Attitude

PYQs
[2020] A positive attitude is considered to be an essential characteristic of a civil servant who is often
required to function under extreme stress. What contributes a positive attitude in person?

[2021] Attitude is an important component that goes as input in the development of human beings.
How to build a suitable attitude needed for a public servant?

[2022] The Rules and Regulations provided to all the civil servants are same, yet there is difference in
the performance. Positive minded officers are able to interpret the Rules and Regulations in favour of
the case and achieve success, whereas negative minded officers are unable to achieve goals by
interpreting the same Rules and Regulations against the case. Discuss with illustrations.

[2020] ‘Hatred is destructive of a person‘s wisdom and conscience that can poison a nation’s spirit.
Do you agree with this view? Justify your answer.

[2016] How could social influence and persuasion contribute to the success of Swatchh Bharat
Abhiyan?
Answer Writing Framework

Introduction
● Definition or quote based introductions are most relevant for static questions
● For applied ethics - Contextual introduction
● If question is lengthy or has 3-4 demands then address 1st implicit demand in introduction
itself

Main Body
● Use diagrammatic representation to highlight component of attitude
● For Formation of attitude - Use CAB Model
● For role of attitude - Functions of attitude
● Can also use PESTLE approach
● For Attitude of civil servants - Nolan Principles
● Ensure that all keywords are well defined and explained
● Try to use theories on attitude for content richness
Conclusion
● Try to use a Quote or link with major values and keywords like Good Governance, Minimum
Government, Maximum Governance
Attitude refers to an individual's mental perspective, shaping how they think or feel about someone
or something. It reflects a mindset that inclines a person to respond either positively or negatively
toward a particular object, person, or situation.

Definition by Gordon Allport (1935): Attitude is a "mental and neural state of readiness, organized
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on responses to related objects and
situations."

QUOTES ON ATTITUDE
1. Ability is what you are capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do. Attitude
determines how well you do it.”
2. “Attitudes are habits of the heart”.- michael sandel
3. “Our attitude towards life determines life’s attitude towards us.”
4. “Our attitude, not aptitude will determine our altitude.”
5. “Our THOUGHTS become our WORDS. Our WORDS become our BEHAVIOR. Our BEHAVIOR
becomes our HABITS. Our HABITS become our VALUES. Our VALUES become our DESTINY.”
– Mahatma Gandhi.
6. “Education is not the name of any degree or certificate that can be shown as proof. It is the
name of our attitude, actions, language, and behavior with others in real-time.” – Barack
Obama.
7. “You can often change your circumstances by changing your attitude”. —Eleanor
Roosevelt
8. “Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference” —Winston Churchill
9. Nothing can stop the person with the right mental attitude from achieving his goals.
Nothing on earth can help the person with the wrong mental attitude.-Thomas Jefferson

Characteristics of Attitude
1. Attitudes are predispositions in terms of purpose, interest, or opinion, guiding their
assessment of objects in either a favorable or unfavorable way. Eg. I may enjoy petting dogs
when I see them, while someone else may not.
2. attitudes are internal, personal states that cannot be directly observed or measured by
others; tools claiming to measure attitudes do so indirectly.
3. Attitudes are evaluative statements: They express either favorable or unfavorable opinions
about objects, people, or events. Eg. I like oranges but dislike apples.
4. Attitudes influence human behavior: A positive attitude towards something will influence
behavior favorably, and a negative one will have the opposite effect. Eg. If I have a hygienic
attitude, I will actively support the Swachh Bharat Mission.
5. Attitudes have intensity: This refers to the strength of the emotional component of an
attitude. Eg. degree of dislike towards someone determines the intensity of our attitude.
6. Attitudes are learned and shaped through social interactions and experiences, though they
may sometimes overemphasize social learning over genetic influences, Eg. Mumbaikar
developing a negative attitude toward North Indians.
7. Attitudes are different from values: Values are broader ideals, whereas attitudes are more
specific feelings. Eg. Honesty is a value, but consistently practicing it is an attitude.
8. attitudes are not merely feelings or beliefs but have a directive and dynamic role, guiding
and predicting an individual's responses to people, issues, events, and situations.

STRUCTURE OF ATTITUDE
Gregory R. Maio and Geoffery Haddock suggest that attitudes consist of three components:
cognitive (thoughts), affective (feelings), and behavioral (actions or experiences). This
multi-component framework is referred to as the ABC Model or CAB Model.
1. Cognitive component: This involves an individual's evaluation of an entity, shaping their
belief or disbelief about an object.
a. It refers to the thoughts and beliefs one holds about the attitude object.
b. While the cognitive and affective components are interrelated, they may not always
align.
c. Eg. Someone may believe that going on a holiday is a bad idea due to high costs,
despite having positive feelings about it, basing their decision on logic rather than
emotion.
d. Analogy: I believe spiders are
dangerous.
2. Affective component: This
represents the emotional response,
such as liking or disliking, towards an
attitude object.
a. It often involves an initial
reaction, whether positive or
negative, such as fear or
excitement.
b. Affect relates to feelings,
while cognition is concerned
with thoughts.
c. Eg. A person might feel
repulsed by a smell linked to
a bad memory or be afraid of
a lion even without prior experience.
d. Analogy: I am afraid of spiders.
3. Behavioral component: This refers to an individual's verbal or non-verbal behavioral
tendencies, manifesting in actions or observable responses toward an attitude object.
a. It involves a person's reaction, generally flexible whether favorable or unfavorable,
toward taking action on the attitude object.
b. Eg. Effective marketing could alter behavior, leading a person to purchase a product
they previously ignored.
c. Analogy: I will avoid spiders and scream and run when I see one.
Portugal’s football player Ronaldo attended his first pre-match press conference before Portugal's
game against Hungary. Upon noticing two Coca-Cola bottles placed in front of him, he immediately
removed them from the camera's view and replaced them with a bottle of water. In this example,
the A-B-C components of attitude can be observed as follows:
1. Affective component- The feeling of disgust towards Coca-Cola.
2. Behavioural component- Removal of the Coca-Cola bottles.
3. Cognitive component- Knowledge of Ronaldo that Coca-Cola Is bad for health.

APPROACHES TO STRUCTURING ATTITUDES

Approaches To Structuring Attitudes refers to how positive and negative judgments are organized
within the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitude. These components may not
always align positively. For instance, someone might have favorable thoughts about saving lives
(cognitive) but feel uncomfortable with needles (affective), which might prevent them from
donating blood (behavioral).
There are two approaches to structuring attitudes:
1. One-Dimensional Perspective: This view suggests that positive beliefs, emotions, and
behaviors prevent the development of negative ones. Attitudes are consistent, with no
ambivalence, toward the object.
2. Two-Dimensional Perspective: In this view, positive and negative aspects of attitudes exist
on separate dimensions. A person’s attitude can have varying levels of positivity and
negativity, such as little positivity and high negativity, or vice versa, or even a neutral stance.

TYPES OF ATTITUDES
Based on various factors, attitudes can be categorised as positive,
negative, neutral, or mixed.

Positive Attitudes: This involves maintaining an optimistic mindset

and focusing on the greater good, regardless of the situation.
1. Individuals with positive attitudes seek out the good in others
and avoid dwelling on negativity.
2. It encourages acceptance of both strengths and weaknesses,
promoting resilience.
3. A person with a positive attitude will always look for the
positive aspects in others, no matter how negative their
behavior or attitude may seem.
4. "A positive attitude brings strength, energy, motivation, and initiative."
Significance of Positive Attitude:
1. Productivity: A positive attitude drives people to take a greater interest in their work, leading
to increased output and productivity.
2. Decision-Making: It promotes unbiased and objective decision-making, free from prejudice.
3. Relationship Management: Positive individuals are more approachable, helping them build
better rapport with others and gain loyalty and trust. eg. Sister Nivedita's positive attitude
towards transforming society.
4. Stress Management: Positive thinking, determination, and passion help reduce stress,
leading to better health and less reliance on anti-stress medications. Eg. People with positive
attitudes are lively, energetic, and recover faster from illness.
5. Boosts Creative Thinking: A positive attitude fosters innovation and encourages people to
find unique, better ways to approach situations. Eg. Positive individuals tend to view life and
challenges with a broader perspective, seeking creative solutions.
Some examples of positive attitudes:
1. For APJ Abdul Kalam- failure is the first attempt in learning.
2. Confidence: "If you have no confidence in yourself, you are twice defeated in the race of life."
3. Happiness: "Happiness is not out there; it's within you."
 4. Determination: "A dream doesn’t become reality through magic; it takes sweat,
determination, and hard work." Nelson Mandelas ‘never say never’ attitude; even after 27
years in prison.
5. Forgiveness- as Martin Luther King said- “forgiveness is not an occasional act but a constant
attitude”.
6. Desmond tutu- positive attitude at life despite struggles against apartheid, always smiling.

