Lecture 8: Range Plant Nutritional Characteristics

Introduction to Range Plants

Range plants are a diverse group of vegetation types, including grasses, shrubs, forbs, and
legumes, that grow naturally on rangelands. These plants play a crucial role in maintaining
ecological balance and provide a primary food source for grazing livestock. Due to their vast
geographical spread, range plants are subject to various climatic, soil, and environmental factors,
resulting in a wide range of nutritional compositions. Understanding the nutritional
characteristics of range plants is essential for sustainable rangeland management and optimizing
livestock health.

Nutritional Composition of Range Plants

1. Macronutrients:
o Proteins: Essential for animal growth and development, proteins vary across
plant types and seasons. Grasses, for instance, often have lower protein content
compared to legumes.
o Carbohydrates: Primarily found in the form of cellulose, which is a major
energy source for herbivores. High-fiber plants support digestion but may have
varying digestibility.
o Fats: Though generally low in rangeland plants, fats provide essential fatty acids
crucial for animal health.
2. Micronutrients:
o Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, and E are typically found in green, leafy plants,
contributing to immune health and reproduction in livestock.
o Minerals: Key minerals like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium are
critical for bone health, enzyme functions, and metabolic processes. Mineral
content is often higher in legumes than grasses.
3. Fiber:
o Fiber in range plants helps in the digestion process but affects digestibility. High-
fiber content in mature plants can limit the absorption of other nutrients.
4. Water Content:
o Water content varies widely, impacting the overall quality and intake of plants.
Plants in arid regions tend to have low moisture levels, while those in wetter areas
have higher water content, which can affect dry matter intake.

Impact of Nutritional Characteristics on Livestock Health

1. Nutrient Requirements:
o Livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats have specific nutrient needs for
maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Protein and energy levels in plants
directly influence weight gain and milk production in these animals.
2. Potential Deficiencies:
 Common deficiencies include protein and certain minerals, such as phosphorus,
o
which are vital for bone health and growth. Low nutrient levels in plants during
dry seasons can lead to weight loss and reduced productivity.
3. Toxicity Concerns:
o Some range plants contain secondary compounds (e.g., alkaloids, tannins) that,
when consumed in large quantities, can be toxic to livestock. Understanding
which plants have toxic properties is essential for rangeland management and
livestock safety.

The types of range plants vary widely in terms of species, growth patterns, and nutritional
profiles. They can be broadly categorized into grasses, legumes, forbs, and shrubs, each of which
contributes differently to the diets of grazing animals.

1. Grasses

Grasses are the most common range plants, including species such as wheatgrass, bluegrass,
fescue, and bluestem. They thrive in a wide range of climates and are generally high-yielding.

Nutritional Profile:

Carbohydrates: Grasses are typically high in carbohydrates, mainly in the form of cellulose and
hemicellulose. These fibers provide energy for herbivores but are often challenging to digest.

Protein: Grasses generally have moderate protein levels, though younger grasses have higher
protein content than mature plants. Protein content also varies by species and season. Minerals:
Grasses contain essential minerals, including potassium and calcium, but can be low in
phosphorus and magnesium.

Vitamins: Fresh, green grasses are a good source of vitamins A and E, although vitamin content
decreases as the plant matures and dries.

Nutritional quality tends to be highest in wet season when grasses are young, with reduced
nutrient levels during dry seasons

2. Legumes

Legumes are flowering plants in the Fabaceae family, including alfalfa, clover, vetch, and
lupines. They are known for their nitrogen-fixing ability, enriching soil quality and nutrient
availability.

Nutritional Profile:

Protein: Legumes are generally high in protein compared to grasses, making them especially
valuable in livestock diets. Alfalfa, for example, can have protein levels ranging from 15% to
25%.
Carbohydrates: They contain a balanced mix of digestible carbohydrates, making them a good
energy source.

Minerals: Legumes are rich in calcium and magnesium, which are important for bone and
metabolic health in animals.

Vitamins: High levels of vitamins A, D, and E are found in fresh legumes, providing
antioxidants and essential nutrients for growth and immune health.

Due to lower fiber content compared to mature grasses, legumes are generally more digestible,
enhancing nutrient absorption in livestock.

3. Forbs

Forbs are broad-leaved, non-woody plants like dandelions, plantains, and yarrow. Though less
abundant than grasses, they are still valuable forage for animals and offer a range of nutrients.

Nutritional Profile:

Protein: Forbs generally contain moderate levels of protein, with young, leafy plants being
particularly nutrient-rich.

Minerals: They are often rich in minerals like potassium, calcium, and magnesium, though
mineral content varies significantly between species.

Vitamins: Forbs are typically high in vitamins A and E, and some species may contain
additional secondary compounds beneficial to animal health.

Secondary Compounds: Many forbs contain bioactive compounds (such as tannins and
essential oils) that can benefit animal digestion or deter parasites but, in high concentrations, may
cause toxicity.

Palatability: Many forbs are highly palatable, meaning livestock often prefer them when
available, enhancing dietary diversity.

4. Shrubs

Shrubs, such as sagebrush, saltbush, and mesquite, are woody plants that grow in a variety of
climates. They are more common in arid and semi-arid regions where grasses and forbs may be
less abundant.

Nutritional Profile:
Protein: Shrubs tend to have moderate protein levels, though this can vary greatly among
species. Some, like saltbush, can provide valuable protein during dry seasons when grasses are
low in quality.

