Physics

for Rwanda Secondary Schools

Teacher’s Guide Book 4

 ©2020 Rwanda Education Board
All rights reserved.
This book is property of the Government of Rwanda.
Credit must be given to REB when the content is quoted.
 Contents

Introduction..........................................................................................................v
Structure of the Subject......................................................................................vi
Format of Unit Plan/Scheme of work..................................................................xi
A competence based lesson plan...................................................................... xii
Content map..................................................................................................... xiv

UNIT 1 Thin Lenses...................................................................................... 1

Unit Breakdown................................................................................. 1
UNIT 2 Simple and compound optical instruments..................................... 30
Unit Breakdown............................................................................... 31
UNIT 3 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies............................................... 57
Unit Breakdown............................................................................... 58
UNIT 4 Work, Energy and Power................................................................ 77
Unit Breakdown............................................................................... 77
UNIT 5 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits.................................................... 90
Unit Breakdown............................................................................... 92
UNIT 6 Sources of Energy in the World.................................................... 123
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 124
UNIT 7 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation) and Power Generation........... 138
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 139
UNIT 8 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion ........................................ 149
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 149
UNIT 9 Universal Gravitational Field ....................................................... 169
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 169
UNIT 10 Effects of Electric and Electric Potential Fields............................. 184
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 185
UNIT 11 Applications of laws of thermodynamics....................................... 210
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 210
UNIT 12 General Structure of the Solar System......................................... 245
Unit Breakdown............................................................................. 246

iii
Introduction

Physics can be regarded as the most fundamental of the

natural sciences. Physics has made significant contributions
to advances in new technologies through understanding of
scientific phenomena and theories critical to the development
of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-
day society. These include television, computers, domestic
appliances and nuclear weapons. Advances in thermodynamics
led to industrialisation and advances in mechanics and inspired
the development of calculus.
Physics like any other science subject MUST always be taught
practically either in class, outside the class or in laboratory.

v
 Structure of the Subject

Component Time Weighting of Physics

Paper 1 consists of two sections; A and B.
Section A: Multiple Choice Questions
Section B: Structured short answer questions. This section
consists of 40 multiple choice questions, with four
options. This section consists of variable mark value.
Candidates will answer all questions. Candidates will
write their answers on spaces provided in the question
paper. All questions will be based on the syllabus content.

Multiple choice (Section A) 40%

Structured short answer questions (Section B) 60%

Time: 2hr 30 min. Paper 2 consists of a compulsory question
with number of parts each with a variable mark value (Section
A)
• A choice of three free response style or extended essay
questions from five questions worth 20 marks (Section B).
All questions will be based on the syllabus but may require
knowledge of material first encountered in the previous
syllabus of the same subject.

(Section A) 40% (section B) 60%

Paper 3: Advanced Practical Skills

This paper requires candidates to carry out practical work
in timed conditions. This paper will consist of experiments
drawn from different areas of the a syllabus. Candidates will
answer all questions. Candidates will write down their answers
on spaces provided in question paper.

vi
 Structure of the Subject

Time: 3hr. 00min

Total marks: 100%

Planning of the lesson
• Lesson plan must contain clear, realistic and appropriate SMART
objectives reflected in the syllabus unit;
• The planned lesson must be conducted within the time allocated
in the lesson plan;
• The management and control of the class must be effective and
indication of how to address individual learner’s needs is paramount.

Introduction of the lesson

1. The teacher must discuss lesson objectives or learning
outcomes with the learners and these must reflect the rationale
for learning the subject unit.
2. The introduction must:
○○ show the linkage between prior knowledge to new concept
and how learners demonstrate the existence of prior
knowledge;
○○ emphasise on how the new concept is applied in everyday
life experience;
○○ be stimulating enough to capture the learner’s interest.

Pedagogical Approach
• Teacher through questioning and provocation engages learners in
active participation in the lesson.
• Teacher encourages learners to work in groups in order to
accomplish a given task.
• Teacher encourages learners to ask questions and to give their
views.
• Teacher pays particular attention to slow learners and those with
special needs.
• Teacher adapts to the needs of the learner.

Assessment Technique
• Teacher asks provocative and challenging questions as the lesson
progresses.

vii
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• Teacher gives class exercise and moves around to check the

accuracy of responses from learners.
• Teacher discusses the exercise with the learners.
• Teacher discusses responses to the exercise with learners.
• Teacher sets tasks for small groups to work on.
• Teacher involves learners in discussing the group findings.
• Teacher gives home work or project work at the end of the lesson.

Instructional materials used

• Learners make use of text books during the lesson.
• Learners utilise materials provided by the teacher to facilitate
their learning.
• Teacher makes use of the teacher’s guide and existing instructional
materials relevant to the topic.
• Teacher makes use of charts, maps, common tools, models,
overhead projector, flip board or white board, relevant reference
books, video and cassette player, computers, sufficient books in
the library.
Conclusion of the lesson
• The teacher summarises the lesson and encourages the learners to
ask questions on what was not clear.
• Teacher emphasises the relevance and applications of the concept;
learnt in real life experiences.
• The teacher concludes the lesson by giving follow up assignment
to the learners.
Teacher Competences Required
• Teacher adapts to the needs of the learners.
• The teacher’s communication skills in the language of instruction.
• The teacher’s practical skills during the lesson.
• The teacher’s management of relevant records.
• The teacher’s ability to evaluate oneself and learners.
Assessment
Why Assess?
The teacher should carry out assessment because it helps in:

viii
 Structure of the Subject

• finding out how much a learner has achieved.

• inform learners what they have achieved and encourage them to
improve further.
• making decisions on the next steps in terms of progress.
• make new plans for effective teaching and learning.
• keeping records and measuring progress.
• the identification of learners who are gifted and talented for
provision of enrichment work and those who are struggling and
need support.
• setting of activities to assess learners appropriately.
• the motivation of learners to learn and succeed.
• provision of feedback to learners, parents and teachers.
• helping learners take control of their own learning.

The roles of the teacher and learners in competence-

based assessment
1. The teacher:
• should be clear about what he/she intends to assess and how to
do it.
Plan the Assessment

Prepare the learners

Conduct the Assessment

Provide feedback

When planning an assessment activity, the teacher

should:
• be clear about the purpose of the assessment;
• understand, plan and design the process to be applied;
• ensure that assessment always supports learning;
• prepare learners for the assessment;

ix
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• carry out assessment as an ongoing part of classroom learning

and teaching and periodically use specific assessments, tests or
examinations as appropriate;
• involve learners fully in assessment and help them to understand
what is expected and how to improve;
• develop learners’ roles in self-assessment;
• evaluate evidence of learning to contribute to profiles and report
on learners’ achievements and progress.

Learners are expected to:

• actively engage in assessment for learning.
• use clear understanding of assessment expectations to demonstrate
their knowledge and understanding, skills, attitudes and values
through a wide range of evidence including informal and formal
assessments including specific assessment tasks, activities, tests
and examinations.
• use assessment feedback to shape and review their learning by
reflection, setting learning goals and planning next steps.
• use self-assessment to improve performance.
• collaborate in peer assessment.

x
 Format of Unit Plan/Scheme of work

Academic year: ................ Term: .................................................

School: ............................. Subject:...............................................
Teacher’s name: ............... Class + Combination: .........................
Number of periods per week ..............................................................
Dates & number Units Lessons Learning Teaching Resources
of lessons (periods) objectives methods & &

Observations
in a week + techniques References
+ +
Evaluation
Evaluation
Key unit
procedures
competences
From January 11 Unit 1 Lesson 1 General
(Mo) to January 15 Lesson 2 Objective
(Friday) Lesson 3
3 periods
From January 18 Unit 1 Lesson 4 General
(Mo) to January 22 Lesson 5 Objective
(Friday)
Lesson 6 General
3 periods objective
From January 25 Unit 1 Lesson 7 General
(Mo) to January 29 Lesson 8 Objective
(Friday)
3 periods Summative Evaluation
Evaluation 1 procedures
From Feb 01 (Mo) Unit 1 Lesson 9 General
to Feb 05 (Friday) Lesson 10 objective
3 periods Lesson 11
In this week, the Unit 1 Lesson 12 General
3 periods will be: Objective
last lesson of unit 1, Summative Evaluation
evaluation for unit Evaluation 2 procedures
19 and first lesson
Unit 2 Lesson 1 General
for unit 2
objective
Unit 2 Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Unit 2 Lesson 4 … General
objective

xi
 A competence based lesson plan

School Name: ……………………… Teacher’s name: ………………………

Term Date Subject Class Unit Lesson Duration Class

No No size
Term II .. /../ Physics S4 5 1 of 6 80 min 30
2020
Type of Special Educational Needs to be None
catered for in this lesson and number of
learners in each category
Unit title Kirchhoff’s laws in electric circuits
Key Unit By the end of the unit, the student-teachers should be able to
Competence analyze complex electric circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws.
Title of the Simple electric circuit and its construction.
lesson
Instructional Provided different electric components, learners will be able to
Objective manipulate and construct appropriate simple electric circuits in
series and parallel.
Plan for Laboratory
this Class
(location: in /
outside)
Learning Two batteries; Two bulb holders; 7 pieces of copper wires; 3
Materials (for bulbs, chalk board; answer sheets and rough papers.
all learners)
References Physics for Rwanda secondary schools L.B 4

xii
Timing for each Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
step Description of teaching and learning activity and
Through manipulation of electric components and construction of simple electric circuits
Cross cutting issues to be addressed
with help of teacher’s guidance to gain more skills in electric circuit construction and
answer problems related to it. +
Teacher activities Learner activities a short explanation

Introduction Motivate the learners by asking them Recall the electric components and their
the use of different electric components arrangement in circuits.
10min provided? cooperation,
Brainstorm on the question and take Communication,
Form small groups and let them position by writing down the functions of critical thinking through responding
brainstorm on the question. distinguished electrical components. to questions.