Negative Attitude: A negative attitude prevents people from seeing things with hope or happiness,
opposing a positive mindset.
1. "A bad attitude is like a flat tire. You can't go anywhere unless you change it."
Some examples of negative attitudes:
2. Anger: "Anger is the root cause of self-destruction."
3. Frustration: "To conquer frustration, one must stay intensely focused on the outcome, not
the obstacles."

Neutral Attitude: This is characterized by indifference and detachment.

1. People with a neutral attitude remain complacent and self-satisfied, showing little interest in
problem-solving and waiting for others to intervene.
2. They resist change and prefer to live as they are, acting as silent spectators and avoiding
risks.
Traits of a neutral attitude:
1. Complacence
2. Indifference
3. Detachment
4. A sense of disconnection
5. Lack of emotion

Attitude Ambivalence: This refers to simultaneously holding both positive and negative
evaluations toward an object. It involves conflicting reactions, beliefs, or feelings about the same
thing. Eg. A person may think someone is intelligent (positive belief) but unreliable (negative belief).

Uncomfortable ambivalence, also known as cognitive dissonance, can lead to avoidance,

procrastination, or efforts to resolve the conflict.

TYPES OF ATTITUDES(other classification)

1. Explicit Attitudes:
a. Operate at the conscious level; individuals are aware of them.
b. Involve deliberate cognitive processing and control in behavior.
c. Eg: Choosing a toothpaste brand because you believe it offers better whitening
based on advertisements.
2. Implicit Attitudes:
a. Operate at the unconscious level; individuals are unaware of them.
b. Automatically influence behavior without conscious thought.
c. Eg: Feeling uneasy around certain groups due to unconscious biases formed from
societal stereotypes.
3. Dual Attitudes Model (Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler, 2000):
a. New attitudes do not erase old ones; both coexist.
b. New attitudes function as explicit, while old ones remain as implicit.
c. Eg: A person develops a positive attitude toward exercise (explicit) but still feels
reluctant to go to the gym due to an older negative attitude (implicit).
4. Activation of Implicit Attitudes (Petty et al., 2006):
 a. Old attitudes can resurface when triggered by specific situations or priming.
b. Eg: A person who consciously supports gender equality (explicit) may unknowingly
prefer male candidates for leadership roles (implicit) during hiring.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

1. Knowledge Function: Attitudes help us efficiently navigate the world by allowing us to

quickly assess whether something is good or bad without constantly re-evaluating. This
function satisfies our need to make sense of the world. Knowledge-oriented attitudes help
individuals understand and interpret the environment around them.
Eg. A person with a negative attitude toward insects may avoid them altogether, even though
most do not bite. This helps the individual avoid constant evaluation of every insect
encountered.
Eg. Someone interested in cars is likely to read magazines and attend auto shows to stay
updated on the latest models.
2. Utilitarian/Instrumentality Function: Attitudes serve to help individuals achieve personal
goals or avoid unpleasant situations. The expression of certain attitudes often leads to
rewards or satisfaction. This function aligns with the Utilitarian Approach, which prioritizes
actions that maximize pleasure and minimize pain for all affected.
Eg. A person’s attitude toward ice cream may be based on the enjoyment of taste (reward)
versus the potential downsides, such as weight gain (punishment), guiding behavior towards
moderation (eating low-fat ice cream occasionally).
3. Social Adjustive Function: This function allows individuals to manage their social
relationships and improve their social standing by adopting attitudes that enhance their
popularity or status. Individuals with this function are concerned with how they are
perceived by others and seek objects that boost their social image.
Eg. A child may learn that supporting a famous football player like Cristiano Ronaldo gains
parental approval, thus adopting that attitude for social recognition.
4. Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes protect individuals from internal and external discomfort,
helping preserve self-esteem and self-image. This function allows people to cover up
insecurities or unfavorable aspects of themselves, enhancing their sense of self-worth.
Eg. A student might blame poor teaching for low grades to avoid feeling bad about their own
performance.
Eg. Chalta hai” attitude of government functionaries for absence of diligence and
non-delivery of services on their own part, in turn makes the work culture poor
5. Value-Expressive Function: This function allows individuals to express values central to their
self-concept. It involves self-expression and reflects one's core beliefs. This function contrasts
with the ego-defensive function, focusing on self-expression rather than self-protection.
Eg. Mother Teresa’s attitude for the poor represented her value of serving humanity.

FORMATION OF ATTITUDE
1. Classical Conditioning: This refers to the unconscious learning process through association
with a particular stimulus. Individuals form attitudes based on associating certain
characteristics with an object. Eg. Virat Kohli’s association with Puma footwear in ads shapes
his fans' positive attitude toward the brand.
2. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning: This learning process involves modifying the strength
of a behavior through reinforcement or punishment. Positive experiences reinforce
attitudes, while negative ones reduce their persistence.
a. Positive Reinforcement: Receiving a reward for a particular action strengthens the
attitude. Eg. A child praised for cleaning their room is likely to continue doing so.
 b. Negative Reinforcement: Behavior is encouraged by removing an unpleasant
stimulus. Eg. A child’s tantrum may stop when a parent gives in, reinforcing the
behavior. Similarly, prisoners might have regulations eased for good behavior.
c. Punishment: This reduces the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring.
i. Positive Punishment: Involves adding something unpleasant to discourage
behavior. Eg. An employee may lose wages for missing work, discouraging
absenteeism.
ii. Negative Punishment: Involves removing something desirable to reduce
unwanted behavior. Eg. Withdrawing a bonus to encourage greater work
efficiency.
3. Observational Learning: Attitudes are shaped by observing and imitating others. Eg. Indian
children mimic "Chhota Bheem," adopting attitudes of bravery and friendship.
4. Evaluative Learning: Attitudes are formed based on emotional associations with an object
or person, even if they did not directly cause the emotions. Eg. Sachin Tendulkar associates
the Wankhede Stadium with victory, fostering a deep emotional connection to the place.
5. Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure to something or someone increases the likelihood
of developing a positive attitude toward it. Eg. Initially bizarre clothing trends may grow on
people as they see them more frequently.
6. Direct Personal Experience: A person's direct interaction with an attitude object shapes their
attitude toward it. Eg. If a new employee finds their job repetitive and the workplace
environment unfriendly, they may develop a negative attitude toward the job.
7. Self-Perception: People form attitudes by observing their own behavior. Eg. Someone might
realize they love J.K. Rowling after noticing how many of her books they have read.
8. Cognitive Dissonance: This occurs when there is a conflict between attitudes and actions. To
resolve the inconsistency, people may adjust their attitudes to align with their actions.

