102002/COZ2Z00E Basics of
Instrumentation and Mechanical
Engineering
* MODULE 1
Principles of measurements: Applications of Measurement
Instrumentation. Generalized configurations and functional descriptions
of measuring Instruments.
Generalized performance characteristics - Static characteristics -
Dynamic characteristics (with mathematical illustrations, without proof
/derivation)
Fundamental Standards - Calibration of meters - Qualities of
measurements. Errors in measurements and its analysis.
Course Outcomes
¢CO 1: Understand different standards and errors
in measuring systems along with the static and
dynamic characteristics.
°CO 2: Identify various test signals used in the
measurement system and illustrate the working of
various primary sensors and transducers.
Introduction to Fundamental
Standards
Ref: Standards of measurement Page no:34-35
W.D COOPER and A.D HELFRICK Electronic
Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques.
¢ What is the difference between a primary and secondary
standard?
¢ Explain the different types of standards of measurement.
International Standard
/ALES\
ISO
“iz
9001:2015
7"
Definition Significance
These are defined by the international agreement, and are It ensures consistent quality and facilitates
maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in international trade and cooperation.
France
Primary Standard
1 Explanation
Primary standards are maintained at institutions in various countries around the world. The National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
serves as the primary institution responsible for maintaining primary standards of measurement. The NPL is located in New Delhi and
operates under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
2 Role
They establish the accuracy and reliability of all other measuring devices.
@ Made with Gamma
Secondary Standard
Purpose
Secondary standards provide a basis for the
calibration of working standards.
Usage
They are used to ensure the accuracy of
measurements in laboratories and industries.
Working Standard
Overview Application
Working standards are the instruments They serve as references for day-to-
used for routine measurements. day measurement activities.
Traceability Pyramid - The
higher the location of the
International
reference standard in_- the Standards
pyramid, the smaller the
National Metrology
measurement uncertainty it can Institutes
provide, therefore, the more
Calibration Laboratories
accurate the standard. The
traceability pyramid presents the Industry and Testing Laboratories
hierarchy of every reference
standard and the size
(magnitude) of the provided
uncertainty.
Errors in measurement and their statical Analysis
A.K Sawhney Page No:49, 53, 54, 55,56,57
¢ Types of errors
¢ Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as
under :
¢ A Gross Errors.
¢ A Systematic Errors.
¢ A Random Errors.
systematic Errors
¢ These errors affect all the readings in a particular fashion. Systematic
errors may arise due to different reasons such as: the zero error of the
instrument, the shortcomings of the sensor, improper reading of the
instrument due to the improper position of the person’s head/eye
(Parallax error), the environmental effect, and so on.
¢ Systematic errors can be corrected by calibration. The major feature
of systematic errors is that the sources of errors can be traced and
reduced by carefully designing the measuring system and selecting its
components
Random Errors unknown reason, unavoidable
Random errors are errors that result in obtaining different
measured values when repeated measures of a physical quantity are
taken.
An example of random error is measuring the mass of gold on an
electronic scale several times, and obtaining readings that vary in a
random fashion.
The reasons for random errors are not known and therefore they
cannot be avoided. They can only be estimated and reduced by
Statistical operations
Limiting or Guarantee Errors.
¢ The limits of these deviations are known as Limiting or Guarantee
Errors.
¢ The error is guaranteed within the limits. The ratio of error to the
specified nominal value is termed a Relative Limiting Error.
¢ Note that the smaller the voltage to be measured, the greater is the
percentage error, though the magnitude of the limiting error is
fixed.
¢ Actual value of the quantity A, = A, t 0A
¢ A; Nominal value, +6A limiting error
Relative (Fractional) limiting error
¢ The relative limiting error is defined as the ratio of the limiting error to
the nominal value of the measuring quantity.
¢ Relative limiting error ¢, = — = —
As As
Ep= OA= &} Ag
Ag =A, 6A =A, + & A, = As (1 + €,-)
¢ Percentage limiting error %é, = €, * 100
¢ Relative limiting error ¢,. = Aq—As
As
Example 3.2 A 0-150 V voltmeter has a guaranteed
accuracy of 1 percent of full scale reading. The voltage
measured by this instrument ts 75 V. Calculate the limiting
error in percent. Comment upen the result.
Solution. The magnitude of limiting error of
instrument is
dA =e, A, =0.01x 150 =1.5 V
The magnitude of the voltage being measured is
75 V.
The relative error at this voltage is
z, 84-13 099
A =
75
Therefore, the voltage being measured is between
the limits of :
A, =A,(lt¢,)
=75(1+0.02)V =75+15V
The percentage limiting error is :
% €, = a
Fr 100 =2 percent.
Example 4.3 A wattmeter having a range 1000 W has
an error of + 1% of full scale deflection. If the true power is
100 W, what would be the range of readings ? Suppose the
error is specified as percentage of true value, what would be
the range of the readings ?
Solution. When the error is specified as a percen-
tage of full scale deflection, the magnitude of limiting
error at full scale = +—~x
100
1000 = +10 W
Thus the wattmeter reading when the true
reading is 100 W may be 100 + 10 W i.e., between 90 to
110 W.
+10
Relative error = 7 x 100 =+ 10%
Now suppose the error is specified as percentage
of true value.
The magnitude of error = + — x1l00=+1W.
Therefore the meter may read 100+1W or
between 99 to 101 W.