Carbohydrates: Shrubs contain complex carbohydrates and are usually high in fiber, which
supports digestion but reduces overall digestibility.

Minerals: Certain shrubs have high mineral content, particularly in sodium, potassium, and
calcium. However, the high mineral content can sometimes lead to toxicity if consumed
excessively.

Vitamins and Secondary Compounds: Shrubs may contain secondary metabolites like
alkaloids, terpenes, or saponins. While these compounds can have medicinal properties, they also
pose a risk of toxicity if overconsumed by livestock. Shrubs’ high fiber content and specialized
nutrients contribute to their adaptation to harsh environments thus, suitable for grazing in regions
with extreme temperatures and low water availability.

Each type of range plant contributes unique nutritional benefits and challenges.

Factors affecting range plants nutritional characteristics

The nutrient content of range plants can vary widely depending on a range of environmental,
biological, and management factors. These factors influence the quality and quantity of nutrients
available to livestock, impacting their overall health and productivity. Here’s an in-depth look at
the main factors affecting nutrient content in range plants:

1. Seasonal Variations

Growth Stages: Nutrient levels in range plants are typically highest during early growth stages
in spring and early summer. As plants mature, the concentration of certain nutrients (such as
proteins and vitamins) decreases, while fiber content increases.

Temperature and Rainfall Patterns: Seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall significantly
impact plant growth and nutrient composition. In wetter, cooler seasons, plants generally have
higher protein and moisture content, whereas dry, hot conditions can lead to lower nutrient
levels.

2. Soil Quality and Composition

Nutrient Availability: Soil nutrient content, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
trace minerals, directly affects the nutrient profile of plants growing in it. Soils rich in essential
nutrients tend to support plants with higher protein, mineral, and vitamin levels.
Soil pH: The acidity or alkalinity of soil influences nutrient absorption by plants. For example,
acidic soils can limit the availability of certain minerals like calcium and magnesium, impacting
the mineral content of range plants.

Organic Matter: Soils with high organic matter content improve water retention and nutrient
availability, fostering healthier plants with a richer nutrient profile.

3. Plant Maturity and Growth Stage

Protein and Fiber Balance: Young, actively growing plants are typically higher in protein and
lower in fiber, making them more digestible and nutritious for grazing animals. As plants mature,
protein content declines while lignin and cellulose (indigestible fibers) increase, reducing the
plant’s digestibility and nutritional value.

Carbohydrates: Maturing plants accumulate more structural carbohydrates, which are harder to
digest. This results in a shift from easily accessible energy sources (like simple sugars in young
plants) to more fibrous, structural carbohydrates in mature plants.

4. Species and Plant Type

Genetic Differences: Different species have unique genetic characteristics that influence nutrient
composition. For instance, legumes generally have higher protein and mineral content than
grasses, while shrubs may have higher fiber and secondary compounds that can either benefit or
harm livestock.

Morphology: The physical structure of a plant affects its nutrient distribution. For example,
leaves generally contain higher levels of protein and vitamins than stems or roots, and plants
with larger leaf-to-stem ratios may offer more nutrients.

5. Environmental Stress Factors

Drought: Limited water availability reduces nutrient uptake, often leading to a decline in protein
and digestible energy in plants. Drought-stressed plants may also accumulate higher levels of
certain minerals, such as sodium, but these changes often reduce their overall quality for grazing.

Temperature Extremes: High temperatures can accelerate plant maturity, leading to lower
nutrient quality due to increased fiber content. Cold stress, on the other hand, can slow down
growth, preserving higher protein levels but potentially reducing yield.

Light Intensity: High sunlight exposure can increase photosynthetic activity, leading to a higher
concentration of energy-storing carbohydrates in plants. Conversely, shaded plants may have
lower energy content but may accumulate higher levels of certain vitamins and antioxidants.
6. Plant-Soil-Microbe Interactions

Mycorrhizal Associations: Symbiotic relationships with soil fungi, known as mycorrhizae, can
enhance nutrient uptake by plants, particularly phosphorus and trace minerals. This can lead to
improved nutrient content in plants that benefit from these associations.

Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria: Legumes, which have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules,
benefit from additional nitrogen uptake. This results in higher protein content in legumes
compared to non-leguminous plants.

7. Grazing Pressure and Management Practices

Grazing Intensity: Moderate grazing can stimulate new plant growth, often increasing nutrient
levels in the regrowth phase. However, overgrazing can deplete soil nutrients and damage plants,
reducing their nutritional value.

Rest Periods: Allowing rangeland to rest from grazing promotes plant recovery and nutrient
replenishment. This helps maintain or even enhance nutrient levels, as plants can develop fully
without grazing stress.

Fertilization and Amendments: Nutrient supplements, such as nitrogen or phosphorus

fertilizers, can directly influence plant nutrient content. However, excessive use of fertilizers
may alter the natural balance, potentially leading to nutrient imbalances in plants.

8. Secondary Compounds and Defence Mechanisms

Tannins, Alkaloids, and Phenols: Some range plants produce secondary compounds as a
defence against herbivores. These compounds can affect nutrient availability. For example,
tannins may bind to proteins, reducing their digestibility, while alkaloids can have toxic effects if
consumed in large quantities.