Theories of Attitude Organisation

1. Consistency Principle: Lecky (1945) highlighted self-consistency as a guiding principle in
learning, memory, and pleasure, suggesting that consistent experiences are retained, and
inconsistent ones are forgotten.
2. Heider’s Balance Theory: States that a balanced state exists when relationships between
three elements (person, other, object) have either all positive signs or two negative signs,
influencing perception and attitude change.
3. Newcomb’s Symmetry Theory: Explores interpersonal communication, suggesting symmetry
exists when attraction and attitude signs between individuals are alike or complementary,
influencing group dynamics.
4. Osgood and Tannenbaum’s Congruity Theory: Congruity occurs when cognitive elements'
valence and intensity align; imbalance triggers attitude changes to restore congruence.
5. Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Dissonance arises when cognitive elements
conflict, creating psychological pressure to reduce it through attitude or behavioral changes.
6. McGuire’s Two-Process Theory: Differentiates cognitive and affective motives for
consistency, categorizing needs like autonomy, stimulation, ego-defense, and reinforcement
as key drivers for consistency.
7. Katz and Statland’s Theory: Highlights four attitude functions—adjustive, ego-defensive,
value-expressive, and knowledge—where only the latter two rely on consistency principles
for attitude change.
8. Kelman’s Three-Process Theory: Attitude change occurs via compliance
(rewards/punishments), identification (relationship satisfaction), or internalization (value
congruence), with consistency relevant only to internalization.
 9. Rosenberg’s Affective-Cognitive Consistency Theory: Focuses on aligning affective and
cognitive components of attitudes, asserting that inconsistency leads to attitude
reorganization or resolution, influenced by external forces.

ATTITUDE CHANGE
Attitude Change
1. Definition: Attitude change involves transforming the valence (positive/negative) of an
attitude, as seen in shifting political preferences or opinions on issues like atomic weapons.
2. Approaches to Attitude Change:
a. Cognitive Consistency Approach: Internal drive to maintain consistent attitudes.
b. Persuasion Approach: External factors like arguments or influences change attitudes.

Theories of Attitude Change

1. Balance Theory (Fritz Heider, 1946):

a. Relationships between three elements (person, other person, attitude object) are
balanced (+) or unbalanced (-).
b. Eg: "My enemy’s enemy is my friend."
c. People prefer balanced states and adjust relationships to restore balance.
d. Limitations: Ignore magnitude of relationships and complexity of real-life scenarios.
2. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(Festinger, 1957):
a. Psychological discomfort
from conflicting attitudes,
beliefs, or behaviors
motivates resolution.
b. Ways to Resolve
Dissonance:
i. Change Beliefs: Rare
due to stability of
core beliefs.
ii. Change Behavior:
Example: Quitting
smoking after learning its health risks.
iii. Change Perception: Example: Rationalizing smoking as stress relief.
c. Applications:
i. Forced Compliance Behavior: Acting against personal beliefs under pressure,
e.g. praising a friend's bad singing.
ii. Decision Making: Enhancing the chosen option’s attractiveness while
devaluing the rejected one.
iii. Effort Justification: Greater effort toward a goal increases its perceived
value, reducing dissonance.
3. PERSUASION(dealt separately in chapter)

WHAT INFLUENCES ATTITUDE:

1. Family Influence: Shapes core values, beliefs, and practices from an early age. Eg. Family
promoting hygiene builds lifelong cleanliness habits, enhancing well-being and social
responsibility.
 2. School Environment: Instills community values like solidarity and welfare through peer and
teacher interactions. Eg. School projects on recycling encourage environmental ethics and
collective responsibility.
3. Work Culture: Promotes values of ethics and accountability through initiatives like CSR.
Eg. CSR programs reinforce employee engagement in community welfare, inspiring
corporate responsibility.
4. Rationality: Encourages questioning of outdated or harmful practices, fostering social justice
and ethical progress. Eg. Raja Rammohan Roy opposes sati, advocating for equality and
human dignity.
5. Role Modeling: Inspires attitudes toward self-discipline and personal development by
following positive figures. Eg. Virat Kohli’s fitness motivates youth toward health and
dedication.
6. Celebrity Messaging: Influences public attitudes by associating ethical behaviors with known
personalities. Eg. Amitabh Bachchan’s ads on sanitation boost public awareness and civic
duty.
7. Social Media: Shapes views through trending topics, impacting societal norms and collective
mindset. Eg. Campaigns for mental health on social media reduce stigma and promote
well-being.
8. Politics: Influences public attitudes through policy-making and ethical leadership
representation. Eg. Policies on equality reflect values of justice, inclusivity, and public
welfare.

ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOUR LINK
Behaviour refers to the way a person or an organism acts or conducts
itself in response to various stimuli, situations, or circumstances.
It can include actions like speaking, moving, expressing emotions,
making decisions, and engaging in social interactions.

Psychologists initially believed that behavior naturally aligns with

attitudes, predicting actions based on attitudes. However, research has
shown this relationship is more complex, with attitudes and behaviors influencing each other.

Attitude Influencing Behavior:

1. Attitude Strength: Strong, well-formed attitudes are more likely to guide behavior. Eg. An
animal rights advocate avoids products tested on animals.
2. Attitude Consistency: When beliefs and feelings align, behavior reflects the attitude. Eg.
Someone who values recycling and enjoys doing it is likely
to recycle regularly.
3. Self-Monitoring: Individuals differ in how much social
contexts influence their actions. Eg. Low self-monitors
might attend events they dislike due to peer pressure,
while high self-monitors act in line with their attitudes.
4. Vested Interest: The more personally invested someone
is, the stronger the attitude-behavior link. Eg.
Environmentalists are more likely to adopt sustainable
lifestyles.
5. Exposure to Attitude Objects: Direct experience with
something strengthens the attitude-behavior connection.
Eg. Someone who regularly eats organic food continues to
do so.
 6. Perceived Behavioral Control: Confidence in one's ability to perform a behavior affects
follow-through. Eg. Believing one can diet successfully increases persistence.
7. Social Norms: Behavior can be moderated by societal standards. Eg. A person might comply
with a policy they disagree with to maintain social harmony.
8. Attitudes of Others: Being around like-minded individuals reinforces behavior.
Eg. Friends with similar attitudes towards alcohol
influence each other’s behavior.
9. Perceived Relevance: If an attitude seems
irrelevant, it’s less likely to drive behavior. Eg.
Someone indifferent to politics might not vote.

Behavior Influencing Attitude:

1. Direct Experience: Engaging in behaviour can shape
or reinforce attitudes. Eg. Trying and liking a new food can lead to a positive attitude about
it.
2. Cognitive Dissonance: When behaviors conflict with attitudes, discomfort (dissonance) leads
us to adjust attitudes to match behavior. Eg. Wearing a helmet due to laws may shift
attitudes to view helmets more positively.
3. Social Reinforcement: Positive feedback on behavior can influence attitudes. Eg.
Participating in "Selfie with Daughter" can strengthen attitudes toward gender equality.
4. Perceived Effectiveness: When behavior results in a positive outcome, attitudes about it
improve. Eg. Efficient government services can change negative perceptions of bureaucracy.

Attitude Behaviour

1. Attitude is an internal component of 1. Behaviour is the manifestation or

our cognition (Knowledge or exhibition of such an attitude.
Information) 2. Behaviour implies the actions and
2. Attitude refers to a person’s mental conduct of an individual or group
view, regarding the way he/she thinks towards other persons.
or feels about someone or something. 3. It is more social.
3. It is more personal. 4. The behaviour of a person is based on
4. A person’s attitude is mainly based on the situation and circumstances.
the experiences gained by him during 5. Behaviour reflects one’s attitude as
the course of his life and observations. actions are the reflection of our
5. Attitude reflects one’s emotions, thoughts.
opinions, and thoughts. 6. Attitudes, character traits, and
6. Factors like environment, experiences, biological factors like endocrine and
and moral values mainly influence nervous responses influence our
attitudes. behaviour.
7. Example: A civil servant working in a 7. Example: A civil servant working in a
rural area saw that many villagers government office received an
were living in poverty. They did not application from a poor family with
have access to clean water or many young children. The civil servant
sanitation facilities, and they did not felt sympathy for the family and took
have enough food to eat. The civil the time to carefully review their
servant worked with the local application. They also asked the family
government to improve the villagers’ about their situation and helped them
access to basic necessities, and they connect with resources in the
also helped the villagers to find ways community. The civil servant’s
to generate income. behaviour showed that they were
 8. The civil servant’s actions showed that genuinely concerned about the
they were genuinely concerned about family’s well-being.
the poor and were willing to help them
improve their lives.

