electric potential energy Capacitors
stored by the electric field increases. III. When q+ travel towards MCQ
P+ the electric field does positive work on q+ IV. When q+ travel Ans MCQ
towards P+ electric potential energy stored by the electric field
decreases.
8. A negative charge q− travel in the uniform electric field
between a positively charged plate P+ which is parallel and
sufficiently close to a negatively charged plate P− . Which of the
following statements are FALSE?.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 8 - 10 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
I. When q− travel towards P+ the electric field does negative work
on q+ . II. When q− travel towards P+ electric potential energy Electric Charge

stored by the electric field increases. III. When q− travel towards Electric Field

P+ the electric field does positive work on q+ . IV. When q− travel Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
towards P+ electric potential energy stored by the electric field
DC Circuits
decreases.
Wheatstone Bridge
9. The parallel plates of a capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm apart
and have an area of 2.00 m2 . If the terminals of a 10.0 kV battery Electric Potential

are connected across it, calculate the capacitance. Capacitors

10. Two capacitors of capacitances 3.0 µF and 6.0 µF are MCQ

connected in parallel with a voltage of 18 V across them. Which Ans MCQ

of the following statements is/are FALSE?

I. The equivalent capacitance is 9 µF. II. The capacitance of the
capacitors will increase if the vacuum between them is replaced
with a dielectric. III. If the vacuum between the plates is replaced
with a dielectric it will be partially ionized with large E⃗ .
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 11 - 13 Principles of
Physics II.
11. Which of the following statements are both TRUE? I. A Part I - Electricity

capacitor is a device that stores electric potential V . II. O. E. Oyewande

Capacitance increases with increasing separation d and decreasing
Electric Charge
area A of the plates. III. The equivalent capacitance of two
Electric Field
capacitors with capacitances 3.0 µF and 6.0 µF which are
Current Electricity
connected in parallel is 9.0 µF . IV. Dielectrics prevent the partial and Ohm’s law
breakdown (ionisation) of capacitor-in-insulators when they are DC Circuits
subjected to large electric fields.
Wheatstone Bridge
12. Which of the following statements are both TRUE?
Electric Potential
I. The spacing of electric field lines give an indication of the
Capacitors
direction of the electric field. II. The electric field lines of a
MCQ
uniform electric field are uniformly spaced, straight and parallel.
Ans MCQ
III. Gravitational, electric, and magnetic forces are conservative
forces, while frictional, viscous, and chemical reaction forces are
non-conservative. IV. The electric potential of an electron gas can
be reduced to the potential due to individual electrons because
they are identical and indistinguishable particles.
13. Which of the following statements are both TRUE?
I. The electric current density through a cylindrical wire is directly
proportional to the charge concentration and drift velocity.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Question 14 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

II. If the current flowing through a 2 Ω resistor is 4 A and it is O. E. Oyewande

connected in parallel to a 4 Ω resistor, then the current through
Electric Charge
the 4 Ω resistor is 2 A. III. All DC circuit networks can be reduced
Electric Field
to series-parallel combinations of circuit components. IV.
Current Electricity
Kirchhoff’s I and V rules can be combined into a single rule, which and Ohm’s law
is energy conservation. DC Circuits
14. The electric field of a charged circular plate, of surface charge Wheatstone Bridge
density σ and radius R, at a distance xin front of the plate
Electric Potential
ˆ is E⃗ x = σx iˆ 1 − √ 21 2 . Which of the following is
(direction i) 2ϵ0 x R +x Capacitors
a transformation of this result to allow for its application to the MCQ
case of the electric field within and around a capacitor (i.e., Ans MCQ
analysis of the implication ofcondition R >> x)?
A. E⃗x = σx ˆ
2ϵ0 i
1
x −  1
2
 . B. E⃗x = σx ˆ
2ϵ0 i. C.
R 2 1+ x 2
 R 

E⃗x = σx ˆ 1 r 1 D. E⃗x = σx ˆ1 R


2ϵ0 i x − 2
 . 2ϵ0 i x 1− x .
R 2 1+ x 2
R
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 15 - 17 Principles of
Physics II.
15. Two electrons are located at x = 0 and 1 nm. Which of the Part I - Electricity

following statements are both TRUE? O. E. Oyewande

I. The work that must be done by an external force to add a
Electric Charge
positive charge (e.g., hydrogen ion) to the two-electron system at
x = 2 nm is +1.13 × 10−19 Nm. II. The work that must be done Electric Field