Plant Age and Stress: Stress conditions, like drought or heavy grazing, can increase the
concentration of these secondary compounds, potentially making plants less nutritious or even
harmful to livestock.

9. Climate and Regional Differences

Altitude: Plants growing at higher altitudes often have unique nutrient profiles, such as higher
antioxidant levels, due to increased UV exposure. These plants may also have higher moisture
content but potentially lower growth rates.

Climate Zones: Regional climate patterns, such as arid, temperate, or tropical climates,
influence the species of plants that thrive and, consequently, the nutrient profiles available to
livestock. For example, plants in arid regions may be higher in fiber and lower in protein
compared to those in temperate zones.
Methods of Assessing Nutritional Quality in Range Plants

Assessing the nutritional quality of range plants is essential for effective grazing management
and ensuring livestock health. Primary methods used includes:

1. Chemical Analysis:

Laboratory Testing: Plant samples are analysed in laboratories to measure protein, fiber, fat,
and mineral content. Common tests include proximate analysis for macronutrients and wet
chemistry for mineral composition.

Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS): This quick and cost-effective method uses
infrared light to estimate nutrient content in plant tissues, especially for protein, fiber, and
moisture.

2. In Vitro and In Situ Digestibility Studies:

In Vitro Digestibility: Simulated digestion using enzymes or rumen fluid in a lab setting helps
estimate the digestibility of plants, reflecting how well nutrients can be absorbed by livestock.

In Situ (In Sacco) Digestibility: Plant samples are placed in small bags inside the rumen of a
live animal to measure how much plant material is digested over time, providing insight into
nutrient availability under natural conditions.

3. Remote Sensing and Spectroscopy:

Drone and Satellite Imagery: These technologies provide data on plant biomass and seasonal
changes in vegetation, indirectly indicating nutrient availability.

Hyperspectral Imaging: This advanced technique detects variations in plant biochemical

properties, helping estimate nutrient composition across large areas without extensive sampling.

4. Field Assessments:

Observation and Sampling: Field experts visually assess plant health, growth stage, and species
composition. Sampling plants during different seasons provides a baseline for nutritional
fluctuations.

Grazing Animal Performance: Monitoring livestock weight gain, health, and reproduction rates
gives indirect feedback on forage quality, as nutrient-rich plants directly impact animal well-
being.

Impacts of nutritional characteristics of range plants on livestock health

The nutritional characteristics of range plants directly affect livestock health, productivity, and
overall well-being. Here are some key impacts of plant nutrients on livestock:

a) Growth and Development:

Proteins: Essential for muscle development and growth, adequate protein intake from range
plants supports weight gain in young animals and overall body condition.

Carbohydrates: As the primary energy source, carbohydrates from plant fibers and simple
sugars drive daily energy needs, influencing activity levels, growth, and milk production.

b) Reproductive Health:

Minerals (Calcium, Phosphorus): Minerals are critical for reproductive health. Calcium and
phosphorus, for example, are essential for bone formation and reproductive efficiency, with
deficiencies leading to reproductive failure and weaker offspring.

Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, and E support fertility, immune response, and reproductive success.
Deficiencies can lead to poor conception rates and complications in pregnancy.

c) Immune System and Disease Resistance:

Vitamins and Antioxidants: Nutrients like vitamins A and E and certain antioxidants help boost
immunity, enabling livestock to better resist diseases and recover from stressors.

Trace Minerals (Zinc, Copper, Selenium): These minerals are vital for immune response,
wound healing, and antioxidant functions. Deficiencies weaken the immune system, increasing
susceptibility to infections.

d) Digestive Health:

Fiber Content: Adequate fiber from range plants supports proper rumen function in ruminants,
aiding in digestion and nutrient absorption. However, overly mature plants with high indigestible
fiber can slow down digestion and reduce overall feed intake.

Secondary Compounds: Some plants contain tannins and other compounds that can aid in
parasite control, improving gut health. However, excessive levels of these compounds can
become toxic and disrupt digestion.

e) Energy Levels and Productivity:

Carbohydrates and Fats: Energy-dense range plants are essential for high-producing livestock,
supporting activities like lactation, grazing, and weight gain. Insufficient energy intake results in
reduced productivity, especially in high-demand animals like lactating cows or fast-growing
young stock.
 f) Toxicity Risks:

Secondary Plant Compounds: Some range plants produce secondary metabolites (e.g.,
alkaloids, nitrates) that can be toxic if consumed in large quantities. These compounds can cause
symptoms from mild digestive upset to severe organ damage or even death, depending on the
plant and dose.

In tropical rangelands, a diverse mix of grasses, legumes, shrubs, and forbs thrive, offering
unique nutritional options for livestock.

1. Grass-Dominated Diet (Tropical Grasses)

 Example Plants: Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), Guinea grass (Megathyrsus

maximus), Brachiaria (Brachiaria spp.), and Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana)
 Nutritional Profile: These grasses are high-yielding, typically containing moderate
protein (8–12%) and significant fiber, with better quality in young plants. They are high
in energy, making them suitable for basic maintenance and growth.
 Impact on Livestock:

Benefits: Young tropical grasses support good weight gain, provide adequate energy, and are
palatable to livestock, particularly in the early stages of growth.

o Challenges: As these grasses mature, fiber increases, lowering digestibility and

protein content. They may need to be supplemented with legumes or other protein
sources to support higher growth or milk production.