ATTITUDE AND VALUES LINK

1. Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal way of behaving, forming part of an individual's
self-concept and serving as guiding principles. They include a judgement about what is right,
good, or desirable.
2. Attitudes are influenced by values but differ in that they
are specific to particular objects, even if abstract, while
values are broad orientations towards all categories of
objects. Values tend to be more stable and lasting
compared to attitudes, as they represent fundamental
ideas about morality and ethics.
3. Example: A person may hold a positive attitude towards
recycling because they see its importance in protecting
the environment. However, their core value of
sustainability might lead them to adopt broader lifestyle
choices like reducing consumption and supporting
renewable energy, prioritizing long-term environmental well-being.

ATTITUDE AND OPINION

1. While attitude and opinion may seem similar, they have distinct meanings. Opinion refers to
a belief about something in one’s surroundings, often lacking strong emotions, whereas
attitude includes an emotional component that shapes a person's feelings toward an object.
2. Example: You may hold opinions such as "Roses are beautiful," "Brazil is good at football,"
or "Tea is better than coffee." These opinions might not carry much emotional weight for
you, and you may not care if others agree or disagree. However, if someone challenges a
view you feel strongly about, you might react emotionally, indicating that it has evolved from
an opinion into an attitude.
3. Opinions are usually expressed through words, while attitudes may be expressed both
verbally and through actions or reactions.
4. Opinions have an external link to their objects and don't change the essence of the object,
while attitudes are more deeply connected to behaviors, reflecting one's stance toward the
object.
5. Attitudes can relate to personal preferences, such as liking a particular sports team, whereas
opinions often pertain to factual matters, like whether more resources should be allocated
to education.

ATTITUDE AND BELIEF

Like attitudes, we hold beliefs about ourselves, others, and the world. A belief is defined as a lasting
perception or thought about some aspect of an individual’s environment. While beliefs form the
cognitive foundation for attitudes, there are key differences between the two:
1. Attitudes encompass all three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral, whereas
beliefs primarily involve the cognitive aspect, with the behavioral component being
secondary.
Eg. Someone may believe that job reservation is unfair (cognitive), but this belief may lack
emotional intensity (affective), though they might express their view publicly (behavioral).
 2. Attitudes have motivational properties that drive our actions, while beliefs lack this
motivating force.
3. Beliefs are a part of attitudes; attitudes toward an object are shaped by relevant beliefs.
Beliefs are often based on factual evidence, while attitudes are influenced by imagination
and are less bound by reality.
4. Attitudes tend to change more quickly, whereas beliefs are more resistant to change.

PERSUASION
Persuasion is the process of influencing or convincing someone to adopt a certain belief, attitude, or
behavior. It involves using communication and argumentation strategies to alter opinions or motivate
specific actions.

Elements of Persuasion:
1. Source (Persuader): The individual or entity delivering the message. The source's credibility,
expertise,power(as in khap panchayat),attractiveness in terms of physical attractiveness or
charisma(Indira Gandhi, Pm Modi), attitudinal similarity and likability play a crucial role in
the effectiveness of the persuasive message. Eg. economists like Abhijeet Banerjee Or
Raghuram Rajan speaking appeal more than a layman.
2. Message: The content and structure of the message are key to persuasion. It should be clear,
logical, and tailored to the audience, often appealing to emotions, values, and reasoning to
influence attitudes or behaviors. Eg. appeal of sanitation through Swachh Bharat Mission
based on logic that open defecation spread diseases.
3. Audience: Knowing the audience’s characteristics like their personality characteristics,
intelligence,attention, beliefs, and needs is critical. Persuasion techniques should align with
their interests, values, and motivations.
4. Communication Channels/Medium: The platform through which the message is delivered,
such as face-to-face communication, written materials, digital platforms, or mass media,
influences the persuasive impact.

Factors That Enhance Persuasiveness

1. Credibility of the Source
a. Expertise: The source should be knowledgeable, even if not an expert.
b. Trustworthiness: People trust those who appear honest and sincere.
c. Charisma: Personal charm and likability, including physical attractiveness, can
influence trust.
d. Homophily: Similarity between the speaker and the audience increases
persuasiveness.
e. Eg. A chef’s expertise in cooking lends credibility to their endorsement of kitchen
appliances, making consumers more likely to trust their recommendation.
2. Content of the Message
a. Structure: How the message is organized—whether one-sided or two-sided—affects
persuasion.
b. Appeals: Using rational or emotional appeals (e.g., fear, humor, visuals) can impact
persuasiveness.
c. Manner: How the message is delivered, focusing on loss vs. gain, statistics, or
examples.
d. Eg. A seatbelt campaign uses both rational appeals (statistics on safety) and
emotional appeals (depicting consequences) to persuade people.
3. Personality Factors
a. Tailor the message to the audience’s education, interest, and personality.
 b. Gender: Women have historically been more persuadable, but this trend is changing.
c. Other factors like social norms, active participation, and audience feedback also
influence persuasion.
d. Eg. A history lecture aimed at history enthusiasts would be more persuasive if it
aligns with their interests and knowledge.
4. Audience Considerations
a. Targeting: Customize messages to specific audience segments rather than using a
one-size-fits-all approach.
b. Feedback: Use audience feedback to adjust the message for better effectiveness.
c. Eg. Teachers tailor lesson plans for visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners by
incorporating diverse teaching
methods like visual aids and group
discussions.

Functions of Persuasion:
1. Weaken Current Rigid Attitudes: Persuasion
can make individuals less firm in their
opposing views. Eg. Highlighting the greatness
of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam may help reduce
rigid Islamophobic attitudes.
2. Moral Conditioning: Persuasion can shift social
attitudes and behaviors. Eg. Regular
announcements urging cleanliness at stations
encourage people to adopt cleaner habits.
3. Minimize Resistance: When the audience holds moderately opposing ideas, persuasion can
guide them towards a more neutral stance. Eg. hum do, hamare do campaign.
4. Change Attitudes: For an audience without a strong stance, persuasion can influence and
shape their attitudes.
5. Intensify Attitudes: When the audience already shares the persuader’s view, persuasion can
strengthen and deepen their existing attitude. Eg. fit india campaign.
6. Elicit Action: When the audience fully aligns with the persuader, persuasion aims to motivate
them to take action.

Methods of Persuasion
1. Appeal to Reason (Logos): This approach uses logical reasoning, evidence, and rational
arguments to persuade, relying on facts, statistics, expert opinions, and logical deductions
to support the message. Eg. Gandhi appealed to the British by highlighting the logical flaws
in their belief that force could rule India.
2. Appeal to Emotion (Pathos): This method taps into the audience's emotions and feelings.
Emotional appeals are often effective through storytelling, personal anecdotes, or powerful
narratives. Eg. Sharing stories of those impacted by climate change can inspire others to
take action toward environmental conservation.
3. Appeal to Authority (Ethos): Citing credible experts or authorities enhances persuasiveness
when they are trusted and knowledgeable. Eg. Quoting M.S. Dhoni, a respected cricketer, to
promote the importance of discipline and teamwork in sports.
4. Social Proof: This method relies on the influence of others' actions or opinions. Testimonials,
reviews, endorsements, or case studies serve as social proof to sway opinions. Eg. Martin
Luther King Jr. used peaceful protests and the widespread support for the civil rights
movement to inspire others to join the cause for equality.
 5. Reciprocity: This technique leverages obligation to return favors; offering value creates
indebtedness, increasing agreement. Eg. Offering a free trial of a software product creates a
sense of reciprocity, increasing the likelihood of continued usage.
6. Scarcity: This method uses scarcity to create urgency and fear of missing out, prompting
immediate action. Eg. A limited-time offer for a product or service induces urgency,
encouraging immediate action.
7. Contrast and Framing: This method uses framing to influence perception; comparisons
make information seem more favorable. Eg. Presenting two options side by side,
emphasizing the benefits of one over the other, can influence preference.