Current Electricity
by an external force to add a positive charge to the two-electron and Ohm’s law
system at x = 2 nm is −3.4 × 10−19 Nm. III. The total electric DC Circuits
potential energy of the three-particle system is −1.13 × 10−19 Nm. Wheatstone Bridge
IV. The electric potential due to a continuous distribution of these
Electric Potential
charges is infinite.
Capacitors
16. A dipole lies on the positive x-axis with its positive charge at
MCQ
the origin. The magnitude of each charge of the dipole is 12 nC
Ans MCQ
and they are separated by 10 cm. Calculate the electric field of the
dipole at a perpendicular distance of 13 cm from its midpoint.
A. 97370 N/C iˆ B. 4916 N/C iˆ C. 3997 N/C iˆ D. 4916 N/C j. ˆ
17. Three point charges q1 = 2.0 µC, q2 = q1 and q3 = 4.0 µC
are located at (0, 0.3), (0, -0.3), and (0.5, 0) on the x-y plane of a
coordinate system, respectively; distances are in metres. Calculate
the total electric force |F⃗12 | exerted by q1 and q2 on q3 .
A. 84.26 µN B. 0.46 µN C. 0.29 N D. 0 N.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 18 - 19 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
18. Which of the following statements are both TRUE?
I. The electric potential at a radial distance r from a charge q is Electric Charge

V=q/4πϵ0 r. II. The electric field of charge q at the radial distance Electric Field

r away from it is E⃗ =qˆr /4πϵ0 r2 . III. The electric field of charge q Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
at the radial distance r away from it is E⃗ =q/4πϵ0 r3 . IV. A 10.0
DC Circuits
kV battery is connected across the terminals of capacitance
Wheatstone Bridge
capacitor in vacuum. If its parallel plates are 5.00 mm apart and
Electric Potential
have an area of 2.00 m2 then its capacitance is 3.54 F.
Capacitors
19. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE?
MCQ
I. Conductors are amorphous solids. II. Positive charges are
generally not mobile in solids (e.g., for current electricity). III. Ans MCQ

Crystalline solids (with positively charged ion cores and negatively

charged electron gas) are electrically neutral because of their
uniform charge distribution. IV. Amorphous solids have uniform
charge distribution because they possess charged regions which
fluctuate.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 20 - 21 Principles of
Physics II.
20. The figure shows a complex circuit network. Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Which of the following statements are both TRUE? Wheatstone Bridge

I. Currents I1 , I3 , and I5 are 6, 1, and 4 A, respectively. II. The Electric Potential

equivalent resistance of the complex network is 1.18 Ω. III. This Capacitors

complex network is a Wheatstone bridge. IV. This complex MCQ

network is a potentiometer. Ans MCQ
21. Which of the following statements are both TRUE? I.
Common forces (e.g., friction, push) are majorly between
constituent charges and mass. II. A proton is a baryon whose
positive charge (+e) arise from the fractional charges - 23 e and
+ 13 e, of up and down quarks, respectively. III. A proton is a
baryon whose positive charge (+e) arise from the fractional
charges + 23 e and - 13 e, of up and down quarks, respectively. IV.
The proton, with charge +e, is anti-electron though mp > me .
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 22 - 24 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
22. Which of the following are both TRUE about electricity?
O. E. Oyewande
I. 1 µC of charge is equivalent to the total charge of about 6
×1012 electrons. II. It is easier to remove negative charges Electric Charge
(electrons) for current electricity than positive charges (proton) Electric Field
because the negative charges are bound by EM and weak force Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
while the positive charges are bound by EM and strong force. III.
It is easier to remove negative charges (electrons) for current DC Circuits

electricity than positive charges (proton) because the negative Wheatstone Bridge

charges occur outside the nucleus while the positive charges are Electric Potential

found within the nucleus. IV. An electron is indivisible (i.e., can Capacitors

not be broken down to smaller particles) while a proton is divisible. MCQ

23. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE? Ans MCQ
I. Charges flow more easily in copper than nylon because electrons
of atoms in metallic solids do not easily detach. II. Robbing is a
charging method. III. Electromagnetic induction is a charging
method. IV. Electric charge is a conserved quantity.
24. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE?
I. Forces or action can only be exerted by one object (e.g., charge)
over another via contact or when close.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Questions 25 - 26 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
II. One object can influence another over a distance (finite or
O. E. Oyewande
infinite) only through fields. III. There are essentially only four
physical fields. IV. Electric field is not part of electromagnetic Electric Charge
field, but magnetic field is part of strong field. Electric Field
25. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE about Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
electricity?
I. Electrostatics is the physics of charges in motion while DC Circuits