Possible answers: Possible predictions: Battery uses as source

Gender is addressed in forming
of electrical energy, Wires are components
Bulb is a device that gives light but switch used in joining other electrical components; groups.
is a device used to switch on and off. Switch is a device that gives light, bulb is a
Facilitate the learners to think about the device used to switch on and off.
unit objective.
Development of Lead the process of examining learners’ Suggest that they can perform the activity Peace and value education through
the lesson predictions 8.1given in the textbook using the provided co-operation in discussions.
materials.
Give the opportunity to the learner to Standardization culture is addressed
suggest how to verify their predictions through using appropriate electrical
Suggest some of the risks which may arise components.
Give the student-teachers the apparatus when manipulating the provided materials.
in their respective groups, brainstorm Gender education through respect
on how to handle them carefully and other view and collaborate in
50min let them perform the activity following harmony.
given guidelines.
xiv
Schedule the presentations in sample Compare the results with different Environmental sustainability through
groups to discuss on the observations predictions cleaning the room where the group
and difficulties involved in circuit activities are conducted.
Present the results and write on the chalk
construction.
board. Through group discussions, each
student teacher develops critical
thinking skills.
Creativity is developed through
performing tasks.
Conclusion Summary Summarize, Correct their reports and write Critical thinking through giving
the home work in their note books. summary
Correct, conclude and then generalize
with the real life Peace and value , gender through
thinking deeply and harmony.
Assessment Apply the gained skills to answer questions
20 min below and other problems related to
Verify using different methods the level arrangement of electric components:
of gained skills of the learning outcomes
1) Explain why it is very important to use
parallel circuit arrangement in an electric
circuit installation.

2) Suggest two disadvantages of using

parallel arrangement in electric circuit
installation?
Teacher self- Done after the lesson (Done successfully or partially done).
evaluation
Content map

xv
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Content map
Unit 1 2 3. 4 5 6
Thin lenses Simple and Moments and Work energy Kirchhoff’s laws Sources of Ene
compound optical equilibrium of and power and electric energy in the (dil
instruments forces circuits world pow

No of periods 24 18 19 19 20 20 20

Introduction • Ask learners if • Display a hand • Review on • Review on • Provide learners • Ask learners • As
they have ever lens, a lens previous lesson previous lesson with cells in a to tell the diff
seen a person camera, and by asking by asking cell holder, a sources of ge
wearing eye a compound questions about questions about voltmeter and fuel in their • As
glasses. microscope on the previous the previous instruct them homes. qu
• Ask them to a table and call lesson taught lesson taught to connect the • Ask them lea
read some learners to come (orally). (orally). voltmeter across the different un
prints on paper. forward and • Ask • Ask the terminals. sources of of
Guide the observe and have challenging challenging • Ask them the energy used ev
learners and tell a touch. questions that questions that observation. in their • Fa
them that we • Ask learners to tell will lead the will lead the • Instruct them homes. lea
actually use a which instruments learners to learners to to connect an pr
lens in the eyes they have seen understand understand ammeter in the
to read. and what they are the use of the the use of the series with wi
• Display the used for. content in content in the cells. Let the
different types everyday life everyday life them tell their les
of lenses and • Facilitate • Facilitate observations.
let the learners how learners how learners • Guide them to
observe and ask give their give their discover the
questions. predictions and predictions and topic.
• Guide learners help them to help them to
to come up with come up with come up with
the topic and the topic and the topic and
the objective of the objective of the objective of
the lesson the lesson the lesson

Class room Whole class Whole class Whole class Whole class Whole class Whole class Who
organization orientation ( row orientation; group orientation; group orientation; orientation; group orientation; orien
and columns work; individual work; pair work; work; pair work; group work; pair work
depending on the work individual work. group work; individual work work; individual indiv
size of the class). work
pair work;
group work;
individual work.
individual work

Equipment Concave and Convex mirror, Mathematical Set, Mathematical Set, Ammeter, Fire wood, solar Pape
required Convex lenses, hand lens, lens Video tapes, voltmeter, panel, wind
candles, light camera, paper with Calculators resistors, bulbs, hawk (made PC an
bulbs, optical prints, compound CD’s cells, metre rules, from local
Pendulum bob. Com
bench, torches, microscope, Calculators. rheostat and material). magn
eye glasses, Sets, Mathematical set, connecting wires.
graph papers. graph papers. 100’
insul
magn

xvi
 Content map

7 8 9 10 11 12
f Energy degradation Projectile and Universal Effects of electric and Application of General
he (dilapidation) and uniform circular gravitational field potential fields. thermodynamic structure of the
power generation motion. strength laws. solar system

20 20 20 24 24 20

ers • Ask learners the • Review on • Review on • Let each learner rub • Ask learners to • Ask learners
different ways of previous lesson previous lesson by his/ her pen with state the ways to list down
generating energy. by asking asking questions hair, and place it through which the name of
ir • Ask challenging questions about about the previous closer to a small heat is transferred all planets in
questions that will the previous lesson taught piece of paper. in the three states the universe.
lead the learners to lesson taught (orally). • Ask them their of matter. Ask • Provide the
nt understand the use (orally). • Ask challenging observations. them if heat can learners
of the content in • Ask challenging questions that will be exchanged with a globe
ed every day life. questions that lead the learners from one state to and rotate
will lead the to understand the another. it; ask them
• Facilitate how
learners give their learners to use of the content • Let the learners to describe
predictions and help understand in everyday life Inflate a balloon the kind of
them to come up the use of the • Facilitate how and leave it to motion.
with the topic and content in learners give their move up during a • Ask the
the objective of the everyday life predictions and sunny day. learners what
lesson • Facilitate how help them to come • Let them discuss they see in the
learners give up with the topic in groups why sky at night.
their predictions and the objective a balloon or a • Ask the
and help them of the lesson bicycle tube learners what
to come up with bursts when left causes days
the topic and in sunshine for and nights and
the objective of long and why seasons in a
the lesson a loose sauce year.
pan cover goes
off during the • Guide the
cooking. learners
in their
discussions.

Whole class Whole class Whole class Whole class Whole class Whole class
orientation; group orientation; group orientation; group orientation; group orientation; group orientation;
pair work; pair work; work; pair work; work; pair work; work; pair work; work; pair work; group work; pair
dual individual work individual work individual work individual work individual work work; individual
work

olar Paper and pens or Mathematical Set, Mathematical Set, Ebonite rod, pens, Balloons, Globe, balloons,
Calculators Calculators small pieces of papers, thermometers, torch, telescope,
PC and Printer Pendulum bob, Pendulum bob. metal plates, lightning syringe, bicycle binoculars
Compass, Powerful balls, bicycle. arrestor. pumps, sauce pan,
magnet Stones, balls, refrigerator, diesel
chalk, shot put engine, petrol
100’ small-gauge stone engine.
insulated copper Spinning drier
magnet wire

xvii
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit 1 2 3. 4 5 6
Thin lenses Simple and Moments and Work energy Kirchhoff’s laws Sources of Ene
compound optical equilibrium of and power and electric energy in the (di
instruments forces circuits world po