Ethical Considerations of Persuasion

1. Responsible and Transparent Use: Persuasion techniques should be applied with
responsibility and transparency, ensuring that the audience is not manipulated or deceived.
2. Respect for Autonomy: Persuasion must respect autonomy and free will, avoiding coercion,
manipulation, or deceptive tactics that force decisions against one’s will.
3. Honesty and Transparency: Ethical persuasion demands
honesty and transparency, presenting accurate and
reliable information. Misleading or false claims that
could deceive or manipulate should be avoided.
4. Informed Consent: Persuasion should provide all relevant
information, enabling individuals to make informed
decisions. It must not exploit ignorance or use tactics that
hinder the audience’s ability to make a well-reasoned
judgment.
5. Respect for Diverse Perspectives: Ethical persuasion
respects diverse opinions and values, acknowledging
individual beliefs and cultural differences while avoiding
discrimination or marginalisation.
6. Balanced Presentation: Ethical persuasion involves presenting a balanced view, including
counterarguments or alternative perspectives, to help the audience critically evaluate and
make informed choices.
7. Avoiding Emotional Manipulation: Persuasion should not rely on exploiting emotions like
fears or insecurities, but should be grounded in rational and logical arguments supported by
evidence.

TARES Test
1. The TARES test serves as a framework for making and defending ethical decisions in
persuasion.
2. Developed by Baker and Martinson in 2001, it focuses on five key principles of ethical
persuasion.
3. It operates under the theory of utilitarianism, which holds that both the action and its
outcomes are equally important in determining ethicality.
4. TARES stands for Truthfulness (of the message), Authenticity (of the persuader), Respect
(for the persuader), Equity (of the persuasive appeal), and Social responsibility (for the
common good).

Examples of Persuasion
1. Disclosure of income: Encouraging honest taxpayers by honoring and rewarding them to
prevent tax evasion.
2. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao/Selfie with Daughter: Aimed at changing societal attitudes
 towards girls.
3. #GiveItUp Campaign: Persuading citizens to voluntarily give up government subsidies and
benefits.
4. Marking environmental days: Symbolic observances like Earth Hour, Earth Day, Forest Day,
and Wildlife Day to raise public awareness and gather support for environmental causes.
5. Global climate change advocacy: Persuading citizens worldwide to take action against
climate change.
Making Persuasion Effective
1. Know Your Audience: Tailor your message to align with the audience’s values, beliefs, and
interests.
2. Establish Credibility: Build trust by being knowledgeable and supporting arguments with
evidence and facts.
3. Appeal to Emotions: Use stories and imagery to connect emotionally with your audience.
4. Use Social Proof: Show examples or testimonials of others embracing your viewpoint.
5. Address Counter-arguments: Anticipate objections and counter them with evidence.
6. Provide Clear Benefits: Highlight short-term and long-term benefits that solve a problem or
align with values.
7. Use Persuasive Language: Apply rhetorical devices and vivid language to keep a positive
tone.
8. Utilise Visual Aids: Simplify complex information with charts, graphs, or infographics for
impact.
9. Maintain Respectful Communication: Be respectful and avoid belittling opposing views.
10. Follow Up and Reinforce: Reinforce key points, address concerns, and remind of benefits.

Persuasion and Changing Minds

Two key models explain how persuasion can influence beliefs: Chaiken’s Heuristic-Systematic
Persuasion Model and Petty and Cacioppo’s Elaboration Likelihood Model. Both models highlight
when people focus on the content of the message versus other factors, like the source of the
message.

Chaiken’s Model:
This model suggests that people change their beliefs in two ways:
1. They carefully evaluate the arguments they hear (systematic processing).
2. They rely on mental shortcuts, such as assuming "experts are always right" (heuristic
processing).
Elaboration Likelihood Model:
This model also identifies two ways people change their minds:
1. They focus on the arguments when they are interested and can concentrate (central route).
2. They are influenced by factors like the source of the message rather than the arguments
themselves (peripheral route).

What Decides How We Change Our Minds?

According to Petty and Chaiken, the key factor is whether people care enough to think critically about
the facts.
1. If they are interested, focused, and engaged, they will follow the central route, carefully
evaluating the arguments.
2. If the issue is not personally important, they will take the peripheral route, relying on
shortcuts like trusting famous individuals without considering the arguments.
Resisting Persuasion
Resistance to persuasion protects individuals from unwanted influence but can also block positive
changes. Effective resistance helps, but inappropriate resistance hinders growth.
Types of Persuasion Resistance
1. Skepticism: Involves questioning the message’s logic and evidence, prompting critical
evaluation. Eg. Doubting effectiveness of covid vaccines without solid proof.
2. Reactance: Occurs when individuals resist attempts to control their thoughts or behavior,
defending their autonomy. Eg. Rejecting advice to maintain independence.
3. Inertia: Refers to reluctance to change, favoring the status quo over embracing new ideas.
Eg. Continuing bribe acceptance due to ingrained habits.

Decreasing Resistance to Persuasion

1. Diminishing Skepticism:
a. Provide a Guarantee: Offer assurances that any negative outcomes will be rectified,
reducing the need for skepticism.
b. Future Consideration: Encourage individuals to imagine the future benefits of the
proposal, making the change seem desirable.
2. Lessening Reactance:
a. Reduce Pushiness: Use a less assertive approach, starting with smaller requests to
avoid triggering reactance.
b. Polite Phrasing: Use respectful language, acknowledging autonomy to improve
persuasion.
3. Overcoming Inertial Resistance: Tackle inertia by using attention-grabbing tactics like visuals
or storytelling to engage individuals before delivering the message.

Application of Persuasion in Governance

1. Persuasion within the Organizational Structure: Senior officials persuade subordinates to
follow office norms, such as working late, maintaining hygiene, avoiding substance abuse,
and refraining from bribery.
2. On-Ground Persuasion: Persuading citizens or groups, such as convincing protesters to stay
calm, urging mothers to send children to school, or encouraging institutionalized delivery
for pregnant women.
3. Interpersonal Communication in Governance: Civil servants use persuasion to influence
political superiors to adopt new schemes or innovative ICT methods for improving service
delivery.
4. Citizen Engagement: Citizens use persuasion to communicate their needs, such as
advocating for local issues like revitalizing a pond to the Public Works Department.
5. Diplomacy: In diplomatic negotiations, persuasive diplomats can secure better outcomes by
influencing foreign officials to agree to favorable deals.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Social influence occurs when an individual’s thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or actions change due to
interactions with others who are perceived as similar, knowledgeable, or authoritative. This change
can be intentional or unintentional, often stemming from social contexts.
Eg. A teacher’s persuasive argument, backed by expertise, can effectively influence students'
attitudes, demonstrating social influence.

Sources of Social Influence:

 1. Social Institutions: Organized entities like religions, political parties, and unions influence our
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors by shaping societal norms. Eg. The Catholic Church's stance
on abortion influences believers' views on reproductive rights.
2. Interactions with Others: Daily interactions with people at home, work, or socially can shape
our perspectives and behaviors. Eg. In a corporate setting, company culture and peer
dynamics influence employees’ attitudes towards work and teamwork.
3. Individual Socialization: From infancy, socialization teaches individuals societal norms,
beliefs, and behaviors, molding their values. Eg. Children learn respect and empathy through
family interactions, shaping their moral and social development.

Types of Social Influence

1. Conformity
a. Definition: The change in behavior or beliefs to align with others or group standards.
b. Motivations: Desire for belonging, acceptance, or maintaining order in one’s life.
c. Eg: In a classroom, students tend to conform by sitting in chairs and facing the front,
following group norms.
d. Cultural Variance: Individualistic cultures (e.g., UK, US) exhibit lower conformity
compared to collectivist cultures.
e. Conformist traits are submissiveness, dependant, insecure, narrow view, introvert.
f. Nonconformist traits are self reliant, high ego strength, social maturity, and
intellectuality.
2. Compliance
a. Definition: Agreeing to fulfill a request, often influenced by reciprocity, trust,
friendship, commitment, social validation and likability.
b. Techniques:
■ Foot-in-the-Door: Start with a small request, followed by a larger one (e.g., a
car salesperson asking for a test drive first).
■ Door-in-the-Face: Start with a large request, followed by a smaller, more
reasonable one (e.g., asking for a large donation and then a smaller one).
■ Celebrity Endorsement: Persuasion by using a famous figure to influence
consumer choices (e.g., a celebrity endorsing a soft drink).
3. Obedience
a. Definition: Changing behavior in response to direct commands from an authority
figure, even if there’s no personal agreement with the request.
b. Eg: Adolf Eichmann during the Nuremberg trials claimed he was following orders
from superiors while participating in war crimes related to the Holocaust.

