A changing magnetic filed could produce a current.
The discovery was made in 1831 by Michael Fraday and
Joseph Henry working independently at the same time. The effect is called electromagnetic induction and it
is the physics behind the generators that provide the electricity used in our modern society.
Alternating current
Electric current can be classified as two types: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). The direct
current is a steady unidirectional current. In a direct current the electrons flow steadily in the same direction
all the time. The current that flows in a flashlight , cell phones , laptops and any appliance running on the
batteries is direct current.
Another type of current is of great industrial important. This is the alternating current. An alternating current
is a current that reverses its direction at regular time intervals. In the alternating current the direction of the
flow of electrons changes periodically. Current flowing in power lines and normal household electricity
from a wall outlet (plug) is alternating current. In Japan and in the most of America, the voltage is between
100 V and 120 V, whereas Europe and most other countries in the world ( including Myanmar ) use a
voltage between 220 V and 240 V. The frequency of AC current is 50 Hz / 60 Hz in Japan, 60 Hz in US and
50 Hz in Europe and most other parts of the world.
Figure 11.1 shows the graphical representation of the magnitude of DC and AC voltages as a function of
time.
The method of production of an alternating current is described below. When a coil of wire having quite a
few turns is rotated a few cycles per second continuously in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the coil as
shown in Figure 11.2. When a galvanometer is connected across the ends of the rotating coil, the
galvanometer will show a peculiar result. In each revolution the current produced in the coil due to the
induced emf, rises to a maximum value, then falls to zero, reverses, rises to a maximum and falls to zero
again.
As the coil continues to rotate, this sequence of changes occurs in a periodic manner. The current having this
characteristics is, in fact, the alternating current, called induced current. The induced emf also shows such
periodic variation. Variation of induced emf is shown in Figure 11.3 for one complete rotation of the coil.
The waveform of the emf shown in Figure 11.3 is called a sine wave. It is represented by where E is the
induced emf at a particular instant, Em is the maximum value of emf and ω is the angular velocity of the
rotating coil.
The angular velocity ω is equal to 2 πf , where f is the frequency of the emf, (i.e. the number of complete
cycles generated in 1s). Therefore, a rotating coil in a magnetic field is the basic of an AC generator (a
device for generating alternating current). The magnitude of an alternating current at any instant varies
precisely the same way as shown by Eq. (11.1) and is given by
The alternating current is universally used for household lighting, heating, cooking and other domestic
function.
The advantange of alternating current is that it is relatively easy to change the voltage of the current.
Furthermore, the inevitable loss of energy that occurs when current is distributed over long distance is far
smaller with alternating current (at high voltage and low current) than with direct current.
Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Experiments of Induced Current
In 1831, Joseph Henry and Michael Faraday independently discovered the methods of producing electric
current from magnetic field. Faraday’s experiments are described below.
The first wire loop is connected to a battery through a switch and the second wire loop is connected to a
galvanometer as shown in Figure 11.4 As soon as the switch is closed, a current flows through the first loop
and the galvanometer gives a brief deflection as shown in Figure 11.4 (a) That is, a momentary current flows
through the second loop. When the switch is kept closed in shown in Figure 11.4(b), the galvanometer shows
no deflection (there is no induced current in the second loop). However, when the switch is opened again,
the galvanometer shows the brief deflection in the other direction as shown in Figure 11.4(c), which
indicates that the induced current flows in the opposite direction.
Again, a momentary current flows through the second loop (Q) when the first loop (P) carrying a current is
moved abruptly towards or away from the second loop as shown in Figure 11.5
Moreover ,the same thing happens when a magnet , instead of the current-carrying first loop, is moved
abruptly towards or away from the second loop as shown in Figure 11.6
In the above experiments, switching the current in the first loop ON and OFF (or) the motion of the current-
carrying loop (or) the motion of the magnet; all causes a change in the magnetic lines of force through the
second loop and causes a momentary current to flow through it.
That is, a current flows through a loop of wire whenever there is a change in the magnetic lines of force
through the loop. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction. As mentioned above, this current is
called an induced current and the electromotive force (emf) which causes the induced current to flow is
called an induced emf.
Magnetic flux density and magnetic flux
The magnetic flux density or magnetic induction B is the number of magnetic lines of force passing
perpendicularly through a unit area of material. Magnetic flux density B is related to magnetic field strength
( magnetic field intensity) H by
B = μH
Where μ is the permeability of the medium in which the magnetic field exists. The permeability of free
space (vacuum) μ0=4 π
Faraday’s law
In Faraday’s experiments mentioned above, the change in magnetic flux through a wire loop produces an
induced emf. Based on these experiments, Michael Faraday (1831) discovered the law of electromagnetic
induction stated as below.
The magnetic of induced emf in a wire loop is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through that loop.
Lens’s law
Faraday’s law gives the magnitude of the induced emf and Lenz’s law gives its direction. In 1834 ,the
Russian physicist Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz stated as law as follows.
An induced emf is always in a direction that opposes the change in the original magnetic flux that causes it.