Activities • Observing • Observing small • Learners in • Learners in • Making a • Discuss in • Le

different types organisms using small groups small groups simple circuit. groups the di
of lenses. a hand lens, brainstorm brainstorm on • Construct a different m
• Experiments observe far and on different the difference series circuit sources of el
to examine the near objects, types of forces, between work and parallel energy in pr
characteristics using a compound definition of energy and circuits. Rwanda. • L
of images microscopes to forces, scalar power. • Visit the ab
examine small and vector • Find
formed by • Swing a experimentally power co
lenses. organisms. quantities, pendulum bob generation en
moment the emf and
• Experiments to • Deriving of force,
and discuss internal plant near by • Se
determine the expressions in groups the resistance of for example fin
for magnifying conditions for different forms hydro electric
focal length of a body to be in a cell on
a lens. power of each of energy it or biogas di
instrument. equilibrium, possesses at • Find the relation plant.
• Experiment to exercises. between the emf ou
• Visiting the different to
determine the positions. and potential
refractive index neighboring places difference at m
using a prism. to see television • Make two terminals of ne
sets/ dishes. balls to collide a cell br
• Learners to and observe. sh
view different Then discuss • Find the
parts of small in groups the characteristics
organisms using different types of cells wired
lenses. of collisions. in series and in
parallel.
• Discuss in
groups the
impact of
collisions on
bodies

Competence • Examining • Viewing different • Literacy; • Literacy; • Making of • Identifying • A

practiced. different objects objects using research and research and circuits. sources of de
using lenses. the optical problem solving; problem energy in di
• Perseverance
instruments. communication; solving; Rwanda po
• Locating critical thinking; communication; and tolerance.
positions of • Examining small ICT and Digital critical thinking; • Manipulating • Identifying • C
images formed micro organisms competences; ICT and Digital apparatus and features of th
by lenses. using compound creativity and competences; equipment. renewable w
• Observing microscope. innovation creativity and Drawing and non • C
the physical • Determining innovation conclusions renewable
features of the angular and evaluating sources.
lens. magnification of experimental • Modelling
an object. procedure. physical
• Solving processes
problems using related
kirchoff’s law. to energy
consumption.

xviii
 Content map

7 8 9 10 11 12
of Energy degradation Projectile and Universal Effects of electric and Application of General
he (dilapidation) and uniform circular gravitational field potential fields. thermodynamic structure of the
power generation motion. strength laws. solar system

n • Learners’group • Learners to • Learners to • Each learner to rub • Learners to inflate • Learners work
e discussions about throw a stone discuss in groups his pen with hair a balloon and in groups and
mechanisms of upwards and on what causes and attract small release it. investigate
f electrical energy then at an angle days and nights. pieces of paper. • Learners to pump acceleration
production and study the • Learners discuss • Carry out an a bicycle tyre due to gravity
• Learners to discuss motion of the in groups on what experiment to and then open on the earth’s
about how to two. causes seasons in illustrate electric it to feel the surface.
convert thermal • Tie a bob on a year. field lines. temperature of the • Observe
n energy into work. a thread and • In groups, learners • Visit a near by place air coming out. planets and
by • Search internet to swing it on a discuss on how where there is a • Learners to stars using
ple find information horizontal circle world wide lightning. visit a garage telescopes
ctric on energy flow and then in a communication is and observe • Learners
diagrams. Carry vertical circle. achieved with the the difference to work in
out an experiment Release the bob help of satellites. between a diesel groups and
to demonstrate the and observe. engine and a discuss the
• Solve problems
motion of a compass • Discus in involving the petrol engine. number of
needle when groups why a law of universal • Learners working planets in
brought near a horse bicycle rider gravitation. in groups to the universe
shoe magnet. bends inwards investigate and the
when he is changes in energy characteristics
rounding a and work done for of each.
corner. thermodynamic • Learners
processes. to work
• Learners to visit in groups
a nearby shop and discuss
where there is a kepler’s law
refrigerator and of planetary
discuss how it motion.
works.
• Learners to
discuss the effect
of heat engines on
the climate.

g • Analyzing energy • Literacy; • Literacy; • Analysing electric • Evaluating • Estimating the

f degradation/ research and research and and potential fields. applications astronomical
dilapidation and problem problem solving; of first and distances.
• Analysing the
power generation. solving; communication; functioning of a second law of • Observing
g • Converting of communication; critical thinking; lightning conductor( thermodynamics planets uing
f thermo energy into critical thinking; ICT and Digital arrestor). in real life. telescopes.
e work. ICT and Digital competences; • Solving problems • Distinguishing
competences; creativity and • Solve and analyse
related to petrol a star from a
• Critical thinking. creativity and innovation electric field
e engine and diesel planet.
innovation and potential for
uniform field. engine. • Describing the
structure of the
g • Acquiring
solar system.
capacity to work
with heat engines
and reduce their
effect on climate
ion. change.

xix
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit 1 2 3. 4 5 6
Thin lenses Simple and Moments and Work energy Kirchhoff’s laws Sources of En
compound optical equilibrium of and power and electric energy in the (d
instruments forces circuits world p

Language • Proper use • Proper use of • Proper use • Proper use • Use of scientific • Use of • U
practice of terms in scientific terms. of terms in of terms in terms. standard s
scientific terms. • Integrating scientific scientific symbols to p
• Use of standard
phenomena phenomena represent a
• Use of standard language( both symbols to physical
symbols to foreign & local in • Integrating • Integrating represent m
quantities and
represent the unit language( both language( both physical their units of
physical foreign & local foreign & local quantities and measurement.
quantities and in the unit in the unit their units of
their units of • Using different • Using differed measurement.
measurement. terms for terms for
• Integrating different differed
language( both expressions. expressions
foreign & local
in the unit.

Vocabulary • Aperture, centre • Visual angle, • Moment of a • Kinetic energy • Terminal • Renewable • E
acquisition of curvature, simple microscope, force potential and non
• Potential • E
radius of compound difference, renewable
• Equilibrium of energy d
curvature, microscope, angular electromotive sources of
magnification, a body • Work energy c
principal focus, force, resistors, power, fossil d
objective lens, • Couple & Theorem fuel, photo
• Principal axis, eyepiece lens, eye Torques
aberration • Strain energy voltaic cells,
ring, shortsighted
• Collision and solar panel,
• Refracting ness, long sighted
angle, ness impulse.

• Critical angle,
total internal
reflection,
dispersion,
deviation of
light.

Numeracy • Measurement of • Measurement of • Tabular • Deriving • Measuring • Determining

length, proper length, graphical representation formulae for currents and the quantity
substitution in representation, of data. work- energy voltages. of energy
the formulae, proper substitution theorem, • Determining generated.
scale drawings, in the formulae. kinetic energy resistance
tabular and potential
presentation of energy. • Proper use of
data. Kirchhoff’s
• Proper laws.
substitution
in different • Drawing
formulae. graphs.

Study skills • Experimentation; • Observation, • Listening; • Listening; • Experimentation, • Searching for • S

Observation, tabular speaking; speaking; • Observation, information i
tabular presentation of reading; reading; Presentation of from internet. i
presentation of data writing, and writing, and findings.
data experimentation. experimentation • Observation. • P
• Conclusion • Comparison. g
• Conclusion
• Scale drawing,
• Scale drawing,
discussing,
discussing,
listening.
listening.

xx
 Content map

7 8 9 10 11 12
of Energy degradation Projectile and Universal Effects of electric and Application of General
the (dilapidation) and uniform circular gravitational field potential fields. thermodynamic structure of the
power generation motion. strength laws. solar system

• Use of standard • Proper use • Proper use of • Use of standard • Use of standard • Use of
symbols to represent of terms in terms in scientific symbols to represent symbols to standard
to physical quantities scientific phenomena. physical quantities represent physical symbols to
and their units of phenomena. • Integrating and their units of quantities and represent
measurement. • Integrating language( both measurement. their units of physical
s and measurement. quantities and
s of language( both foreign & local in
foreign & local the unit). • Integrating their units of
ment.
in the unit. language( both measurement.
• Using different
• Using differed terms for different foreign & local in • Proper use
terms for expressions. the unit. of scientific
differed terms.
expressions.

ble • Energy. • A projectile • Universe • Coulomb, • Thermodynamic • Astronomical

• Energy degredation/ • A trajectory • Centripetal force coulomb’s law, systems, internal distances,
le dilapidation, rotating • Range • Electric field, energy of a gas, constellation,
of • Circular path isobaric change, phases of
coils, energy flow electric potential,
ossil diagrams • Time of flight, • Gravitational field gauss, theorem, isochoric change, the moon,
oto • Angular strength lightning adiabatic change, outer and
ells, velocity, • Gravitational conductor(arrestor). isothermal inner planets,
nel, angular potential energy change. comets,
acceleration, • Heat engine, meteorites,
• Universal
banking. Carnot cycle, asteroids.
Gravitational
constant Otto cycle • Celestial
coordinates.
• Zenith

ning • Calculating • Experimentation. • Experimentation; • Measurement • Calculating

tity distances and • Calculating force observation. of temperature hour angle,
y speeds. between two • Finding the electric proper zenith angle,
d. • Drawing bodies. potential and field substitution in
velocity-time intensity. the formulae,
• Solve drawing p-v
graphs. mathematical diagrams for
problems. different gas
• Find the relation changes.
between G and g.