Cialdini’s six principles of social influence are:

1. Reciprocity: This principle suggests that people feel obliged to return favors. Eg. If you’ve
done something kind for someone, they’re more likely to reciprocate. Inviting friends over
before asking them to join you for a movie increases the
chances they'll agree.
2. Scarcity: People value things more when they are rare or
hard to obtain. Eg. Items that are banned or censored
attract more attention, as seen in teenage rebellion,
where forbidden things become more appealing.
3. Social Validation: We tend to follow the behaviour of
others around us for reassurance. Eg. Boys may adopt a
popular hairstyle among their peers to fit in.
4. Liking: People are more easily persuaded by those they
like. Eg. Consumers are more likely to buy products, such as Tupperware, from someone they
 like. Attractive individuals also tend to be more persuasive due to the halo effect, where
physical appearance leads people to perceive them as kind or intelligent.
5. Authority: People are naturally inclined to obey authority figures. Eg. We are more likely to
comply with requests from authority figures like a father or a professional, such as a dentist
endorsing a product.
6. Commitment: People tend to remain consistent with their previous actions or decisions. Eg.
If someone agrees to provide notes for one topic, they are likely to continue doing so for
other topics due to their initial commitment.

INFLUENCE PERSUASION

Definition Influence is the process through Persuasion is the process in which an

which an individual alters another individual intentionally uses messages
person's thoughts, actions, or aimed at appealing to another's
emotions, even when the change is reason, emotions, or both, to bring
unintentional. about change.

Characteristics 1. Natural appeal and influence, 1. Convincing

like Mahatma Gandhi 2. Deliberate Optimism
2. Strong self-confidence 3. Intentional Communication to
3. Skillful communication for assuage others
sharing ideas, thoughts, and 4. Change Leadership (ability to
knowledge motive action in others)
4. Charismatic leadership, with
the ability to inspire and
motivate others to take action

Competency 1. Might lead to blind following 1. May appear to be coercion or

Overuse 2. Lack of differentiation manipulation
between the ideal self and 2. Loss of authenticity
the influencer’s visionary
self.

Underuse 1. Unrealized potential of the Lack of confidence in self and others

person about motivating and being motivated
2. Lack of impact creation in to do something (respectively)
society

PERSUASION MANIPULATION

Is backed by good intentions Is only aimed at satisfying the manipulator

Arguments are used to make the interlocutor The truth is bent to get an approval from the
adopt a different opinion interlocutor

The interlocutor persuaded into doing There is instant regret after having consented to
something can argue in favor of his new opinion something via manipulation

The interlocutor is willingly convinced The interlocutor is coerced

 Socially accepted Bears a sort of social stigma

Types of Influence on Attitude Change:

1. Informational Influence:
a. Definition: Informational influence occurs when individuals change their opinions or
behaviors based on the belief that others possess accurate and reliable information.
This influence leads to real, lasting changes in beliefs.
b. Outcome: The result is typically private acceptance, which means a genuine change
in attitude.
c. Eg: Reports on climate change by the IPCC have caused people and governments to
shift their attitudes towards fossil fuels, favoring renewable energy sources.
2. Normative Influence:
a. Definition: Normative influence happens when individuals alter their behavior or
opinions to fit in with a group or avoid social rejection. This conformity is motivated
by the desire to be accepted or to avoid isolation.
b. Outcome: The result of normative influence is public conformity, where individuals
change their external behavior but do not necessarily alter their internal beliefs.
c. Eg: An individual may treat women as equals in the workplace because it is expected,
but hold different views at home due to ingrained patriarchal beliefs.
3. Interaction Between Informational and Normative Influence: Informational and normative
influences are not mutually exclusive and often work together. For instance, students may
obey their teachers both because they believe the instructions are correct (informational
influence) and because they want to fit in (normative influence).

Social Influence and Attitude Change:

1. Majority Influence:
a. Occurs when the beliefs of a larger group are adopted by everyone.
b. The larger the majority, the greater the normative influence, as individuals are more
aware of being different and feel a greater need to conform.
2. Minority Influence:
a. Occurs when the beliefs held by a smaller group prevail over those of the majority.
b. Minority influence can be powerful when the minority group is consistent, stable,
and invested in their position. If successful, minority influence can lead to deep
changes in the beliefs of the majority, creating lasting impact.
c. Eg: The influence of leaders during the freedom struggle in India, where a small
group of leaders promoted peaceful resistance and managed to convince larger
social groups, including women, to join the movement.

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Social Influence:

1. Size of the Majority: The larger the majority, the more effective the influence. However, the
impact of adding new members to the group diminishes with size (diminishing marginal
utility).
2. Unanimity of the Majority: Social influence is stronger when the majority is unanimous. Any
inconsistency within the majority group reduces the credibility of the group and the
effectiveness of social influence.
3. Importance of the Task: People are more likely to be influenced by the opinions of others
when the task or decision is important. For example, individuals may consult friends and
family before making crucial decisions.
4. Social Power: Social power is the ability of a person or group to influence others, even when
they attempt to resist. Power can be classified into five types:
 i. Reward Power: The ability to influence others by offering positive rewards. It
leads to public conformity rather than private acceptance.
ii. Coercive Power: The ability to influence others by threatening negative
outcomes. It often causes public conformity but can create resentment and
reactance.
iii. Legitimate Power: Power vested in individuals who hold formal positions of
authority. It can lead to both private acceptance and public conformity,
especially when it results in changes to social norms.
iv. Referent Power: Power based on admiration or identification with the
influencer. This can lead to genuine attitude change, as individuals aspire to
emulate those they admire.
v. Expert Power: Power based on specialized knowledge or expertise. It leads
to private acceptance, as people conform due to the trust they place in
experts.
5. Personality Differences: Individuals with lower self-esteem are more likely to conform to
social influence than those with higher self-esteem. People with lower self-esteem have a
stronger need for social validation, which makes them more susceptible to influence.
6. Gender Differences: Men tend to resist social influence more than women, as they prioritize
social autonomy. Women, on the other hand, are often more concerned with maintaining
group harmony and are more likely to conform.

MORAL ATTITUDES
Moral attitudes are those rooted in moral convictions. Not all attitudes are moral in nature; for
instance, personal preferences like enjoying a particular food lack a moral dimension. However,
abstaining from non-vegetarian food out of concern for animal welfare reflects a moral attitude.
These attitudes are deeply personal and can differ at both individual and societal levels.
Eg. A person might be seen as a patriot in their country but considered a terrorist elsewhere. Moral
convictions are shaped by influences such as family, society, religion, and education.
Key Values Depicting Moral Attitudes
1. Goodness: Represents a person’s generosity and benevolence toward others, focusing on
both the means and the ends of their actions. Eg. A person who volunteers at a homeless
shelter, embodies the value of goodness through consistent acts of kindness and
compassion.
2. Reverence: Involves respect for all forms of life, including humans, animals, and nature, and
promoting love and compassion in all aspects of life. Eg. An environmental activist like
Sunderlal Bahuguna shows reverence by advocating for conservation and respecting
endangered species and habitats.
3. Faithfulness: Refers to staying loyal to someone or something, maintaining that loyalty even
in challenging circumstances, and showing commitment to moral values. Eg. Soldiers
deployed overseas exemplify faithfulness by upholding their duty despite immense danger.
4. Truthfulness: Involves being honest and maintaining integrity in one’s actions and attitudes,
which is crucial for building trust. Dishonesty weakens the foundation of moral values.
Eg. A journalist embodies truthfulness by reporting accurate, unbiased information with
honesty and integrity.

Significance or Impacts of Moral Attitudes

1. Human beings have a natural desire to be right and to be liked, which makes attitudes
towards moral issues strong and often forcefully expressed. eg. a person may hold a firm
negative attitude towards dishonesty, to the extent that they are willing to risk personal
relationships to remain truthful.
 2. Moral attitudes can have both positive and restrictive impacts. They promote actions such
as altruism, helping others, and engaging in social service, while discouraging behaviors
deemed immoral, such as adultery, stalking, or cheating.
3. Since attitudes are closely linked to behavior, moral attitudes play a key role in fostering
moral actions, guiding individuals to make morally sound decisions.