2. Legume-Enhanced Diet

 Example Plants: Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), Desmodium (Desmodium spp.),

Stylosanthes (Stylosanthes spp.), and Centrosema (Centrosema pubescens)
 Nutritional Profile: Tropical legumes are rich in protein (up to 25%) and provide
essential minerals like calcium and phosphorus. They are highly digestible, with a
balanced energy-to-protein ratio.
 Impact on Livestock:
o Benefits: Legumes like Leucaena and Stylosanthes improve livestock growth
rates, support reproductive health, and reduce the need for protein supplements.
Leucaena, in particular, has a high nutritive value and promotes rumen function.
o Challenges: Some legumes, like Leucaena, contain mimosine, an anti-nutritional
compound that can be toxic in large amounts. Grazing management and proper
balancing with grasses can help mitigate toxicity risks and prevent bloat.
3. Mixed-Grass and Legume Diet

 Example Plants: Brachiaria (Brachiaria spp.) mixed with Leucaena (Leucaena

leucocephala) or Desmodium (Desmodium spp.)
 Nutritional Profile: This diet offers a balanced nutrient profile, with the grasses
providing fiber and energy while the legumes add protein and minerals. This combination
promotes palatability and digestibility.
 Impact on Livestock:

Benefits: A mixed grass-legume diet supports balanced growth, milk production, and
reproductive performance, as the legumes compensate for the lower protein in grasses. This type
of forage mixture improves intake, digestibility, and animal productivity.

Challenges: Tropical legumes tend to grow faster than grasses, so grazing management is
needed to prevent legumes from overtaking the pasture or maturing too quickly, which could
lower forage quality.

4. Shrub and Grass Diet (Dry Tropics)

Example Plants: Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), Acacia (Acacia spp.), saltbush (Atriplex
nummularia), and native grasses like Panicum (Panicum maximum) or buffelgrass
(Cenchrus ciliaris)

Nutritional Profile: Shrubs are high in fiber and moderate in protein, while native
tropical grasses provide digestible energy. Some shrubs also contain secondary
metabolites with medicinal properties.

Impact on Livestock:

Benefits: Shrubs like Gliricidia offer valuable protein during dry seasons, when grasses are less
available or lower in quality. They help maintain livestock weight and provide a vital source of
minerals and fiber.

Challenges: Secondary compounds in shrubs, such as tannins, can decrease nutrient availability
or cause toxicity if consumed in large amounts. High-fiber content in mature shrubs may also
reduce digestibility, requiring careful grazing management to balance intake.

5. High-Forb Diet (Tropical Forest and Savannah)

Example Plants: Wild yam (Dioscorea spp.), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), hibiscus
(Hibiscus spp.), and spiderplant (Cleome gynandra)

Nutritional Profile: Forbs are typically high in protein and vitamins, with some
containing antioxidants and secondary metabolites beneficial for animal health.
 Impact on Livestock:

Benefits: High-protein forbs like amaranth provide a variety of nutrients and improve diet
diversity, encouraging higher intake. The antioxidants and vitamins found in many forbs support
immune health and disease resistance.

Challenges: Forbs tend to be less abundant and may not provide sufficient forage on their own.
Some forbs can also contain compounds that, in large quantities, might interfere with digestion
or lead to toxicity.

6. Crop Residue and Grass Diet (Dry and Transitional Seasons)

Example Plants: Maize stover, rice straw, and millet residues, supplemented with native
tropical grasses

Nutritional Profile: Crop residues are high in fiber and moderate in carbohydrates, but
generally low in protein. When mixed with grasses, they provide sufficient energy for
maintenance, especially in dry or transitional seasons.

Impact on Livestock: Crop residues allow for cost-effective feeding during dry seasons when
fresh forage is limited. Supplementing with high-protein sources like Leucaena or Desmodium
can help balance the diet for maintenance and basic growth. The challenges of using residues is
that they are low in protein and essential minerals, so they require supplementation for lactating
or growing animals to prevent deficiencies and maintain weight.

Generally, in tropical regions, a variety of grasses, legumes, shrubs, and forbs are combined to
meet livestock nutritional needs throughout the year. Each diet has specific advantages and
challenges, and effective grazing management helps maximize benefits while minimizing
potential health risks from toxicity or nutrient imbalances.

Strategies to Mitigate Seasonal Nutritional Decline

 Forage Conservation: Storing wet season forage as hay or silage for dry season use.
 Supplementation: Providing protein and mineral supplements during the dry season.
 Improved Rangeland Management: Promoting drought-resistant forage species and rotational
grazing.

In conclusion, the nutritional quality of rangeland plants in the tropics is highest during the wet
season and declines significantly during the dry season, requiring adaptive management to
maintain livestock health and productivity.

LECTURE 9: GOVERNMENT LAND POLICIES

Land policy in Tanzania

Introduction

Tanzania has area of about 888,200 land surfaces out of 942,600 square kilometers
that include inland waters such as lakes and rivers. The estimated population is
about 67 million people (2023 Census). It has been estimated that about 75% of
land is either uninhabited or difficult to manage because of rough topography,
tsetse flies, unreliable rainfall, and reserved areas which are scattered throughout
the country, include mountains and inland waters such as lakes and rivers.

The National Land Policy aims at enhancing the positive features as spelled out
under policy objectives, and in other sections of the policy document.

