Electric Power Quality
(EEPE38)
by
Dr. Karthik Thirumala
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
NIT Tiruchirappalli
UNIT – III
Voltage variations
Sources, Range, Affects, Monitoring and Mitigation
• Long and Short Interruptions
• Voltage Sag
• Voltage Swell
• Under and Over Voltage
• Voltage fluctuation
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Long Interruptions
• A long interruption is a power quality event during which the
voltage at a customer connection or at the equipment terminals
drops to zero and does not come back automatically.
• Duration
o IEC Standard: duration > 3 mins, V1 < 0.1
o IEEE Std. 1250: duration > 2 mins and V1 < 0.1 (sustained interruptions)
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Long Interruptions
Causes:
1. Component Outage
2. Faults in the utility system leads to an intervention by the power system
protection. (correct action?)
o Short circuit faults
o Distribution system breakers clear a fault typically in 5 or 6 cycles.
o Transmission breakers clear a fault typically in 3 or 4 cycles.
o Faults in radial distribution system have much influence on the reliability over the
transmission system.
3. False tripping of protective relay in the system without redundancy.
4. Operator actions cause a component outage
5. Scheduled interruptions due to operator actions.
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Long Interruptions
Reclose time?
Utility SC fault event with two fast trip operations of line recloser
Note: The most utilities do not automatically become aware of supply interruption to one or two
customers
PQ by [Link], NITT Courtesy: EPRI research project 2/27/2025
Long Interruptions
Estimation / Characteristics
o Duration of the event
o Number of interruptions per year
Consider interruption i of duration Di minutes affects Ni customers.
• The average number of interruptions per customer per year
σ𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖
𝜆=ҧ
𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡
• The average unavailability per customer in minutes per year
σ𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑞ത =
𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡
• The average duration of an interruption from a customer perspective is
𝑞ത σ𝐾 𝑁𝐷
ഥ = = 𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖
𝐷
𝜆ҧ σ𝐾𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖
• The average duration of an interruption from a utility perspective is
σ𝐾𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖
𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
𝐾
PQ by [Link], NITT British Office for Electricity Regulation (OFFER) 2/27/2025
Long Interruptions
Origin from a system (Example)
• Obtain the data at different voltage levels
o Major contribution comes from 6.6 kV and 11 kV network (in Great Britain & Netherland,
1995)
o Next in order: 33 kV, low voltage (240/415V), transmission levels
Radial & UG
Partly
radial
Radial
PQ by [Link], NITT British Office for Electricity Regulation (OFFER) 2/27/2025
Long Interruptions
Standards & Regulations on Interruption
• Limiting the duration of interruptions is a basic philosophy in power
system design and operation in almost any country.
o The OFFER* sets targets for % of interruptions lasting longer than 3 hours and % of
interruptions lasting longer than 24 hours.
o The distribution company pay customers if supply is interrupted for longer than 24 hours.
• The European std. EN 50160 states that "under normal operating
conditions, the annual frequency of voltage interruptions longer than 3
minutes may be less than 10 or up to 50 depending on the area.”
• “Power Quality Contracts” in US, Sweden, Netherlands, UK.
o In Sweden, some utilities offer customers compensation for an interruption.
o Contractual agreements about the voltage quality are mainly aimed at industrial
consumers
PQ by [Link], NITT British Office for Electricity Regulation (OFFER) 2/27/2025
Short Interruptions
• A short interruption is a power quality event during
which the supply is restored automatically.
• Duration
o IEC Standard: duration < 3 min, V1 < 0.1
o IEEE Std 1159: duration < 3 s and V1 < 0.1 (momentary)
duration: 3 s - 1 min and V1 < 0.1 (temporary)
o IEEE Std 1250: duration < 0.5 s and V1 < 0.1 (instantaneous)
duration: 0.5 - 2 s and V1 < 0.1 (momentary)
duration: 2 s - 2 min and V1 < 0.1 (temporary)
• Origin?
o Auto-reclosers
o Expulsion fuses (operates between the fast and delayed
operation of the recloser)
• Multiple events
o Customers may experience two or more events within a short
interval due to reclosing
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Short and Long Interruptions
Impact on equipment:
• Customers in all sectors have more sensitive loads
• Induction Motor slow down or halt
• Industrial processes get affected severely
• Short-duration interruptions are serious threat to synchronous motor
• Fire alarms failure
• Blinking clock syndrome
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Short and Long Interruptions
Solutions/Mitigation:
• Reduce the number of SC faults
• Reduce fault clearing time
• Power system restructuring
o Redundant feeders, Generators near critical loads, interconnection
• Avoid mal-operation of reclosers
• Prior information to the customers in case of the scheduled
maintenance.