g for • Searching • Listening; • Listening; • Experimentation, • Experimentation; • Observation

ion information from speaking; speaking; reading; observation, Observation, presentation
ernet. internet. reading; writing, and analysing. tabular of data
writing, and experimentation. presentation of
tion. • Presentation of experimentation. • Conclusion
group findings. data.
• Conclusion.
• Scale drawing,
discussing,
listening.

xxi
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit 1 2 3. 4 5 6
Thin lenses Simple and Moments and Work energy Kirchhoff’s laws Sources of Ene
compound optical equilibrium of and power and electric energy in the (d
instruments forces circuits world po

Assessment Experiments Experiments Revision exercises Revision Revision exercises Revision • R

provided. exercises provided exercises p
continuous provided. provided
Revision exercises for
Assessment Group activities
continuous Assessment Group activities.
exercises, summative
and summative
Assessment at the
Assessment.
end of the unit. Group activities
Group activities

Learning • Appreciate the Appreciate the use of • Differentiating • Differentiate • Apply • Identify • E
outcome applications of optical instruments in Vector from work from Kirchhoff, sources of o
lenses in every daily life. scalar Quantity. energy. s laws to energy in p
day life. • Resolving • Appreciate solve circuit Rwanda • C
• Identify how to Designing some forces. importances of problems. • Describe how fl
use the lenses optical instruments doing work. • Acquire to extract
such as a lens camera • Determine • A
effectively. centre of • Appreciate The practical skills and create e
and a compound making simple renewable
• Enjoy using microscope. gravity and importances of p
lenses’ mass. having power. circuits. and non c
equipment. • Explain the renewable fi
Appreciate the • Stating • Relate work, sources.
• Explain the working mechanisms conditions for power & sources of • R
defects of of the instruments. a body to be in Energy. electric current, • Evaluate v
lenses and how Determine the Equilibrium. emf. energy tr
• Appreciate uses and
they can be magnifying power of principal of • Develop it
corrected. an optical instrument. perseverance availability in
conservation of the world.
• Explain the energy. when dealing
phenomenon with electrical • Recognise
of refraction by appliances. and avoid
the prism. • Identify the the sources
dangers of of energy
• Explain the associated
phenomenon electric current.
with dangers.
of dispersion
of light by the
prism.
• Identify the
application of
total reflecting
prisms.

xxii
 Content map

7 8 9 10 11 12
of Energy degradation Projectile and Universal Effects of electric and Application of General
the (dilapidation) and uniform circular gravitational field potential fields. thermodynamic structure of the
power generation motion. strength laws. solar system

• Revision exercises • Revision • Revision exercises • Revision exercises • Continuous • Revision

provided. exercises provided. provided. Assessment. exercises
provided. • Revision provided.
exercises and
summative.
Assessment at the
end of the unit.

• Explain mechanism • Appreciate the • Appreciate the • Appreciate the • Apply the • Identify and
f of electrical energy applications of movement of importance of a laws to explain explain scales
production. projectiles in objects in the lightning conductor. thermodynamic for estimate
• Construct energy real life. universe. • Describe the processes in heat astronomical
how flow diagrams. • Work out • Appreciate force functioning of a engine. distances.
• Appreciate how the calculations of attraction lightning conductor. • Apply the laws of • Distinguish
e electrical energy involving between masses at • Solve and analyse themodynamicsto a star from a
e produced by rotating projectiles & a distance r. electric field and describe planet.
coils in the magnetic derive different • Solve problem electric potential for isothermal, • Appreciate the
e fields. formulas. about circular uniform field. isochoric, isobaric importance of
motion. and adiabatic orbital motion
• Recognise the • Be aware of the processes.
value of energy dangers caused by of the earth to
transformation and lightning. • Describe the human life.
its applications. impact of heat • Explain the
ty in engines on phenomenon
d. climate. of eclipse and
e • Solve problems explain phases
d related to carnot of the moon.
es cycle, diesel • Identify
y engine and celestial
d refrigerators. coordinates.
gers.

xxiii
UNIT 1 Thin Lenses

Number of Lessons: 24
Learner’s book pages 3-68
Key unit competence: To be able to explain the properties of lenses
and describe image formation by lenses.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• explain physical features of thin lenses.
• state the types of lenses and explain their properties.
• differentiate between lenses and curved mirrors.
• explain the phenomenon of refraction of light by lenses.
• draw ray diagrams for formation of images by lenses.
• explain the defects of lenses and how they can be corrected.
• describe the daily applications of lenses.
• derive the lens equation from first principles.
• carry out experiments to determine the focal length of lenses.
• describe refraction through glass prisms.
This unit is to be taught in 24 periods, each of 40 minutes
Evaluation must be carried out in allocated time.

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Types of lenses and their characteristics 80 2
2 Terms used in lenses, Refraction of light by lenses, 80 2
Images formed by lenses
3 Ray diagrams and images formed by lenses 80 2
4 Thin lens formula (equation), the sign convention 80 2
5 Magnification, Power of the lens 80 2

1
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Serial Lesson title Number of Periods

number minutes
6 Graphical determination of focal length of a convex 80 2
lens
7 Determination of focal length of a concave lens 80 2
8 Combination of lenses, and effective focal length of 80 2
the lens combination
9 Defects of lenses and their corrections, Refraction 80 2
through glass prisms (introduction and terms
associated with refraction through the prisms)
10 Determination of refractive index of the prism; 80 2
Deviation of light by the prism, Minimum deviation,
Determination of refractive index of a material of a
glass prism using minimum deviation
11 Dispersion of light, Applications of total internal 80 2
reflection by a prism
12 Problem solving related to combined thin lenses and 80 2
refraction of light
Total 960 24

Introduction
Man has always had interest in observing things in a more detailed
manner. Lenses or magnifying glasses, as they are sometimes called,
have been used to observe objects.
People with poor eye sight use lenses to enable them see better, for
example, use of reading glasses to enlarge prints, watch repairers
and handset cell phone repairers also use lenses.

Lesson 1: Types of lenses and their characteristics

Period 1: (40 Minutes)

Material required for each group

Bi-convex lens, Plano-convex lens, bi- concave lens, plano-concave
lens, and some eye glasses.
Step 1: Let the learners carry out the activities listed below and investigate
the optical properties of lenses.

2
 Thin Lenses

Activity 1 Page 5
• Provide the learners with the lenses and eye glasses and let the
learners examine the physical features of the lenses.
• Let the learners touch and feel the lenses.
Step 2: With the use of guided questions lead the learners to discuss that
lenses are pieces of glasses with curved surfaces.

Activity 2 Page 7
• Take the learners into a dark room.
• Divide them in groups of four and provide each group with a
convex lens, a concave lens and a torch.
• Let the learners shine light on each mounted lens and observe
the emergent rays.
Step 3: Using leading and guided questions help the learners develop
the concept of a converging lens and a diverging lens from their
observation.

Lesson Flow (This is true for all lessons)

Let the learners do activities in learner’s book (if it is a mixed school,
mix boys and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

3
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 2: Terms used in lenses

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide the learners with both convex and concave lenses and let
them carry out activities 2 to 7 in learner’s book pages 7-11.
Let the learners carry out activities systematically and in order help
them discover the terms relevant from each activity.
Put more emphasis on activities 6 and 7 since they lead to an
understanding of the concepts of the principal focus and the focal
length for they will be commonly applied.
Step 2: Explain terms as the activities are carried out by the learners. Pass
through and guide the learners whenever the occasion demands.
Talk about the terms; principal axis, aperture, centre of curvature,
radius of curvature, principal focus, focal length, and axis of the lens.

Images formed by lenses

Step 1: Divide the learners into groups of four and provide each group with
a lamp, a convex lens of focal length 10cm, a lens holder and a white
sheet of paper preferably size A4.