COMBINATION OF QUANTITIES
Sum of Quantities
Where a quantity is determined as the sum of two measur
ements, the total error is the
sum of the absolute errors in each measurement, As illustra
ted in Figure 2-6(a)
E=(V, + AV,) +(V> + AV>)
giving E=(V, + V2) + (AV, + AV>) (2-1)
—
Difference of Quantities
2-6( b) illus trate s a situ atio n in whic h a pote ntia l diff eren ce is dete rmined as the
Figure
:
difference between two measured voltages. Here again, the errors are additive
&=¥V,-V;
= (V, + AV,) _ (V> + AV)
E=(V, — V2) + (AV, + AV,)
Product of Quantities
Wher, a calculated quantity is the product of two
or more quantities, the percentage error
is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity [co
nsider Figure 2-6(c)):
P=El
=(E + AE) + As)
=EItE
Alt] AE+ AE AJ
Since AE Al is very small,
P = El+(E
Al+/] AE)
percentage error = E Al+/] AE .
100%
EI
-(= “er ) * 100%
E] 1
sare x 100%
/ E
% error in P =(% error in 1) + (9% error in E)
Quotient of Quantities
Here again it can be shown that the percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in
each quantity. In Figure 2-6(c),
% error in EH! =(% error in E) + (% error in J) (2-4)
Quantity Raised to a Power
When a quantity A is raised to a power B, the percentage error in A® can be shown to be
% error in A®= B(% error in A) | Lb (2-5)
Summary
ForX=A+B, error in X =+[(error in A) + (error in B)}
For X = AB, % error in X =+ [(% error in A) + (% error in B))
For X = A/B, % error in X =+ [(% error in A) + (% error in B)|
For X= A?, % error in X =+B(% error in A)
Calculate the maximum percentage error in
the difference of two measured voltages
when V,; = 100 V+ 1% and V;=80 V+ 5%.
Solution
V,=100Vt1V
(as in Example 2-2)
and V.=80Vi4V
E=(100V+1V)-(80V+4 Vv)
=20V+5V
=20 V+25%
An 820 22 resistance with an accuracy of + 10% carries a current of 10 mA. The current was
measured by an analog ammeter on a 25 mA range with an accuracy of +2% of full scale.
Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result.
Solution
P=/’R
P=(10 mA)’ x 8202
= 82 mW
error inR =+t10%
error in 1 =+2%
of 25 mA
=1t0.5mA
» +0.5 mA
x 100%
10mA
= 15%
% error in F = 245%)
=+10%
% error in P =(% error in /*) + (% error in R)
= +(10% + 10%)
= +20%
Example 3.4 Three resistors have the following ratings :
R, =37 245%, R,=/75 Wt 5%, R, =50 Wt 5%
Determine the magnitude and limiting error in ohm and in per-
cent of the resistance of these resistances connected in series,
Solution. The values of resistances are :
R, =37 5
+ x37 =37 +1850
1 100
Ry = 75 £ x75 =75 43,750
R, = 50 +x
Pl
100 50 =50 +2500
The limiting value of resultant resistance,
R =(37 +75 + 50) + (1.85 + 3.75 +2.50)
=162 + 8.102
..Magnitude of resistance = 162 © and error in
ohm =+8.1Q9.
Percent limiting error of series combination of
resistances £5, 100 = +5%
162
3.5 The resistance of a circuit is found by
measuring current flowing and the power fed into the
circuit. Find the limiting error in the measurement of
resistance when the limiting errors in the measurement of
power and current are respectively + 1.5% and + 1.0%.
Solution. Resistance R = ipower) = : = PI~*.
(current)” I
From Eqn. 3.14, relative limiting error in
measurement of resistance is,
—=4
(SP, él
25 = £(1.54+2x1.0)=+3.5%
\ Pp”
Basics of Statical Analysis
Arithmetic Mean Value
When a number of measurements of a quantity are made and the measurements are not
all exactly equal, the best approximation to the actual value is found by calculating the
average value, or arithmetic mean, of the results. For n measured values of x;,.¥5,.%3.. . .,
x,, the arithmetic mean is
Xp tay Fay te ta,
r=
i
Deviation
The difference between any one measured value and the arithmetic mean of a series of
measurements is termed the deviation. The deviations (d,, d>, ds,. . . , d,) may be posi-
tive or negative, and the algebraic sum of the deviations is always zero. The average devi-
\ds| + [da] + ld] + --- + Id,
n
The accuracy of five digital voltmeters are checked by using each of them to measure a
standard }.0000 V from a calibration instrument (see Section 12-3). The voltmeter read-
ings are as follows: V, = 1.001 V, V2 = 1.002, V, = 0.999, V, = 0,998, and Vs = 1.000.
Calculate the average measured voltage and the average deviation.
Solution
V+ Vo+V3+Va4+Vs
From Equation 2-6, Vi, = 5
1.001 V + 1.002 V + 0.999 V + 0.998 V + 1.000 V
= 5
= 1,000 V
d, =V, - V,, = 1.001 V - 1.000V
= 0,001 V
d, = V2—V,, = 1.002
V - 1.000 V
= 0.002 V
dy = V3—V,, = 0.999 V - 1.000 V
=-0.001 V
d,=V4-
V,, = 0.998 V - 1.000 V
=-0.002 V
ds = Vs - V,, = 1.000 V - 1.000 V
=0V
1] & ldo] + Ids] + ida} + Id
= 5
0.001 V + 0.002 V + 0.001 V + 0.002 V +0
= 5
= 0.0012V
For the case of a large number of measurements in which
only random errors are present,
it can be shown that the probable error in any One measur
ement is 0.6745 times the
standard deviation:
| probable error = 0.6745 o| (2-9)
Standard deviation and Probable error
Assignment
¢ Types of errors
¢ Classification of standard