• Transfer the loads from the interrupted supply, if possible
• Mitigation devices
o Uninterrupted Power Supplies
• On-line, Standby, Hybrid
o Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage devices (SMES)
o Motor Generator Sets
o DVR
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Short and Long Interruptions
Uninterrupted Power Supply:
Offline/Standby UPS
Online/Double conversion UPS
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Short and Long Interruptions
Uninterrupted Power Supply:
Hybrid/Line-interactive UPS
Usage Offline Line-interactive Online
Emergency backup power ✔ ✔ ✔
Surge Protection ✔ ✔ ✔
Brownout Protection ✔ ✔
Overvoltage Protection ✔
Pure Sine wave output
(Sensitive equipment) ✔
Harmonic Distortion ✔
Frequency variation ✔
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Short and Long Interruptions
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage devices (SMES)
niobium titanium
• Smaller size
• more quickly
• Unlimited charge and discharge cycles
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Short and Long Interruptions
Motor Generator Set:
✓ Increase the ride-through time
✓ Short interruptions/voltage sag
✓ Switching transients
✓ Harmonic distortion
• Losses in machines
• Maintenance
• Frequency and voltage drop during interruptions
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Voltage Sag
• Voltage Sags are short duration reductions in rms voltage.
• Characteristics
o IEC Standard: duration < 3 mins, 0.1 < V1 < 0.9, 50Hz (voltage dips)
o IEEE Std 1159: duration < 1 min and 0.1 < V1 < 0.9, 50Hz
• Sag of 70% refers to 70% retained voltage
• A voltage sag is global problem than an interruption.
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Causes of Voltage Sag
1. Faults in the utility system
o Local or remote distribution system
o Transmission system
2. Short interruptions in interconnected transmission system
3. Starting of Induction motors (high starting current)
4. Lightening strokes in overhead lines
o Results to SC fault or temporary SC by spark gap
Phase angle jumps in the voltage
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Monitoring of Voltage Sag
1. RMS Voltage (one or half cycle?)
2. Duration of Sag
3. Peak voltage (one or half cycle?)
4. Fundamental voltage component (How to obtain this?)
One cycle RMS voltage Half-cycle RMS voltage
Fundamental voltage component Peak voltage
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Monitoring of Voltage Sag
Theoretical calculation of sag magnitude
𝑍𝐹
𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑔 = 𝐸
𝑍𝑆 +𝑍𝐹
𝑍𝐹 is the feeder impendence
𝑍𝑆 is the source impendence
The sag becomes deeper for faults electrically closer to the customer &
for systems with a smaller fault level
o Sag magnitude as a function of distance Fault 5 → deep sag for D &
shallow sag for C
o Faults behind transformers?
o Using Fault levels
𝑆𝐹𝐿𝑇
𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑔 = 1 −
𝑆𝑃𝐶𝐶
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
A single line diagram & MATLAB simulation to generate a sag event
The severity of sag is a function of the fault location, system impedance
and grounding.
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Impact of Voltage Sag
• Computers & Consumer Electronics
o Regulated power supply
o If DC bus voltage drops then the DC regulated output voltage will also drop.
• Low-power PE devices
o TV
o CD/DVD players, Video recorders
• Battery to power the memory containing the setting
• Battery storage is not enough → loss of memory
• Process control equipment
o Trip when the voltage drops below 80%
o Large restarting time
o Some controllers may send out incorrect signals
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Impact of Voltage Sag
• Adjustable speed AC drives
o Trip the drive to prevent damage
o Torque, speed?
o Constant power drives
• Adjustable DC Drives
o field and armature supply
o Phase angle jumps
• Directly Fed Synchronous Motors
o Torque ripples, Speed drop
o Out of synchronism
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Solution/Mitigation of Voltage Sag
• Soft starters for high-power equipment's
• Install additional Energy Storage for ASD
• Use of Controlled Rectifiers for DC Drives
• Armature Capacitors for DC drives
• Mitigation devices
o SMES or BESS or super capacitors
o Uninterrupted Power Supplies
• On-line & Hybrid
o Transformer tap changers
o Ferro resonant transformers (CVTs)
o DVR (series voltage controller)
o STATCOM (shunt voltage controller)
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Off-load tap changer On-load tap changer
The switching principle uses the
concept of “make before break” contact
Mechanical type of on-load tap changer had considerable
limitations like arcing, high maintenance, service costs
and slow reaction times.
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Solid state on-load tap changer
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Ferroresonant Transformers
o Non-linear, flux limiter, 1:1
o Saturated core
o Vo changes about 1.2 % for 1% change in frequency.
o Advantages
• Superior voltage regulation
• Isolation from surges, harmonics and noise
• Current Limiter (overloaded to 150%) Saturation curve
o Disadvantages
• Relatively low efficiency
• Should be sized for four times greater than the load.
Suitable for low power, constant loads
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Voltage Swell
• Voltage swell is a brief increase in the rms voltage at the power
frequency.
• Characteristics
o IEC Standard: duration < 3 mins, V1 > 1.1, 50/60 Hz (voltage swell)
o IEEE Std 1159: duration < 1 min and 1.8 > V1 > 1.1, 50/60 Hz
• Swell magnitude is described by the remain/resulting voltage.