4
 Thin Lenses

Step 2: Instruct the learners to follow the procedures described in Activity 9

in the text book in order to investigate the nature of images formed
by a convex lens when an object is placed at different positions on
the principal axis.
Step 3: Guide the learners to discover that the nature of the image formed
by a convex lens depends on the position of the object along the
principal axis of the lens. Some images are larger, some are smaller
than the object and others are same size as the object. All the images
formed on the white sheet of paper are inverted. These are real
images.
Step 4: Images formed by concave lenses.
Lead the learners, with the aid of a ray diagram to the conclusion that
unlike a convex lens where the nature of the image depends on its
position, a concave lens forms only virtual images.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the activities in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, mix boys and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs during group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activities. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

5
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• checking and marking work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 3: Ray diagrams and images formed by lenses

Period 3: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide the learners with graph papers and instruct them to carry out
activity 12; learner’s book page 19. Make sure learners have also
completed activity 11.
Step 2: Explain the relevance of using two specific rays to locate the position
of an image. Explain to the learners that many rays of light come
from the object but all rays cannot be considered while drawing ray
diagrams.
Step 3: Let the learners carry out activity 16 in learner’s book on page 29.
Step 4: Give explanations where necessary.
Step 5: Learners carry out activity 13 in learner’s book 4 on page 23.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out activities described in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, mix boys and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

6
 Thin Lenses

Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• checking and marking work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 4: Thin lens formula (equation)

Period 4: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Instruct the learners to do activities 14 and 15 in the learner’s book
on page 24-25.
Step 2: Derivation of thin lens formula for a convex lens.
Guide the learners and use ray diagrams for several positions of the
object, to derive the lens formula stating clearly all the assumptions
made.
Assumptions are: the lenses are thin and rays of light fall on a lens at
points close to the principal axis.

7
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Using ray diagrams for several positions of the object, guide the
learners to develop the lens’ equation for concave lenses.
Step 3: Derivation of thin lens formula for a concave lens
Show the learners that for both cases of lenses, the lens formula
holds.

The sign convention

Step 1: Step by step, solve the example on page 29 in the learner’s book.
Step 2: Let the learners do exercise on page 31.
Step 3: Through guided questioning, develop the concept that distances of
real objects and real images are positive, and distances of virtual
objects and images are negative.
Similarly, guide the learners to discover that the focal lens of a
convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative since
their principal foci are real and virtual respectively.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the activities in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, mix boys and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

8
 Thin Lenses

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 5: Magnification
Period 5: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Instruct the learners to carry out activity 16 in learner’s book on page 29.
Ask each learner to measure the heights of the object and the image.
Ask them to find the ratio of image height and object height.
By use of guided questions lead the learners to discover that the
ratio obtained gives the number of times an image is larger than the
object.
Step 2: Ask the learners to measure distances of object and image from the
lens.
Ask them to find the ratio of image distance to the object distance
from the lens.
Step 3: Guide the learners using thought provoking and guided questions to
a conclusion that magnification can be determined from the ratio of
image distance to object distance from the lens.
Guide the learners to discover that for both cases of lenses, the lens
formula holds.

9
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 4: Step by step and logically, solve the example on page 30 in the
learner’s book.

Power of the lens

Step 1: Provide the learners with a convex lens of focal length 10cm and
another of focal length 15cm, and let them carry out activity 18 in
the learner’s book page 33.
From the activity, and by use of thought provoking questions guide
the learners to discover that the power of the lens depends on the focal
length of the lens. The shorter the focal length the more powerful is
the lens.
That is, power of the lens is the reciprocal of its focal length.
Step 2: Let the learners carry out activity 19 in the learner’s book on page 34.
Step 3: Mark the learners’ books after which make corrections with them.
Step 4: Put learners in groups of two and instruct them to do (group) activity
28 on page 45 in the learner’s book.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, each group should have a balanced number of boys
and girls.
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

10
 Thin Lenses

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 6: Graphical determination of focal length of a convex

lens
Period 6: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide each learner with the following: A convex lens, a torch, a
screen with cross wires, a lens holder and a white sheet of paper.
Step 2: Instruct the learners to carry out activities 19 and 20 page 34.
Where necessary guide the learners by use of provoking questions to
locate the position of the image.
Guide the learners to recall that, the distance from the lens to the
screen is the focal length of the lens.
Step 3: Guide the learners in plotting graphs and finding the slope.
Step by step and by use of thought provoking and challenging
questions guide the learners on how to determine the focal length,
through making the object distance of the lens formula the subject
of the formula.
Show that from ...............................................................................
It follows that ..................................................................................
It implies that ...................................................................................

11
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

The above expression is an equation of a straight line and hence a

plot of against u/v H is a straight lined graph and its slope is the focal
length of the lens.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, each group should have a balanced number of boys
and girls.
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

12
 Thin Lenses

Lesson 7: Determination of focal length of a concave lens

Period 7: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide learners with both a concave lens and concave mirror of
known radius of curvature, a screen with cross wires and a torch.
Step 2: Instruct the learners to carry out activity 21 in the learner’s book
page 36.
Step 3: Through the use of guided questions remind the learners that a
concave lens forms virtual images of real images, which cannot
be seen on a screen. By using guided experiementation guide the
learners to discover that in order to determine the focal length of a
diverging lens there is need to form a virtual object for the diverging
lens so that a real image is produced. Guide the learners to discover
that this is achieved in the experiment by putting a concave mirror
behind the lens so as to reflect back the diverging rays from the lens.
Similarly, when an object is placed at the principal focus of a concave
mirror, the image is formed at the same position with it. Now, since
the object and its image are coinciding, it means that they at the
centre of curvature of the mirror.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out a related activity in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, each group should have a balanced number of boys
and girls.
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.

13
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing

on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 8: Combination of lenses, and effective focal length of

the lens combination
Period 8: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide learners with a compound microscope and ask them to
identify the number of lenses it has.
Step 2: Provide the learners with two convex lenses one of focal length
15cm and the other of focal length 10cm and instruct them to carry
out activities 22 and 23 in the learners’ book on book page 37.
Guide the learners to discover that the light rays from a distant tree
are parallel. Guide the learners to discover that the light rays meet at
the focal plane of the lens as seen in 23 (a) and of the combination
of the lenses as seen in 23 (b). Using thought provoking and guided
questions lead the learners to conclude that the distance from the
lens to the white sheet of paper is the focal length of the lens in (a)
and the distance from the combination of the two lenses to the screen
is the focal length of the combination.

14
 Thin Lenses

Step 3: Derivation of the expression for the effective focal length of the
combination of lenses.
Let the learners do the exercise on page 38 in the learner’s book.
Step 4: Guide the learners to derive an expression for the effective focal
length of a lens combination and to identify the applications of lens
combinations.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners can be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

15
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 9: Defects of lenses and their corrections

Period 9: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide the learners with a ruler and a white sheet of papers.
Instruct the learners to do activity 24 in the learner’s books on page 40.
Step 2: Provide the learners with a convex lens let them repeat the same
experiment with a convex lens.
Step 3: Explain to the learners that what they have observed using a ruler can
also be observed when the lens is used but because the lens converges
light rays, the rays come closer to each other and the colours of the
image overlap and are not clearly seen.
Talk about the two types of defects; the spherical and chromatic
aberration.
Step 4: Using ray diagrams, describe how the defects can be minimised.
Explain to the learners that if they had an achromatic doublet, they
could do the experiment about minimising chromatic aberration.

Refraction through glass prisms (introduction and terms

associated with refraction through the prisms)
Step 1: Ask learners if they have ever seen a glass prism.
Step 2: Provide the learners with an equilateral glass prism and instruct them
to carry out activity 27 in learner’s book page 44.
Step 3: Guide the learners to identify and define the terms i. e. angle of prism
A, angle of incidence, angles of refraction on the two faces of the
prism.
Using experimental method, guide the learners to discover the angle
of minimum deviation.

16
 Thin Lenses

Step 4: Using experimental method, guide the learners to discover the angle
of minimum deviation.
Step 5: Step by step and logically solve the examples on page 46-48 in
learner’s book.
Step 6: Set the learners solve the exercise that follows in the learner’s book.
Page 48.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, mix boys and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the mood of the learners.

17
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 10: Determination of refractive index of the prism

Period 10: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Guide the learners as they work through activity 32 in the learner’s
book on page 57.
Step 2: Guide the learners on how to plot a graph and finding a scale for the
graph.
Step 3: Guide the learners to discover that the graph of a plot of sin i against,
sin r is a straight line graph and the gradient represents the mean
value of the refractive index of the prism material.

Deviation of light by the prism

Step 1: Provide the learners with a glass prism of refracting angle 60o, four
optical pins, a white sheet of paper, a soft board and fixing pins
Step 2: Instruct the learners to work through activity 30 in learner’s book
page 50.
Guide the learners to conclude that the total deviation of a ray by the
prism is due to refraction at both faces of the prism and is the sum
of the deviation of the ray due to refraction at the first surface and its
deviation at the second surface.
Step 3: Derive together with the learners an expression for deviation of light
by the prism;
D = (i1 + i2) – A by use of figure 1.39 in the learner’s book.

Minimum deviation
Step 1: Provide the learners with a glass prism of refracting angle 60o, four
optical pins, a white sheet of paper, a soft board and fixing pins.
Step 2: Set the learners to work through activity 31 in learner’s book page
51.
Step 3: Together with the learners derive an expression for minimum
deviation, Dmin =2i – A. with the use of figure 1.43.