Definition of terms used in Tanzania land Policy

1. Tanzania: In this policy refers to mainland Tanzania

2. Depreciated replacement cost: the cost of putting an equivalent structure
as the one existing at the time of valuation and making allowance for age,
state of repair and economic obsolescence
3. Opportunity cost: refers to the principle of equivalence or substitution i.e.
the cost a rational buyer will incur (pay) for acquiring an equally desirable
alternative.
4. Environmental impact assessment (EIA): Is decision making tool that
entails study of effects of a proposed action/project/activity on the
environment. EIA compares various alternatives by which a desired objective
may be realized and seeks to identify which one represent the best
combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits. It also
predicts changes in the environmental quality that would result from the
proposed action. Further, EIA weighs environmental effects on a common
basis with economic costs and benefits.
5. Minister: The current minister responsible for lands. (Who?
6. Commissioner: Means the commissioner for lands.
7. Public land: All land in Tanzania whether granted, customary or unoccupied.
There are 4 categories of lands in Tanzania,

a. Village land (e.g. villages and ‘towns’)

b. General land (e.g. open areas like wildlife corridors)
c. Reserve land (for Parks, game reserves and game protected areas),
and
d. Public land (syn. All ‘other’ lands)
8. Village: Means a village registered as such under the Local Government
(District Authority) Act No. 25, 1982.
9. Prime area: A property located in an area that yields a maximum profit to
developers after all other factors of development and use has been satisfied.
 [Link] value: The most probable selling price or the value most often by
buyers and sellers.
[Link] authority: Means a city council, municipal council or a town council.
[Link] cost: This is the cost of site plus cost of lands, labor, and
materials to replicate improvements.

NEED FOR A LAND POLICY

Since Tanzania attained independence in 1961, there has been a need to have a
comprehensive land policy that would;

-govern land tenure

- administer land use, and

-manage land use.

In particular, there has been developments that have made it imperative to have a
national land policy:-

i. Change in land use and the increase in human population over the
last 2.5 decades, this has increased the demand for land and competition
for plots especially in and around urban area.
ii. Growth in the already large livestock population has raised the demand
for grazing land (including the lands that are now under cultivation),
and has also created serious soil erosion in some areas e.g. Nzega,
Dodoma, Kondoa districts, Shinyanga and Mwanza. In these areas, the
effects of overgrazing on the ecosystem are most visible.
iii. Population increases mentioned in i and ii above and government
policies since 1967 favouring agriculture have resulted in the
extension of cultivation to marginal land areas. Such
encroachments have resulted in reduction of areas available for
pastoralists and transhumants particularly in Mwanza, Shinyanga, Tabora,
Arusha and Singida regions.
iv. The increased movement of large herds of livestock from
traditional livestock keeping areas to low livestock population
areas such as Mbeya, Iringa, Morogoro, Rukwa and Ruvuma regions, is
creating land use conflicts in the receiving areas.
v. Increased urbanization requiring more land for settlement, industries
and commerce etc., on one hand, and on the need to preserve valuable
agricultural land on the other hand have complicated or intensified
competition for land in and around urban centres over the last 30 years or
so.
vi. The recent upsurge of prospective investors wishing to acquire
large pieces of land in various parts of the country in response to
 Tanzania investment promotion policy has increases the competition for
arable land and increased conflicts with villages in some districts.
vii. Creation, relocation and expansion of villages under the 1971 and
1976 villagization program (operation vijiji) affected customary land
tenure in many rural areas making it sometimes difficult to
determine with certainty the kind of land tenure system now
operational in these areas.
viii. Increasing awareness amongst population of the value of land
and property e.g. buildings also cause conflicts in both rural and urban
areas, especially as more people compete for limited number of
demarcated plots or for land acquired through purchase, inheritance, or
allocation by the local leadership.
ix. Land markets are developing in and around centres and require
recognition and regulation to enable the government to capture
gains from land market transactions.
x. Within villages and fringes of major urban centres and depending on their
proximity to urban areas and the communication networks, land
transactions have been taking place with prices reflecting locational
advantages and land quality although the present land laws do not allow
transactions such there is a need to have a clear policy on land
markets and transactions.
xi. The evolution of customary tenure towards more individualized
ownership has been accompanied by the development of land
markets especially in areas with high agricultural potential. As a result
areas such as Kilimanjaro, Bukoba and Rungwe regions, Arusha and
Arumeru districts, where land is scarce and cash crops like coffee, tea and
wheat are grown mainly on individual holdings, calls for pragmatic land
policy to accommodate the aspirations of the people and the
needs of the economy.
xii. Adoption of political pluralism, new economic and social policies and
uncertainty in land rights calls for a different approach for protecting
land rights of individuals and organisation to ensure continuity.
xiii. Finally, Recent Court of Appeals decisions affirming customary
tenure rights in areas affected by villagelization provides guidance
for addressing such land tenure problems in a fashion compatible with the
basic values and ideals of the nation.

These factors call for comprehensive land policy which would not only guide the
allocation, ownership and use of land but also help to resolve land conflicts. The
policy reiterates and retains the 4 central land tenure tenets in a modified
form that;

1. Land is publicly owned and vested in the president as trustee on behalf of the
citizens
 2. Speculation in land will be controlled
3. Rights of occupancy and whether statutory or customary are and will
continue to be the only recognised types of land tenure; and
4. Rights and title to land under any consolidated or new land law will continue
to be based mainly on the use and occupation.

OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL LAND POLICY

The overall aim of NLP is to promote and ensure a secure land tenure system, to
encourage the optimal use of land resources, and to facilitate broad-based social
and economic development without upsetting or endangering the ecological
balance of the environment. The specific objectives are;

1. To promote an equitable distribution of land access to land by all

citizens.
2. Ensure that existing rights in the land especially customary rights of
small holders (i.e. peasants and herdsmen who are the majority of the
population in the country) are recognized, clarified and secured in the
law.
3. Set ceilings (i.e. upper limits) on the land ownership which will later be
translated into statutory ceilings to prevent or avoid the phenomenon of land
concentration (i.e. land grabbing).
4. Ensure that land is put to its most productive use to promote rapid social
and economic development of the country.
5. Modify and streamline the existing land management systems and
improve the efficiency of land delivery systems.
6. Streamline the institutional arrangements in land administration
and land dispute adjudication (i.e. seeing through disputes) and also
make them more transparent.
7. Promote sound land information management. For example, by
establishment of land departments in the major zones (i.e. Lake zone, central
zone, the highlands or southern zone, northern zone and the coastal) to cater
for land information as wells as acquisition.
8. Protect land resources from degradation for sustainable
development

LAND TENURE AND ADMINTRATION IN TANZANIA

The existing land tenure system in Tanzania is ‘fundamentally sound’ according to

our policy document. However, there are some shortcomings realized in the system
that hinders the development; these have raised concern to the public. A need for
modifications to suit the present social and economic situation is stated, along with
retaining the virtues of the existing tenure.
Read: Evolution of land tenure system, and freehold title/leasehold and rights of
occupancy in Tanzania

WHAT IS LAND TENURE?

Land tenure is the relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among

people, as individuals or groups, with respect to land (FAO, 2011). (“land” is used
here to include other natural resources such as water and trees.)

Land tenure refers to the system of rights and arrangements that govern how land is owned, used,
and managed within a society. It defines who can use land, for how long, and under what conditions.
Land tenure systems are shaped by laws, customs, and social norms, and they vary widely across
different countries and regions. The rights associated with land tenure can include ownership, leasing,
communal use, and access rights.

Land tenure is an important part of social, political and economic structures. It is

multi-dimensional, bringing into play social, technical, economic, institutional, legal
and political aspects that are often ignored but must be taken into account. Land
tenure relationships may be well-defined and enforceable in a formal court of law or
through customary structures in a community. Alternatively, they may be relatively
poorly defined with ambiguities open to exploitation.

Policy statement

i) Land will be graded as a constitutional category. In particular, the

following four basic land policy tenets will be entrenched in the
constitutions to ensure continuity:
a). All land in Tanzania is public land vested in the President as a trustee
on behalf of all citizens

b). land has values

c). The rights and interests of citizens in land shall not be taken without
due process of the law.

d). Full, fair and prompt compensation shall be paid when land is acquired.

ii) The power of the Executive with respect to land administration will be
subject to limitations embedded in the laws and procedures.
iii) Village councils will administer village lands and their powers will be
subject to limitations embedded in the laws and procedures.
iv) Consultation and consent of a village council will be required whenever
alienation of village lands in necessary.
 v) Allocation of land for residence and institutional uses whenever possible
will be on cost recovery basis
vi) Allocation of land for residential and institutional uses whenever possible
will be on a cost recovery basis.
vii) Prime residential, commercial and industrial land will be allocated in a
transparent manner such as open tender or auction
viii) All grants of land shall be done after the subject land has been fully
surveyed and approved by the Director of Surveys and Mapping.
What is the policy statement about women access to land? Is it practical? Why?

Land tenure constitutes a web of intersecting interests. These include:

 Overriding interests: when a sovereign power (e.g., a nation or community

has the powers to allocate or reallocate land through expropriation, etc.)

 Overlapping interests: when several parties are allocated different rights

to the same parcel of land (e.g., one party may have lease rights, another
may have a right of way, etc.)
 Complementary interests: when different parties share the same interest
in the same parcel of land (e.g., when members of a community share
common rights to grazing land, etc.)
 Competing interests: when different parties contest the same or different
interests in the same parcel (e.g., when two parties independently claim
rights to exclusive use of a parcel for agriculture and/or pastoralism. Land
disputes arise from competing claims.)

Types of Land Tenure Systems

 Private: the assignment of rights to a private party who may be an

individual, a married couple, a group of people, or a corporate body such as a
commercial entity or non-profit organization. For example, within a
community, individual families may have exclusive rights to residential
parcels, agricultural parcels and certain trees. Other members of the
community can be excluded from using these resources without the consent
of those who hold the rights.
 Communal: a right of commons may exist within a community where each
member has a right to use independently the holdings of the community. For
example, members of a community may have the right to graze cattle on a
common pasture.
 State: property rights are assigned to some authority in the public sector.
For example, in some countries, forest lands may fall under the mandate of
the state, whether at a central or decentralized level of government.
 Leasehold: Land is leased by an owner to another person or entity for a specific period under
agreed conditions.
 Open access: specific rights are not assigned to anyone and no-one can be
excluded. This typically includes marine tenure where access to the high seas
is generally open to anyone; it may include rangelands, forests, etc, where
there may be free access to the resources for all. (An important difference
 between open access and communal systems is that under communal
system non-members of the community are excluded from using the
common areas.)