• A voltage swell is also a global problem.
Frequency of occurrence of voltage swell disturbance is almost 50% of sag
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Causes of Voltage Swell
1. Faults in the utility system
o Local or remote distribution system
o Transmission system
2. Switching off of large loads
3. Load shedding
4. Switching on large capacitor banks
5. Poor regulation of transformers mainly at off-peak hours
The severity of swell is a function of the fault location, system impedance and
grounding.
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Monitoring of Voltage Swell
1. RMS Voltage (one or half cycle)
2. Fundamental voltage component
3. Duration of Swell
4. SARFI (System Average RMS Variation Frequency Index)
σ𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖
𝑆𝐴𝑅𝐹𝐼𝑥 =
𝑁𝑇
o x is rms voltage threshold (1.5 – 0.1 pu)
o Ni is number of consumers experiencing voltage deviation due to event i
o NT is total number of customers served from that section of system
5. The voltage swell energy index (EVS)
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Impact of Voltage Swell
• Reduced equipment lifetime
o Transformers, cables, buses, CT, PTs, Rotating machinery
• Damage of sensitive equipment (immediate effect)
o Electronic devices, controllers, computers, robotics, process controllers,
• Process control equipment
o Large restarting time
o Incorrect signals
• Mal-operation of relays
• Capacitors bulging
A voltage swell is more destructive than the sag
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Solution/Mitigation of Voltage Swell
• Reduce the number of faults
• Over voltage tripping mechanism for drives
• Mitigation devices
o Solid state tap changers
o Ferro resonant transformers (CVTs)
o SMES or BESS or super capacitors
o Uninterrupted Power Supplies
• On-line and Hybrid
o DVR (series voltage controller)
o STATCOM (shunt voltage controller)
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Under Voltage
Characteristics: IEEE Std 1159: duration > 1 min and 0.9 > V1 > 0.1, 50/60 Hz
Causes
• Over loaded feeders
• Failed circuit components
• Switching off of power factor capacitors
• Incorrect tap settings of transformer
Effects
• Motors
o Heating loss
o Loss of torque, speed changes
• Reduction of reactive power from capacitor banks
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Over Voltage
Characteristics: IEEE Std 1159: duration > 1 min and 1.8 > V1 > 1.1, 50/60 Hz
Causes
• Poor power system voltage regulation (load variations)
• Switching on power factor capacitors
• Incorrect tap settings of transformer
Effects
• Immediate failure of equipment
• Loss of equipment life
o Transformers, cables, CTs, PTs, rotatory machinery
• Increase in reactive power
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Voltage Fluctuation
• Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage
envelope or a series of random voltage changes.
• Characteristics
o IEC Standard: 1.1 > V > 0.9, low frequency (< 25 Hz)
o IEEE Std 1159: 1.07 > V > 0.93, low frequency (< 25 Hz)
Cyclic voltage fluctuations
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Voltage Fluctuation
Causes:
1. Arc Furnace (time-varying load)
2. Arc Welders
3. Cycloconverters
4. Frequent start and stop of large motors
5. Rapid speed change of motors/pumps – ACs, Dryers, Washers etc
6. On-load tap changing transformer
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Voltage Fluctuation
Monitoring:
1. RMS Charts
o % voltage modulation = (∆𝑉ൗ𝑉𝑜) ∗ 100
o Exact frequency content ?
& 0.5 < 𝑓𝑚 < 30 𝐻𝑧
∆𝑉
2. Fast Fourier Transform
Vm
FF =
V1
Normally 5 to 20 %
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Flicker Severity Index
Short-term and Long-term flicker index, (Pst and Plt)
• IEC Flicker meter
• 10 minute basis
• lamp-eye-brain transfer function
% of time
probability function (%) cumulative probability function (%)
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Flicker Severity Index
Short-term and Long-term flicker index, (Pst and Plt)
• IEC Flicker meter
cumulative probability function (%)
• The measure of severity is
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Impact of Voltage Fluctuation
• Lamp flicker
o Most sensitive frequency is 6 – 8 Hz.
• Reduced life time of CFL
• Performance of controllers degrades
• Spurious tripping of relays
• Unwanted triggering of UPS
• Interference with communication equipment
• Non-lighting equipment is less affected
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Solution/Mitigation of Voltage Fluctuation
• Increase the system capacity sufficiently
o Higher KVA transformers, increase the operating voltage
• Soft-start or star-delta starting of large motors
• Full inverter control of IM.
• Series reactors for Arc Furnace
o Also reduce the supply-side harmonics
• Mitigation devices
o Static shunt capacitors
o Static VAR Controller (SVC) or Dynamic Voltage Regulators (DVR)
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
Mathematical models of PQ disturbances
PQ by [Link], NITT 2/27/2025