18
 Thin Lenses

Determination of refractive index of a material of a glass prism

using minimum deviation
Step 1: Guide the learners to derive the relation between minimum deviation
and the refractive index of the material;

 D + A
sin  min 
 2 
n=
 A
sin  
2
Step 2: Together with the learners use the derived formula to work through
the example on page 54 in learner’s book.
Step 3: Instruct learners to work through exercise on page 60 in learner’s
book.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, each group should have a balanced number of boys
and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activities. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

19
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 11: Dispersion of light

Period 12: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to explain the meaning of the word dispersion. Pay
attention to the learner’s responses.
Guide the learners to arrive at the acceptable definition of dispersion.
Step 2: Provide learners with a plane mirror, a basin and water.
Step 3: Guide them to do activity 33 in the learner’s book, page 58.
A band of seven colours is seen. This band of seven colours is called
a spectrum. It is because the colours of white light separate as they
pass through glass. Using thought provoking and leading question
guide the learners to discover that the colours separate because glass
has a different refractive index for each colour.
Step 4: Then provide them with a glass prism and guide them to carry out
activity 34 in the learner’s book page 58.

Applications of total internal reflection by a prism

Step 1: Ask the learners to describe total internal reflection. Through
questioning lead the learners to arrive at an acceptable definition of
total internal reflection.
Step 2: Provide the learners with a glass prism, a white sheet of paper and
ray-box (torch).

20
 Thin Lenses

Step 3: Set the learners to do activity 35 in the learner’s book page 59.
Step 4: Provide the learners with two right angled prisms and guide them to
carry out activity 36 page 60.
Describe and explain to the learners how prisms are used in
periscopes.
Step 5: Similarly, provide the learners with an equilateral prism and instruct
them to carry out activity 37 on page 61.
Demonstrate to the learners how prisms are used in prism binoculars.
Step 6: Instruct learners to work through the critical thinking exercise on
page 60 in learner’s book.

Answers to critical thinking exercise on page 61 in learner’s book

(a) In periscopes and prism binoculars, plane mirrors can be used but
prisms are preferred because of the following reasons:
In the first place, a prism allows light to undergo total internal
reflection and thus the images are formed by total internal reflection
whereas a mirror allows light to both reflect and refract at its surface.
So for a prism, all the light (100%) from the object is reflected but
for a mirror some light is absorbed (about 95% is reflected) and thus
a prism produces a brighter image than a mirror.
The silvering on the mirrors wears off with time but with prism no
silvering is needed.
Some mirrors for, example, thick plane mirrors produce multiple
images of one object because of reflections and refractions at the
surfaces and inside the glass but a prism produces only one image.
(b) Diamonds are cut that way so as to make use of total internal
reflection. The multiple reflections inside diamond make it bright.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, each group should have a balanced number of boys
and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.

21
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Help them in selecting their group leaders.

Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activities. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners can be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 12: Problem solving related to combined thin lenses

and refraction of light
Period 13: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide learners with a microscope and instruct them to observe the
microscope provided and try to identify the number of lenses it has got.
Let them attempt to count the lenses.
Ask them how many lenses they have seen.
Possible answer: The microscope comprises of two lenses.

22
 Thin Lenses

Guide the learners to discover by use of thought provoking questions

that many instruments such as microscopes and telescopes use a
combination of lenses and these will be discussed in the next unit.
Step 2: Put learners in groups of four and ask them to discuss the uses of a
combination of lenses.
Possible answer: Combining lenses increases the power to focus objects.
On top of the lenses being used in such optical instruments, combined
lenses are used to minimize chromatic aberration for example an
achromatic doublet which is a combination of convex lens and a
concave lens.
Some spectacles are a combination of lenses. Such spectacles are
used for reading.
Step 3: Set the learners to work through the example on page 56 in the
learner’s book
Step 4: Set the learners work through the exercise on page 62 in the learner’s
book.
Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, each group should have a balanced number of boys
and girls).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

23
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and smartly.

Assessment criteria
Learners can be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above may be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Answers for exercises

1.a) Using Thin lens equation:
1 1 1 uf 25 × 35
+ = ⇔v= = = −87.5 cm
u v f u − f 25 − 35
The image is virtual (since u < 0), and is located 87.5 cm in front of
the lens.

v 87.5
Using magnification equation: γ = − = = 3.5
u 25
The image is upright (since γ > 0 ), and magnified by a factor of
3.5,
From magnification equation:

h′ v
M= = − ⇔ h′ = Mh = 3.5 × 7 = 24.5 cm
h u
The height h’ of the image is 24.5 cm:
b) Using Thin lens equation:

1 1 1 uf 90 × 35
+ = ⇔v= = = 57.27 cm
u v f u − f 90 − 35
The new image is real (since v > 0), and is located 57.27 cm behind
the lens.

24
 Thin Lenses

v 57.27
Using magnification equation: γ = − =− = −0.636
u 290
The new magnification is -0.636: the image is inverted (since
γ < 0 ), and diminished by a factor of 0.636.
From magnification equation:

h′ v
γ= = − ⇔ h′ = γ h = −0.636 × 7 = −4.45 cm
h u
The new height of the image is h’ = -4.45 cm
2. The focal length f of a diverging lens is negative by convention, so
f = - 45 cm, in this case. If the image is fifteen times smaller than
1
the object then the magnification is γ = , because we know that
15
images formed in diverging lenses are always virtual and upright.
According to Magnification Equation, the image distance q is given

h′ v 1 u
by γ = = − = ⇔ v = − (1)
h u 15 15

1 1 1 uf
According to lens thin equation: + = ⇔v= (2)
u v f u− f
Compare (1) and (2) and solve for p we find:

u uf 1 f
− = ⇔− = ⇔ u = −14 f = −(14) × (−45) = 630 cm
15 u − f 15 u − f
Thus, the object must be placed 630 cm in front of the lens.

1
The image distance is given by = −γ u = −( )(630) = −42 cm
15
Thus, the image is located 42 cm in front of the lens.
3.(a) Given: u = 20 cm f = 15 cm

1 1 1 uf 20 ×15
Substitute in + = ⇔ q = = = 60 cm we have
real image u v f u − f 20 − 15

25
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

v 60
γ =− =− = −3
u 20
A real image is formed 60 cm from lens on side opposite to object,
of magnification 3.

(b) Given v = 5 cm f = 15 cm
1 1 1 uf 5 ×15
Substitute in + = ⇔v= = = −7.5 cm we have
u v f u − f 5 − 15
virtual image

v − 7.5
γ =− =− = 1.5
u 5
A virtual image is formed 7.5 cm from lens on same side as object,
of magnification 1.5
4. Given u = 10 cm f = −15 cm
1 1 1 uf 10 × (−15)
Substitute in + = ⇔q= = = −6 cm we
u v f u− f 10 + 15
have virtual image

v −6
γ =− =− = 0.6
u 10
A virtual image is formed 6 cm from lens on same side as object, of
magnification 0.6
5. Ray diagram

Here u = 24 cm and f = +16 cm, so the image distance is

uf 24 ×16
v == = = 48 cm
u− f 24-16
The image is real since v is positive (see Figure).

26
 Thin Lenses

q 48
The diameter of the coin’s image is, h′ = −h = −3 = -6 cm
p 24
The image is inverted and twice as large as the object.
In general, an object that is a distance between f and 2f from a
converging lens has a real, inverted image that is larger than the
object
6. Given uc = 30.0 cm f c = 30.0 cm ud = 12.5 cm
f d = −10.0 cm
The thin-lens equation can be used to find the image distance, while
the equation for magnification will serve to describe the size and
orientation of the image.