POLITICAL ATTITUDE
A political attitude reflects an individual's approval or disapproval of various political ideologies,
parties, politicians, or the prevailing political culture in society.

Factors Influencing Political Attitude

1. Historical Factors: Events like political conflicts or independence movements shape people's
political attitudes. Eg: Values such as non-violence, tolerance, truthfulness, and integrity,
promoted by figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak during India's
freedom struggle, influence the political mindset of the
masses.
2. Social Factors:
a. Caste & Religion: People tend to support parties
that represent their caste or religious interests. Eg:
The rise of parties like the Hindu Mahasabha and
Muslim League during India's freedom movement
along religious lines.
b. Family: Children often adopt the political ideologies
of their parents.
c. Economic Status:
i. The poor may lean towards communist or socialist ideologies, voting for
parties that promise basic necessities like food, water, shelter, healthcare,
and subsidies.
ii. The rich tend to support right-wing, free-market ideologies, favoring parties
that advocate for lower taxes and reduced wealth tax.
d. Gender: Women may be more inclined to support parties that promote feminist
ideologies.
e. Education: School curricula significantly shape political attitudes. Eg: A Chinese
individual may view democracy unfavorably due to being taught the superiority of
Maoist Communist ideology, while an Indian raised with democratic values might
find authoritarianism distasteful.
f. Age: Political preferences often shift with age:
i. Older people generally become more conservative and supportive of
democratic systems.
ii. Young people tend to be more liberal and radical, favoring change as they
stand to benefit from future reforms.
3. Role of Media: Media plays a key role in shaping political attitudes by disseminating
information and reinforcing political ideologies.
a. Social media platforms serve as echo chambers, amplifying political views and
influencing individuals.
b. Eg: Former U.S. President Barack Obama employed psychologists in his media
campaigns to secure more votes. The Facebook-Cambridge Analytica Data Scandal
involved using Facebook data for targeted political ads, affecting the political
attitudes of voters.
 4. Geographical Factors: The geopolitical environment of a country or state can shape political
attitudes. Eg: Citizens of a country surrounded by adversaries may gravitate towards
authoritarian regimes, believing such systems are better suited to address external threats.
Significance of Political Attitude
1. Political attitudes shape how individuals engage in the political process, influencing their
voting decisions and party affiliations. Factors like family, religion, caste, ethnicity, and
region all contribute to the formation of political attitudes and behavior.
2. Some argue that the development of political judgment is closely tied to moral
development, making political and moral education largely interconnected, especially when
viewed from a broader perspective.
3. In this context, political culture influences the value system of society. From a narrower
view, political culture is seen as a subjective psychological phenomenon that emerges
through the interaction between individuals and the political system.

Democratic Attitude Political attitude

1. It is grounded in participatory, 1. It embodies hierarchical discipline, with

humanistic, and flexible approaches an emphasis on implicit obedience to
with a focus on bottom-up orders, top-down instructions, and a
decision-making. rule-bound approach.
2. Emphasizes accountability, public 2. Prioritizes strict adherence to rules and
participation, transparency, legal procedures through centralized
flexibility, and public interest. decision-making.
3. Encourages the active involvement 3. Tends to display apathy toward common
of people in decision-making people, as rules take precedence over
processes. citizen needs.
4. Rooted in values of transparency and 4. Rooted in the principles of objectivity and
inclusiveness. neutrality.
5. Example: Institutions engaged in 5. Example: Systems where systematic
welfare measures or public service division of labor and institutionalized
delivery benefit from a democratic command are key, such as bureaucratic
attitude. attitudes in organizations.
6. Supports new bureaucratic models 6. Historical examples include British-era
like New Public Management. colonial bureaucracy and the Weberian
model.

PREJUDICE

MEANING AND DEFINITION

1. Prejudice refers to an unfounded and often negative attitude or preconception towards
members of a particular group. It involves preconceived judgments, typically negative, about
individuals based solely on their association with a group. Prejudice can strongly influence
behavior and interactions, often unconsciously, without the individual realizing they are
acting on internalized biases.
2. Gordon Allport (1954) has referred to prejudice as “an antipathy based upon a faulty and
inflexible generalization”. This indicates that although prejudice is expressed toward a
particular individual, the negative emotions are actually targeted to the whole group.
3. When people harbor prejudiced attitudes, they tend to generalize, seeing all members of a
group as being the same. This broad generalization leads them to overlook the uniqueness of
each individual.
 4. Prejudice refers to an implicit or covert association between a person's membership in a
particular social group and the evaluative emotional response expressed toward them. This
occurs due to the automatic activation of in-group and out-group categorizations in our
social world, which triggers emotional evaluations and corresponding responses without
conscious awareness.
5. Prejudice often leads to discrimination, which manifests behaviorally. Common forms of
discrimination include those based on race, caste, class, and gender.

Examples of Prejudicial Attitudes:

1. Gender Prejudice (Against Women in India):
a. There is a social stigma against working women, especially in families that are not
financially dependent on their income.
b. Discrimination during meals is common, particularly in rural areas, where women
eat last or are given whatever remains, leading to malnutrition, which fuels other
social issues.
c. Practices like the ghunghat, where Hindu women cover their heads and faces in
public or around men, reflect gender-based prejudices.
2. Racism: Incidents of violence against North Eastern citizens and Black individuals,
particularly those from African countries, highlight racial discrimination.
3. Caste Discrimination:
a. Dalit students have been segregated during mid-day meals in schools.
b. In Rajasthan, a Dalit groom was barred from sitting on a mare during his wedding,
with religious sentiments cited as justification.
c. In Tamil Nadu, two Dalit men were killed by upper-caste Hindus after one sat
cross-legged during a temple ritual.

Sources of Prejudice
1. Threat to Self-Esteem:
a. People evaluate their in-group more positively than out-groups, especially when
their group's image is threatened (Tajfel & Turner, 1986).
b. Negative evaluations of out-groups strengthen in-group identification and prejudice.
c. Eg: Post 2008 Mumbai attacks, prejudice against certain religious communities
intensified due to perceived threats to national identity.
2. Competition for Resources:
a. Realistic conflict theory (Bobo, 1983) suggests competition for scarce resources
leads to intergroup hostility and prejudice. Eg. Regional conflicts over natural
resources, such as Cauvery water disputes between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, have
fueled prejudice between the two states.
3. Social Categorisation and Prejudice:
a. Tajfel et al. (1971): Categorisation of social groups into "us" (in-group) and "them"
(out-group) creates emotional attachment to the in-group and negative evaluations
of the out-group.
b. Eg: Linguistic divisions in India often lead to stereotyping, such as North Indians
perceiving South Indians as "different" or vice versa, which reinforces cultural
prejudice.
c. Prejudice also arises from caste-based categorisation, where upper castes and lower
castes experience systemic discrimination rooted in historic divisions.

How to Curb Discriminatory Behavior:

1. While laws can curb discriminatory behavior, changing cognitive and emotional aspects of
prejudice is more challenging and requires targeted strategies.
2. Identifying causes and sources of prejudice is crucial to addressing its discriminatory effects.
 3. Effective strategies focus on reducing opportunities to learn and reinforce prejudices,
promoting attitude change.
4. Encouraging a broader social identity beyond narrow group affiliations can help reduce
prejudice. Eg: Individuals should see themselves as Indian rather than only a specific caste or
group.
5. Discouraging negative behaviors among those targeted by prejudice can also help break the
cycle of reinforcing prejudiced views.

Way Forward:
1. Education and Information: Disseminating accurate information to correct stereotypes
about specific groups.
2. Increasing Intergroup Contact: Encouraging communication between different groups to
foster understanding.
3. Removing Mistrust: Promoting interactions that reveal positive qualities of other groups,
reducing prejudice.
4. Highlighting Individual Identity: Focusing on individual qualities over group identity to
weaken the influence of group-based evaluations.