In practice, most forms of holdings may be found within a given society, for
example, common grazing rights, private residential and agricultural holdings, and
state ownership of forests. Customary tenure typically includes communal rights to
pastures and exclusive private rights to agricultural and residential parcels. In some
countries like formally recognized rights to such customary lands are vested in the
nation state or the President “in trust” for the citizens.

The right that a person has in an object such as land may be considered as
property. In the case of land tenure, it is sometimes described more precisely as
property rights to land. A distinction is often made between “real property” or
“immovable property” and “personal property” or “movable property”. In the first
case, property would include land and fixtures (buildings, trees, etc) that would be
regarded as immovable. In the second case, property would include objects not
considered fixed to the land, such as cattle, etc.

In practice, multiple rights can be held by several different persons or groups. This
has given rise to the concept of “a bundle of rights”. Different rights to the same
parcel of land, such as the right to sell the land, the right to use the land through a
lease, or the right to travel across the land, may be pictured as “sticks in the
bundle”. Each right may be held by a different party. The bundle of rights, for
example, may be to create a leasing or sharecropping arrangement allowing the
sharecropper the right to use the land on specified terms and conditions. If the farm
is mortgaged, the creditor may hold a right from the “bundle” to recover the unpaid
loan through a sale of the mortgaged property in the case of default. A neighboring
farmer may have the right from the “bundle” to drive cattle across the land to
obtain water at the river. Box 1 gives some examples of rights.

BOX 1: EXAMPLES OF RIGHTS

 A right to use the land.

 A right to exclude unauthorized people from using the land.
 A right to control how land will be used.
 A right to derive income from the land.
 A right to protection from illegal expropriation of the land.
 A right to transmit the rights to the land to one’s successors, (i.e., a right
held by descendents to inherit the land).
 A right to alienate all rights to the entire holding (e.g., through sale), or to a
portion of the holding (e.g., by subdividing it).
 A right to alienate only a portion of the rights, e.g., through a lease.
 A residuary right to the land, i.e., when partially alienated rights lapse (such
as when a lease expires), those rights revert to the person who alienated
 them.
 A right to enjoy the property rights for an indeterminate length of time, i.e.,
rights might not terminate at a specific date but can last in perpetuity.
 A duty not to use the land in a way that is harmful to other members of
society, (i.e., the right is held by those who do not hold the right to use the
land).
 A duty to surrender the rights to the land when they are taken away through
a lawful action, (e.g., in a case of insolvency where the right is held by the
creditors, or in the case of default on tax payments where the right is held by
the state).

At times it may be useful to simplify the representation of property rights

by identifying:

 use rights: rights to use the land for grazing, growing subsistence crops,
gathering minor forestry products, etc.
 control rights: rights to make decisions how the land should be used
including deciding what crops should be planted, and to benefit financially
from the sale of crops, etc.
 transfer rights: right to sell or mortgage the land, to convey the land to
others through intra-community reallocations, to transmit the land to heirs
through inheritance, and to reallocate use and control rights.

Very often, the poor in a community have only use rights. A woman, for example,
may have the right to use some land to grow crops to feed the family, while her
husband may collect the profits from selling any crops at the market. While such
simplifications can be useful, it should be noted that the exact manner in which
rights to land are actually distributed and enjoyed can be very complex.

In broad terms, land tenure rights are often classified according to whether they are
“formal” or “informal”. There can be perceptual problems with this approach
because, for example, some so-called informal rights may, in practice, be quite
formal and secure in their own context.

Formal property rights may be regarded as those that are explicitly

acknowledged by the state and which may be protected using legal means.
Informal property rights are those that lack official recognition and protection. In
some cases, informal property rights are illegal, i.e., held in direct violation of the
law. An extreme case is when squatters occupy a site in contravention of an
eviction notice. In many countries like ours, illegal property holdings arise because
of inappropriate laws. For example, the minimum size of a farm may be defined by
law whereas in practice farms may be much smaller as a result of informal
subdivisions among heirs. Property rights may also be illegal because of their use,
e.g., the illegal conversion of agricultural land for urban purposes. In other cases,
property may be “extra-legal”, i.e., not against the law, but not recognised by the
law. In some countries, customary property held in rural indigenous communities
falls into this category. A distinction often made is between statutory rights
or “formally recognized rights” and customary rights or “traditional
rights”. This distinction is now becoming blurred in a number of countries,
particularly in Africa, which provide formal legal recognition to customary rights.

These various forms of tenure can create a complex pattern of rights and other
interests. A particularly complex situation arises when statutory rights are granted
in a way that does not take into account existing customary rights (e.g., for
agriculture and grazing). This clash of de jure rights (existing because of the formal
law) and de facto rights (existing in reality) often occurs in already stressed
marginal rainfed agriculture and pasture lands. Likewise in conflict and post-conflict
areas, encounters between settled and displaced populations lead to great
uncertainties as to who has, or should have, the control over which rights.

Land Utilization;

At present big parcels of land are being allocated to individuals, private firms
including foreign investors regardless of their proven ability to develop them. As
result, large areas of land remain undeveloped or are held for speculative purposes
for several years, e.g. in cities. Read policy statement regarding land
utilization.

Protection of Sensitive areas;

On the rising serious problems witnessed in this country is allocation of some areas
deemed sensitive e.g. beach to individuals, causing serious environmental
destruction.