1 1 1 v
+ = and γ = −
u v f u

uc f c 30.0 × 30.0
We find for converging lens: v = = = 15 cm
uc − f c 30.0 + 30.0
v 15.0
and γ = − =− = −0.5
u 30.0

ud f d 12.5 × (−10.0)
For the diverging lens: vd = = = −5.56 cm
ud − f d 12.5 + 10.0
v −5.56
and γ = − =− = 0.445
u 12.5
These values and signs for the converging lens indicate a real,
inverted, smaller image. This is expected because the object
distance is longer than twice the focal length of the converging
lens.
The values and signs for diverging lens indicate a virtual, upright,
smaller image formed inside the focal point. This is the only kind
of image diverging lenses form.
7. Like all problems in Physics, begin by the identification of the known
information.

h = 4.00 cm u = 45.7 cm f = 15.2 cm

27
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Next identify the unknown quantities which you wish to solve for:
v = ? h′ = ?
To determine the image distance, use the lens equation:

uf 45.7 ×15.2
v= = = 22.8 cm
u − f 45.7 + 15.2
The magnification equation gives the image height:

h′ v 22.8
= − ⇒ h′ = −4.00 = −1.99 cm
h u 45.7
The negative values for image height indicate that the image is
an inverted image. As is often the case in physics, a negative or
positive sign in front of the numerical value for a physical quantity
represents information about direction. In the case of the image
height, a negative value always indicates an inverted image.
8. Begin by the identification of the known information:
h = 4.00 cm u = 8.3 cm f = 15.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities which you wish to solve for:
v = ? h′ = ?

uf 8.3 ×15.2
The image distance, v = = = −18.3 cm
u − f 8.3 − 15.2

h′ v −18.3
The image height = − ⇒ h′ = −4.00 = 8.81 cm
h u 8.3
From the calculations, it can be concluded that if a 4.00 cm tall
object is placed 8.30 cm from a double convex lens having a
focal length of 15.2 cm, then the image will be enlarged, upright,
8.81 cm tall and located 18.3 cm from the lens on the object’s side.
The results of this calculation agree with the principles discussed
earlier in this lesson. In this case, the object is located in front of
the focal point (i.e., the object distance is less than the focal length)
and the image is located behind the lens.
9. Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the
unknown information.
h = 4.00 cm p = 35.5 cm f = −12.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities which you wish to solve for.
v = ? h′ = ?

28
 Thin Lenses

uf 35.5 × (12.2)
The image distance, v = = = −9.08 cm
u− f 35.5 + 12.2

h′ v −9.08
the image height, = − ⇒ h′ = −4.00 = −1.02 cm
h u 35.5
From these calculations, it can be concluded that if a 4.00 cm tall
object is placed 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having a focal length
of 12.2 cm, then the image will be upright, 1.02 cm tall and located
9.08 cm from the lens on the object’s side. Diverging lenses always
produce images which are upright, virtual, reduced in size, and
located on the object’s side of the lens.
h′ q 1 p
10. From magnification equation γ = = − = + ⇔ q = −
h p 3 3

We then use the object–image relationship

1 1 1 1 3 1
+ = ⇔ − = ⇔ p = −2 f = −2(−40.0 cm) = 40.0 cm
p q f p p f
The object should be 40.0 cm from the lens.

p 40.0 cm
The image distance will be q = − =− = −13.3 cm
3 3
The image distance is negative, so the object and image are on the
same side of the lens.
b) Principal-ray diagram for an image formed by a thin diverging
lens.

29
 UNIT 2 Simple and compound
optical instruments

Number of Lessons: 18
Learner’s book pages 71-122
Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, the learner will be
able to analyse the functioning of simple and compound optical
instruments and determine their magnifying power.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• describe an optical instrument.
• explain the physical features of a human eye.
• describe the image formation by the eye.
• identify the physical features of a simple and compound microscope.
• determine the angular magnification/ magnifying power of a
simple and compound microscopes.
• explain the applications of simple and compound microscopes.
• differentiate between simple and compound microscopes.
• explain the operation of a lens camera and its application.
• explain the operation of a slide projector and its applications.
• identify the physical features of a telescope.
• identify different types of telescopes.
• explain the operation of telescopes.
• differentiate between telescopes and microscopes.
• identify the physical features of prism binoculars.
This unit is to be taught in 18 periods each of 40 minutes.
Evaluation must be done in allocated time.

30
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Introduction to optical instruments and 40 1
angular magnification
2 The human eye 40 1
3 Visual angle 40 1
4 Accommodation of the eye, defects of 40 1
vision and their correction
5 A lens camera 40 1
6 The slide projector 40 1
7 The simple microscope 40 1
8 Simple microscope not in normal 40 1
adjustment
9 compound microscope 40 1
10 Compound microscope not in normal 40 1
use
11 Telescopes 40 1
12 Astronomical telescope not in normal 40 1
use
13 Terrestrial telescope 40 1
14 Galileo Galilee, the scientist 40 1
15 Galilean telescope not in normal use 40 1
16 Reflecting telescopes 40 1
17 Cassegrain reflector telescope and coude 40 1
reflector telescope
18 Prism binoculars 40 1
Total 720 18

Introduction
Man has always had interest in exploring what is beyond things he
observes using a naked eye. Optical instruments are very useful, for
example in the study under microscope, lenses are used to magnify
tiny organisms that may not be easily seen by the naked eye, and in
telescope, lenses are used to magnify distant objects like the stars
and moon.

31
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 1. Introduction to optical instruments and angular

magnification
Period 1: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Instruct learners to look around class and view the various objects in
the class room.

Let each learner write down what he/she has seen

Step 2: Take the learners outside class and instruct them to observe distant
objects around the school and let each learner write down what he/
she has seen.
Pick some five learners at random to present to class their
observations. Discuss the relevance of their observations.
Step 3: By use of challenging and thought provoking questions guide the
learners to conclude that any device used to aid vision is called an
optical instrument.
Guide the learners to discover that the instruments are categorised
into two;
(i) Simple optical instruments such as a lens camera, a slide
projector and a simple microscope. These use only one lens to
form an image of an object.
(ii) Compound optical instruments which include compound
microscope, telescopes and prism binoculars. These use a
combination of lenses and prisms to form images of objects.
Step 4: Magnifying power or angular magnification of an optical instrument
Guide the learners to explain the concept of magnifying power of an
optical instrument using the visual angles, Magnifying power.
Using leading questions, guide the learners to explain how the
instruments use visual angles to view objects in a detailed manner.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, balance the number of boys and girls in each group).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.

32
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Help them in selecting their group leaders.

Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 2: The human eye

Period 2: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Group the learners in groups of two and guide them to do activity 2
in the learner’s book page 73.
Step 2: Display a chart in class showing the parts of the eye.

33
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

By use of thought provoking and challenging questions guide the

learners to explain the functions of each part of the eye as described
in their book.
Step 3: Guide to the learners, using the knowledge of lenses, how an image
is formed in the eye.

Lesson 3: Visual angle

Period 3: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Visual angle
Take the learners outside class to observe some distant plantation (It
may be a forest or a banana plantation).
Ask them to take note of the heights of the objects observed.
Guide the learners to discover that visual angle is the angle the top
of an object makes with the axis of the lens in the eye. Demonstrate
how the size of the image depends on the visual angle.
Step 2: Put learners in groups of four and let them carry out activity 4 in
learner’s book page 76.

Answer to question in activity 4

The forest appears to have the same height because all the trees
subtend the same angle to the eye and hence their apparent sizes on
the retina are the same.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, balance the number of boys and girls in each group).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
34
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 4: Accommodation of the eye, defects of vision and

their correction
Period 4: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Instruct each learner to hold a book at an arm’s length and then move
it closer to one’s face so that he/she can focus the words clearly
without straining his/her eyes.
Let each learner approximate the distance between his/her eyes and
the book.
Take learners outside class to look at the objects far from their school.
Ask the learners to look at the farthest objects they can possibly see.
Ask each learner to write down the farthest object seen.
Pick four learners at random and ask each one of them to give a
report.

35
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Through the use of guided questions lead the learners to discover that
people with normal vision can focus both near and distant objects.
Lead them to conclude that this ability of the eye to see near and
distant objects is called accommodation of the eye.
The near point of the eye is the nearest point that can be focused by
the unaided eye. It is a closest distance that the ‘normal’ human eye
can observe clearly; without any strain to the eye. It is called the least
distance of distinct vision. The near point of a normal eye is 25cm.
The distance from a distant object to the eye is the far point of the
eye. The far point of the eye is infinity.
Step 2: Ask learners why some people wear eye glasses.
Set the learners to discuss this question in groups of three.
Guide the learners to conclude that those people who put on different
glasses have eye defects.
Step 3: Request each learner to hold a book at an arm’s length and move
the book towards one’s face up to a point where the prints are read
without the eye getting strained.
Ask them try to read the words on a chalkboard a distance far away from
the classroom.
Find out from them if they are able to see clearly both near and
distant objects?
Guide the learners to conclude that people with normal vision can
clearly see near and distant objects. Those who clearly see near
objects but cannot see distant objects are said to be short sighted.
Those who see only distant objects are said to be long sighted.
Using ray diagrams, guide the learners to discuss the different types
of defects; short sightedness, long sightedness, astigmatism and
Presbyopia.
Step 4: Provide learners with lens spectacles; ones that are convex and the
others concave.
Allow the learners touch the different spectacles and feel the
difference.