electrodynamics is the physics of stationary charges. II. The Wheatstone Bridge

electric shock felt when touching a metallic object on a dry day is Electric Potential

due to faulty electrical wiring. III. The charge of a macroscopic Capacitors

object is typically about 10−12 of its total positive or negative MCQ

charge. Ans MCQ
26. Which of the following statements are both TRUE?
I. The charge of an exotic baryon, pentaquark |uudc c̄⟩, is -e. II.
The range of the force between quarks is longer than the range of
the force between neutrinos. III. The charge of a π-meson (|u ū⟩ or
¯ is 0, while that of a Λ-baryon |uds⟩ is 0. IV. The range of
|d d⟩)
the force between charges is longer than the range of the force
between masses.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Question 27 - 28 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity
27. Two parallel charged conducting plates each with surface O. E. Oyewande
charge density σ and infinite dimensions are oriented perpendicular
to the x-axis with the positive plate on the right. Which of the Electric Charge

following statements are both TRUE? Electric Field

I. The total electric field of the plates at any point between the Current Electricity
ˆ II. The plates constitute a capacitor in dielectric.
plates is -σ/ϵ0 i. and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
III. If a positive charge travels from the negative plate towards the
Wheatstone Bridge
positive plate, the uniform electric field between the plates does
negative work on the charge and electric potential energy stored Electric Potential

by the electric field increases. IV. If a negative charge travels from Capacitors

the negative plate towards the positive plate the uniform electric MCQ

field does negative work on the charge and electric potential Ans MCQ

energy stored by the electric field decreases.

28. Which of the following is TRUE about electric charges? I. The
¯ pion is -1, while the charge of a |d ū⟩ pion
electric charge of a |u d⟩
is +1. II. The electric charge of a He nucleus is +3.2 × 10−19 c.
III. Positive charges move freely like gas particles in a crystalline
solid.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Question 29 - 32 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
29. Two small plastic spheres are given positive electric charges.
When they are 15.0 cm apart, the repulsive force between them Electric Charge

has magnitude 0.220 N. What is the charge on each sphere if one Electric Field
sphere has four times the charge of the other? Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
30. Three point charges are arranged along the x-axis. Charge
q1 = +3.00µC is at the origin, and charge q2 = −5.00µC is at DC Circuits

x=0.200 m. Charge q3 = −8.00µC. Where is q3 located if the net Wheatstone Bridge

force on q1 is 7.00 N in the -x-direction? Electric Potential

Two point charges q1 = 2.0µC and q2 = q1 are located at (0, Capacitors

0.30) and (0, -0.30) on the x-y plane of a coordinate system, MCQ

respectively; distances are in metres. Use this information to Ans MCQ

answer questions 31 and 32.
31. Calculate the electric fields E⃗1 of q1 and E⃗2 of q2 at point
(0.40, 0).
32. Calculate the total electric field E⃗12 of q1 and q2 at point
(0.40, 0).
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Question 33 - 35 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
Use this figure of an
electric circuit to answer Electric Charge
questions 33 and 34. Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

33. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. DC Circuits

34. Calculate the current flowing through the circuit. Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors
Use this figure of a
MCQ
complex circuit network to
answer questions 35 and Ans MCQ

36.

35. Which of the following statements are both TRUE? I.

Currents I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 . II. There are essentially two unknown
currents. III. There are essentially three unknown currents
requiring three loops for three simultaneous equations.
IV. +12 − I2 − 2(I1 + I2 ) = 0.
 PHY104 Basic
Revision Question 36 - 37 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

36. Which of the following statements are both TRUE? I. O. E. Oyewande

−I1 − 2I1 + I2 = 0. II. I1 , I2 , I3 , I are 0.1, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.2 A,

Electric Charge
respectively. III. I1 = 1.09 and I2 = 3.27 A. IV. Analysis of four
Electric Field
loops with Kirchhoff’s loop rule is required.
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
37. Which of the following statements are both TRUE? I. The
resistance X of the Wheatstone bridge is 4.5 Ω. II. The resistance
X of the Wheatstone bridge is 2.0 Ω. III. To avoid damaging the
Ammeter of the potentiometer, x should be the negative terminal.
IV. To avoid damaging the Ammeter of the potentiometer, x
should be the positive terminal.
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