Read policy statement regarding sensitive areas.

Read sections 4.2.11 (Disposition), 4.2.13 (Revocation), 4.2.15

(Acquisition) 4.2.17 (Land values) and 4.2.19 (Compensation).

LAND ADMINISTRATION;

In Tanzania, due to absence or unclear institutional hierarchy for administration of

land, we have witnessed multiple allocations resulting in land disputes. Access to
land, has for many years been unrestrictive among citizens and foreigners. The
current policy provide guideline and statements on allocation and access to land.
Read Policy statement on allocation and access to land.
Land administration is the way in which the rules of land tenure are applied and
made operational. Land administration, whether formal or informal, comprises an
extensive range of systems and processes to administer:

 land rights: the allocation of rights in land; the delimitation of boundaries of

parcels for which the rights are allocated; the transfer from one party to
another through sale, lease, loan, gift or inheritance; and the adjudication of
doubts and disputes regarding rights and parcel boundaries.
 land-use regulation: land-use planning and enforcement and the
adjudication of land use conflicts.
 land valuation and taxation: the gathering of revenues through forms of
land valuation and taxation, and the adjudication of land valuation and
taxation disputes.

Information on land, people, and their rights is fundamental to effective land

administration since rights to land do not exist in a physical form and they have to
be represented in some way. In a formal legal setting, information on rights,
whether held by individuals, families, communities, the state, or commercial and
other organizations, is often recorded in some form of land registration and
cadastre system. In a customary tenure environment, information may be held,
unwritten, within a community through collective memory and the use of witnesses.
In a number of communities, those holding informal rights may have “informal
proofs” of rights, i.e., documents accepted by the community but not by the formal
state administration.

An enforcement or protection component is essential to effective land

administration since rights to land are valuable when claims to them can be
enforced. Such a component allows a person’s recognized rights to be protected
against the acts of others. This protection may come from the state or the
community through social consensus as described below in the section on “Tenure
Security”. A stable land tenure regime is one in which the results of protective
actions are relatively easy to forecast. In a formal legal setting, rights may be
enforced through the system of courts, tribunals, etc. In a customary tenure
environment, rights may be enforced through customary leaders. In both cases,
people may be induced to recognize the rights of others through informal
mechanisms such as community pressures. People who know their rights, and know
what to do if those rights are infringed, are more able to protect their rights than
those who are less knowledgeable.

Land administration is implemented through sets of procedures to manage

information on rights and their protection, such as:

 Procedures for land rights include defining how rights can be transferred from
one party to another through sale, lease, loan, gift and inheritance.
  Procedures for land use regulation include defining the way in which land use
controls are to be planned and enforced.
 Procedures for land valuation and taxation include defining methodologies for
valuing and taxing land.

Efficient procedures allow transactions to be completed quickly, inexpensively, and

transparently. However, in many parts of the world, formal land administration
procedures are time-consuming, bureaucratically cumbersome and expensive, and
are frequently non-transparent, inaccessible to much of the rural population, and
are handled in languages and forms that people do not understand. In such cases,
high transaction costs may result in transfers and other dealings taking place off-
the-record or informally.

Land administration requires actors to implement the procedures. In customary

tenure regimes, the customary leaders may play the principal role in land
administration, for example in allocating rights and resolving disputes. In a more
formal setting, land administration agencies may include land registries, land
surveying, urban and rural planning, and land valuation and taxation, as well as the
court systems. Where customary tenure has been recognized by the State,
functional linkages are being developed between government and customary land
administration bodies.

Formalization of the administration of land rights has been promoted as a pre-

requisite for economic development. Perceived benefits include increased tenure
security and improved access to credit, thereby providing the incentive and ability
for farmers to invest in making improvements to the land. Formal administration is
also proposed as a means to facilitate a land market, allowing land to move towards
its “highest and best use”.

These claims are disputed by others who argue that too often, the flawed design
and implementation of projects to formalize property rights have resulted in a
reduction of security by concentrating rights to a parcel in the hands of an
individual, and neglecting the claims of others, particularly women and other
vulnerable groups, who hold partial or common rights. Similarly, it is argued by
some that access to credit may not improve with formalization since many banks
are unlikely to accept agricultural land as collateral against loans.

As a result, it has been suggested that formal registration of individual property

rights should be considered only in areas of high population density, where
customary tenure systems and dispute resolution systems are weak or absent, or
where there have been other major disruptions to customary land holdings.
However, even where these conditions do not exist, there is growing interest in
several countries to formalize the rights of communities to protect them against
encroachment from outsiders (e.g., commercial farming operations and even the
State). In such cases, the community boundaries are defined, and title to the land is
registered in the name of the community. It is then left to the community to
undertake its own land administration, including the allocation of rights to land
within its boundaries.

In many countries, formal and informal land administration co-exist when legal
records do not replace customary rights, or when newly created informal rights
come into existence. Tensions can exist between de jure and de facto rights to land.
Discrepancies between formal and informal or customary versions of tenure
holdings create ambiguities to be exploited. In some countries where formal land
administration systems do not function well, different titles may be issued by the
State for the same parcel of land. This complicates the legal status of the land since
it gives rise to competing claims. The mere act of establishing and documenting
land boundaries and titles is not enough; it has to be done in a way that does not
make the situation worse. The role of local communities in investigating claims is
crucial as they have the knowledge of the local tenure arrangements.