STEREOTYPES
Stereotypes are generalized beliefs or fixed assumptions about a group of people, often
oversimplifying their characteristics. These assumptions can be both positive and negative but
typically lead to inaccurate or unfair judgments about individuals based on their group membership.
Example:
1. Gender stereotype: "Women are not good leaders."
2. Caste stereotype: "People from lower castes are lazy."
3. Regional stereotype: "People from Punjab are all fun-loving and carefree."

How Stereotypes Develop

1. Socialization: Stereotypes are often learned early through family, social structures, and
institutions. Eg: In some Indian families, children may learn that boys should pursue fields
like engineering while girls are better suited for nurturing professions like teaching.
2. Media Influence: Movies, TV shows, and news often reinforce stereotypes by portraying
groups in narrow ways. Eg: Bollywood sometimes depicts South Indians with exaggerated
accents, reinforcing regional stereotypes.
3. Limited Personal Experience: With prevalent caste and regional segregation, limited
exposure can lead to stereotypes based on assumptions. Eg: People from a northern state
may stereotype those from the northeast as "foreigners" due to limited interaction.
4. Cognitive Biases: Biases like confirmation bias lead people to notice information that
supports existing stereotypes. Eg: Believing Dalits are uneducated, someone might
remember only cases that confirm this view, ignoring counterexamples.
5. Historical and Cultural Context: India’s history, especially the caste system, has embedded
stereotypes about certain castes or communities. Eg: The stereotype that Brahmins are
intellectually superior originates from the caste hierarchy.

Types of Stereotypes
1. Caste Stereotypes: These involve assumptions about people based on their caste. Eg: The
stereotype that Dalits are "impure" and not capable of achieving high positions in society.
2. Gender Stereotypes: These are generalized beliefs about the roles and abilities of men and
women. Eg: The stereotype that women are naturally better suited for household duties and
men for financial roles.
 3. Regional Stereotypes: These involve assumptions about people from different regions of
India. Eg: The stereotype that Biharis are uneducated or that people from Kerala are lazy
because of the state's relatively high emigration rates.
4. Religious Stereotypes: Generalizations based on someone's religion. Eg: The stereotype that
Muslims are violent or anti-national, often reinforced by political rhetoric.
5. Occupational Stereotypes: These involve assumptions based on someone's profession. Eg:
The stereotype that politicians are corrupt, or that IT professionals are socially awkward.
ASPECT STEREOTYPES PREJUDICE

Definition Generalized beliefs or assumptions A preconceived, often negative

about a group. attitude or judgment toward a
group.

Nature Cognitive—stereotypes are about Affective—prejudice involves

thoughts or beliefs. emotions, often negative.

Basis Often neutral or seemingly harmless but Based on dislike, fear, or hatred
oversimplified beliefs. towards a group.

Examples "Northeastern people don't look "I dislike Northeastern people

Indian." because they are not like us."

Effect Can influence but doesn't necessarily Leads to discriminatory behavior

result in action. based on negative views.

Root Stem from cultural, social, or historical Stems from personal biases,
perceptions. ignorance, or lack of understanding.

DISCRIMINATION
1. Discrimination is prejudice expressed in overt behaviors, such as discriminatory treatment,
verbal aggression, or violence, targeting specific social groups.
2. Examples of Discrimination:
a. Apartheid in South Africa: Legal denial of basic rights to Native Blacks and other
racial communities, forcing them into confined areas.
b. Racial Attacks on Indian Students in Australia: 23 out of 152 cases in 2009 linked to
racial discrimination.
c. Online Discrimination: Surge in derogatory posts targeting social, racial, and ethnic
groups on platforms like Facebook and Twitter.

Forms of Subtle Discrimination

1. Reluctance to Help: Prejudiced individuals avoid aiding target groups in ways that could
improve their societal status. Eg: Denial of rental housing, flexible work arrangements, or
promotions.
2. Tokenism: Offering minimal or symbolic support to target groups to project an unbiased
image. Eg: Hiring a small number of target group members to appear inclusive.
3. Reverse Discrimination: Offering excessive help to target groups, which may appear positive
but has harmful long-term consequences and fails to eliminate prejudice. Eg: Favoring
members of a target group beyond reason to overcompensate for past discrimination.
While overt discrimination is often restricted by legal provisions, social norms, and fear of retaliation,
prejudice frequently manifests in disguised forms to remain hidden and socially acceptable.
How to Address Stereotypes and Prejudices in India
1. Education and Awareness: Promoting diversity and inclusivity through education Eg:
curriculum reforms that highlight contributions from marginalized communities, such as
Dalits and Adivasis, can break stereotypes about their capabilities.
2. Encouraging interaction between different groups can break down stereotypes. Eg:
Organizing cultural exchange programs between states, such as between North Indian and
Northeast Indian students, can foster better understanding.
3. Challenging Media Representations: Encouraging accurate and fair representation of all
groups in Indian media can reduce harmful stereotypes. Eg: Calling out Bollywood films that
reinforce regional or caste stereotypes and promoting films that depict diversity.
4. Promoting Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Initiatives that help people understand the
experiences of marginalized groups can reduce prejudice. Eg: Programs like "Be an Ally"
workshops can help people understand the challenges faced by marginalized communities.
5. Legislation and Policy Changes: Enforcing anti-discrimination laws can help curb
discriminatory practices based on stereotypes and prejudice. Eg: Strengthening India's SC/ST
Prevention of Atrocities Act to prevent caste-based discrimination and violence.
6. Social Learning Approach: Stereotypes and prejudices are learned in childhood through
observation of parents and significant others. Parents can discourage negative attitudes
and promote inclusive views. Eg: Teaching children to value diversity and discourage
casteist or regional prejudices.
7. Increased Intergroup Contact: Prejudices arise from hearsay and lack of interaction with
out-groups. Contact fosters understanding and reduces stereotypes by showing diversity
within groups. Eg: Cultural exchange programs between North Indian and Northeast Indian
students improve understanding.
8. Recategorization: Developing Common Social Identity: Forming a shared identity
transforms negative attitudes into positive ones. Eg: IPL fans may see rival cities as
out-groups but unite as Indians during international matches. Initiatives like "Ek Bharat
Shreshtha Bharat" promote unity and diversity.
9. Feeling of Guilt from Prejudice: Subconscious or collective guilt for historical injustices,
such as those faced by Dalits or Adivasis, fosters responsibility and reduces prejudice.
10. Learning to Negate Stereotypes: Conscious efforts to reject stereotypes stop their
automatic activation. Eg: Challenging regional or caste stereotypes in Bollywood or media.
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 उम्मीदवारों को
Q1. [2020] A positive attitude is considered to be an essential characteristic of a civil servant इस हाशिए में नहीं
लिखना चाहिए।
who is often required to function under extreme stress. What contributes a positive attitude Candidates
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 उम्मीदवारों को
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 उम्मीदवारों को
Q2. [2021] Attitude is an important component that goes as input in the development of human इस हाशिए में नहीं
लिखना चाहिए।
beings. How to build a suitable attitude needed for a public servant? Candidates
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Civilsdaily IAS, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi | 73033 16700 | [Link]
 उम्मीदवारों को
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 उम्मीदवारों को
Q3. [2022] The Rules and Regulations provided to all the civil servants are same, yet there is
इस हाशिए में नहीं
लिखना चाहिए।
difference in the performance. Positive minded officers are able to interpret the Rules and
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are unable to achieve goals by interpreting the same Rules and Regulations against the

case. Discuss with illustrations.

Civilsdaily IAS, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi | 73033 16700 | [Link]
 उम्मीदवारों को
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 उम्मीदवारों को
Q4. [2020] ‘Hatred is destructive of a person‘s wisdom and conscience that can poison a इस हाशिए में नहीं
लिखना चाहिए।
nation’s spirit. Do you agree with this view? Justify your answer. Candidates
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 उम्मीदवारों को
Q5. [2016] How could social influence and persuasion contribute to the success of Swatchh इस हाशिए में नहीं
लिखना चाहिए।
Bharat Abhiyan? Candidates
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 उम्मीदवारों को
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लिखना चाहिए।
Candidates
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