1. III alone. They are not responsible for strong force; their field O. E. Oyewande
E ∝ r12 . They are not responsible for weak force
2. I and IV. Up (u) and charm (c) quark have charge + 23 e, down Electric Charge

(d) has charge − 31 e ⇒ |uudc c̄⟩ has charge Electric Field

2 2 1 2 2 3
3 e + 3 e − 3 e + 3 e − 3 e = 3 e = +e. A proton is a baryon,
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law
containing only quarks; its charge does not arise from the charge DC Circuits
of any antiquark. W boson of the weak field/interaction can be
Wheatstone Bridge
positively or negatively charged.
Electric Potential
3. I and II, I and IV, II and IV. An hair-rubbed neutral plastic rod
Capacitors
acquires negative charge. Charges are transferred through
MCQ
contact. Induction is a charging method only with earthing;
Ans MCQ
without earthing the induced charges redistribute and the material
again becomes neutral.
4.
k|q1 ||q2 | ˆ 8.988 × 109 × 5 × 10−9 × 1 × 10−9 ˆ
F⃗2 on 1 = (− i) = 2 (−i) = −112.35iˆ µN.
r2 (2 × 10−2 )
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 4 - 6 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
k|q1 ||q3 | ˆ 8.988 × 109 × 5 × 10−9 × 3 × 10−9 ˆ
F⃗3 on 1 = (i) = 2 i = 84.26iˆ µN.
r2 (4 × 10−2 ) Electric Charge

Electric Field

F⃗23 = F⃗2 on 1 +F⃗3 on 1 = −112.35i+84.26

ˆ iˆ = −29.09iˆ µN ∴ |F⃗23 | = 28.09 µN.
Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

5. Let the point at 6cm be a. DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge
q1 12 × 10−9 ˆ
E⃗1a = k 2 iˆ = 8.988 × 109 × ˆ
i = 29960i. Electric Potential
r1a 36 × 10−4 Capacitors

−9 MCQ
q2 ˆ (−12) × 10
E⃗2a = k 2 (−i) = 8.988 × 109 × ˆ = 67410i.
(−i) ˆ Ans MCQ
r2a 16 × 10−4
Combined field at a is:

E⃗a = E⃗1a + E⃗2a = 29960iˆ + 67410iˆ = 97370iˆ N/C.

6. I and III. These plates are just those of the lectures rotated
anticlockwise by 90◦ (or π2 radians). Total electric field of the
plates at
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 6 - 10. Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande
any point before the negative plate is 0. Total electric field of the
plates at any point after the positive plate is 0. The total electric Electric Charge

field of the plates at any point between the plates is −σ/ϵ0 i.ˆ I.e., Electric Field
ˆ for the lecture case it was σ/ϵ0
σ/ϵ0 towards the left (along −i); Current Electricity
ˆ
upwards (along j). and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits
7. III and IV.
Wheatstone Bridge
8. I and II.
9. Electric Potential

Capacitors
A 2
Vab = ϵ0 = 8.854×10−12 × = 3.542×10−9 F = 3.54 nF. MCQ
d 5 × 10−3 Ans MCQ

10. III. Equivalent capacitance C = C1 + C2 = 3 + 6 = 9 µF. A

dielectric material is not prone to the dielectric breakdown in
insulators, where such insulators will become partially ionised and
start to conduct when the field between the plates is high enough.
Dielectrics will not be ionised.
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 11 - 27. Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field
Unfortunately, explanations of these answers can not be provided
Current Electricity
because of time constraints. Where unsure, discuss the answer and Ohm’s law
with your colleagues and revert if the doubts remain or if there is DC Circuits
any error. Wheatstone Bridge
11. III and IV. 12. II and III. 13. I and II. Electric Potential
14. III alone. 15. II and III. 16. C.
Capacitors
17. C. 18. I and II. 19. II and III.
MCQ
20. I and II. 21. I and III. 22. I and II.
Ans MCQ
23. IV alone. 24. II and III. 25. III alone.
26. II and III. 27. I and III.
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 28 - 29 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 30 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 31 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 32 - 35 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Answers to Revision Questions 36 - 37 Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ
 PHY104 Basic
Copyright Principles of
Physics II.
Part I - Electricity

O. E. Oyewande

Electric Charge

Electric Field

Current Electricity
and Ohm’s law

©O. E. Oyewande, January 2024.

DC Circuits

Wheatstone Bridge

Electric Potential

Capacitors

MCQ

Ans MCQ