The direction of induced current can be found by applying Lenz’s law. The change in magnetic flux is, in
fact, a decrease or an increase in the magnetic lines of force.
Lenz’s law is good example of the principle of conservation of energy. It shows how the energy from the
mechanical work done against the opposing force experienced by the moving magnet or rotating coil is
transformed into electrical energy.
In Figure 11.7(a), when a magnet is moved towards the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil increases.
The induced current in the coil must produce magnetic field which opposes an increase in the original
magnetic flux. This means that the direction of the magnetic field produced by the induced current must be
towards the magnet. In order to be so the end of the coil nearer the magnet must as a north pole. Therefore,
the current in the coil must be flowing in a counter clockwise direction if viewed from the magnet according
to right-hand rule.
If the magnet is moved away from the coil the induced current will flow in the opposite direction as shown
in Figure 11.7 (b). The direction of the induced current can be found as explained above.
Application of electromagnetic induction
1. Induction coil
One of the useful applications of electromagnetic induction is an induction coil. In 1851, a German
instrument maker named Heinrich Ruhmkorff showed how an electric spark 30 cm long could be produced
by using a battery of only a few volts. The apparatus he used is called an induction coil or Ruhmkkorff spark
coil. The construction of an induction coil is shown in Figure 11.8
It consists of a core of soft iron wires around which is wrapped a coil of a few turns of thick insulated wire.
This coil is called the primary. Around the primary is wound the secondary coil, which has many turns of
thin insulated wire. Two metal rods A and B having insulated handles are connected to the ends of the
secondary. The gap between A and B is adjustable. The primary is connected to a battery.
When the switch S is pressed a current flows through the primary. As soon as the current flows in the
primary an induced emf develops in every turn of the secondary. Since the secondary consists of many turns,
the induced emf is very high indeed.
As the current flows through the primary, the soft iron core becomes an electromagnet which attracts
a soft iron armature mounted on the spring. When this happens, the platinum contacts are separated and
hence the current stops flowing. As soon as the current stops flowing, very high induced emf develops in the
secondary again.
Since there is no current in the primary, the soft iron core becomes demagnetized. At that moment
the armature is returned by the spring to its original position. The contact is remade again and the whole
process is repeated. When the primary is connected to a 6 V battery a voltage of about 30 000 V can deveop
across the terminals A and B. When the terminal of A and B are kept a small distance apart, sparks are
formed between them. A capacitor is connected across the platinum contacts to prevent sparking and
wearing away of contacts. The induction coil is used in the ignition system of motor cars. The primary of an
induction coil is connected to a 6 V or 12 V battery and the secondary is connected to a sparking plug. As a
very high voltage is set up between the two terminals of the plug, sparking occurs and the mixture of gases
is ignited.
2. AC Generator
A generator is an electromagnetic device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Most
generators give out alternating current. AC generators are also called alternaotrs.
AC generators give out alternating current. AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. A simple AC generator is shown in Figure 11.9 (a). It consists of a rectangular
coil mounted on an axle which is fixed between the poles of a permanent magnet. When the coil is rotated,
the magnetic field through it changes. This induces a current in the coil. Using Fleming’s right-hand rule, the
induced current flows from A to B, and C to D the coil.
This induced current flows through the two slip rings (S1 and S2 ) and then through the external load from P
to Q as shown Figure 11.9 (b) . The two slip rings (S1 and S2) each make sliding contact with two fixed
carbon brushes (B1 and B2) , respectively.
When the coil has rotated through 180° the sides of the coil will have changed places. Now the current flows
from B to A and D to C in the coil, and from Q to P in the external load as shown in Figure 11.9 (c) . Every
time the coil turns through 180° the current reverses its direction. This is an alternating current which
changes its direction when the coil is vertical.
If the speed of rotating coil is doubled, both the frequency of the alternating and the rate of cutting of the
magnetic lines of force will be doubled. When the number of turns in the coil is doubled, the frequency of
the output voltage is the same although its magnitude is doubled.
The induced electromotive force of a generator can be increased by (i) increasing the speed of rotating of the
coil, (ii) increasing the area, (iii) the number of turns in the coil, and (iv) using stronger magnets.
The shaft (axle) of the coil is rotated by an external force such as falling water or an engine. If the wire loop
is rotating with a constant angular velocity
There is no structural difference between a generator and an electric motor. The difference lies in the way
energy is converted. In an electric motor, electrical energy is used to rotate the coil to provide mechanical
energy. In the case of generators, mechanical energy is used to rotate the coil to produce electrical energy.
3. Transformer
One of the another useful application is the construction of transformers that are commonly used today.
Different electrical appliances need different working voltages. The doorbell may work on a 6 V supply
whereas a picture tube in old television sets may need several thousand volts. Transformers are used to
provide the different voltage requirements of the appliances from the mains supply.
A transformer is used to change the voltage of an alternating current. The core of a transformer is built
up of thin iron sheets of high resistance called lamination. These iron sheets are made to be electrically
insulated from one another. Two coils, each consisting of many turns of wire, are wound