36
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Using guided questions lead the learners to discover which kind of

defects the spectacles are used to correct.
Guide the learners to draw ray diagrams for the formation of images
by the spectacles.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

37
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 5: A lens camera

Period 5: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide the learners with a manila paper and wax paper. Guide the
learners to do activity 10 in learner’s book pages 82.
Ask the learners to describe in their own words the image they have
observed? Is it upside down or right side up. Is it smaller or larger
than the actual object? What type of image is it?
Using thought provoking questions guide the learners to discover
that the device they have made is actually a pinhole camera.
Step 2: Ask the learners which instrument was used by person who took
their photos as they were to register for the national examination.
Ask the learners what they nowadays use to take photographs.
Guide the learners, with the help of leading questions, to conclude
that they actually use a lens camera to take pictures.
Step 3: Using the box in step 1, let the learners carry out activity 12 on page
83 in learner’s book.
Step 4: Try to get a camera and bring to the learners to see and touch. You
may even take their photos.
Explain to the learners its mode of operation. Talk about the functions
of the parts; The diaphragm, shutter, film, and the lens.
Step 5: Image formation by a lens camera.
Provide the learners with a convex lens and guide them to do activity
13 in the learner’s book page 84. Ask the learners to explain and
in their own words the type of angle formed. The image formed
is inverted, smaller than the object and coloured if the object is
coloured.
Step 6: In groups of four, set the learners discuss the differences between the
lens camera and the human eye.

38
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners can be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

39
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 6: The slide projector

Period 6: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners if they have ever watched a cinema. Ask them if the
pictures were large or small.
Step 2: If possible let the learners have access to the projector, let them touch
and guide them to operate it.
By using leading questions, guide the learners to describe a projector.
It is a device used to throw on a screen a magnified image of a film or
a transparent slide. It produces a magnified real image of an object.
With the help of challenging and thought provoking questions
lead the learners to discover how it operates, its main parts; the
illumination system, projection lens and the screen.
Step 3: Together with the learners, work through the example on page 88 in
learner’s book.
Set the learners work through the exercise on page 89 in the learner’s
book.
Step 3: Provide the learners with 2 convex lenses, a slide, a white
sheet of paper, a torch and guide them to carry out activity 17 in the
learner’s book page 89.

Lesson Flow
Set the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.

40
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 7: The simple microscope

Period 7: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Provide the learners with a hand lens and instruct them to do activities
18 and 19 in the learner’s book page 89 and 90.
Guide the learners to explain that a magnifying glass consists of a
thin converging lens and it is used to view very small organisms or
parts of organisms which cannot be easily seen by the naked eye.
It forms a virtual, upright, magnified image of an object placed
between the lens and its principal focus.
Step 2: Guide the learners to draw a ray diagram depicting the formation of
an image by a simple microscope
Give learners instructions in activity 21 on page 91.
Step 3: Simple microscope in normal adjustment:

41
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Using the same hand lens, let the learners carry out activity 22 in the
learner’s book page 92.
Using guided questions lead the learners to explain when the
microscope can be in normal adjustment and when it is not in normal
adjustment. In normal adjustment, the final image is at the near
point while when it is not in normal adjustment, the final image is at
infinity.
Step 4: Guide the learners to derive expressions for angular magnification of
a simple microscope when in normal adjustment.
Step 5: Together with the learners, work through the example on page 95 in
learner’s book.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;

42
 Simple and compound optical instruments

• by asking them oral questions.

• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 8: Simple microscope not in normal adjustment

Period 8: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Using the previous knowledge in lesson 7, draw a ray diagram and
guide the learners to derive an expression for the magnifying power
of a simple microscope when not in normal adjustment.
Step 2: Set the learners work through the exercise on page 95 in learner’s
book.
Step 3: Uses of a compound microscope.
Divide the learners into groups of four and let them carry out group
activities 24 and 25 on page 96 in the learner’s book. Let each group
choose a leader to present their findings.
Step 4: Provide learners with learner’s books and let them open on page 96,
observe what is being done in activity 26.
Consolidate the learners’ responses and lead them to mention the
uses of a magnifying glass.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.

43
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage

them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 9: Compound microscope

Period 9: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask the learners to describe, each in his/her own words, a compound
microscope.
Provide the learners with two lenses of focal lengths 5cm and 10cm
together with a half metre ruler and some plasticine.
Let the learners arrange the apparatus as in activity 29 on page 98 in
learner’s book.

44
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Let the learners observe some objects using the above arrangement.
Using guided and thought provoking questions lead the learners to
discover that by arranging the lenses as above, they have actually
made a compound microscope. A compound microscope is used to
view very small organisms that cannot be seen using our naked eyes
for example micro organisms.
Step 2: Formation of image in a compound microscope:
Using a ray diagram, guide the learners to discover how the
microscope forms an image.
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses of short focal
lengths referred to as the objective and the eye piece. The objective
is nearest to the object and the eye piece is nearest to the eye of the
observer.
The object to be viewed is placed just outside the focal point (at
a distance just greater than the focal length) of the objective lens.
This objective lens forms a real, magnified, inverted image at a point
inside the principal focus of the eye piece. This image acts as an
object for the eye piece and it produces a magnified virtual image.
So the viewer, looking through the eye piece sees a magnified virtual
image of a picture formed by the objective i. e of the real image.
Step 3: Compound microscope in normal adjustment:
Provide learners with a compound microscope and a bird’s feather
and guide the learners to do activity 30 in the learner’s book, page
100.
Guide the learners to conclude that by observing clearly without
straining the eyes, a compound microscope is in normal adjustment.
The compound microscope is in normal adjustment when the final
image is formed at the near point (least distance of distinct vision),
D of the eye.
Guide the learners to draw a ray diagram for the formation of an
image of a compound microscope when in normal adjustment(use)
and derive together with the learners an expression for its angular
magnification.

45
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 4: Provide learners with Microscope, Jar of pond water, Slide, Cover
slip, Dropper and instruct them to do activity 31 page 104.

Lesson 10: Compound microscope not in normal use

Period 10: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Using the knowledge in lesson 9 and by use of leading questions
guide the learners to discover that the microscope is not in normal
adjustment if the final image is formed at infinity.
Step 2: Using a ray diagram, guide the learners to derive an expression for
the angular magnification of the microscope not in normal use.
Step 3: Guide the learners and work out the example on page 104 in the
learner’s book.

Lesson 11: Telescopes

Period 11: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners why they are not able to see the planets during the night.
Ask them if they have ever heard of an instrument called a telescope.
Guide the learners to explain why our eyes cannot be able to see
distant objects such as planets. Telescopes are instruments used to
view distant objects such as stars and other heavenly bodies. Distant
objects are difficult to see because light from them has spread out
by the time it reaches the eyes, and since our eyes are too small to
gather much light.
There are two kinds of telescopes; refracting telescopes and reflecting
telescopes.
Step 2: Refracting telescopes:
Group the learners and provide each group with a convex lens of
focal length 5cm and another of focal length of 20cm.
Guide them to carry out activity 33 in learner’s book page 106.
By use of thought provoking and guided questions lead the
learners to discover that the above lens combination is a refracting
telescope. Guide them to conclude that it is called a refracting

46
 Simple and compound optical instruments

telescope because it forms an image of the object by refracting light.

Therefore, Refracting telescopes use lenses and they form images by
refraction of light. There are different types of refracting telescopes;
an astronomical telescope, the terrestrial telescope and the Galilean
telescope.
Ask the learners to explain in their own words some telescope is
named an astronomical telescope. It is called so because it is the one
commonly used by astronomers.
Astronomical telescope in normal adjustment:
Provide to each of the groups formed above with a convex lens of
focal length 5cm and another of focal length 20cm.
Let the learners carry out activity 34 in learner’s book page 105.
Guide the learners to discover that when the eyes are relaxed,
the image is at infinity and the telescope is in normal adjustment.
Therefore, an astronomical telescope is in normal adjustment when
the final image is formed at infinity.
Step 3: Guide the learners to derive an expression for magnifying power of
an astronomical telescope using a ray diagram.
Step 4: Together with your students, work through the example on page 109.
Set the learners to work through the exercise on page 110 learners’
books.

Lesson 12: Astronomical telescope not in normal use

Period 12: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Arrange the learners into groups of four and let them carry out
activity 35 in learner’s book page 109.
Guide the learners to discover that for a telescope not in normal
adjustment, the image is seen in detail but the telescope is not in
normal adjustment (use) because the eyes are strained.
Step 2: Guide the learners to derive an expression for angular magnification
for an astronomical telescope not in normal use.

47
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 13: Terrestrial telescope

Period 13: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Group the learners and provide each group with three convex lenses
of focal lengths 5cm, 10cm and 20cm.
Instruct them to carry out activity 36 on page 111 in the learner’s
book using the knowledge of activity 30.
Step 2: By the use of thought provoking and guided questions lead the
learners to discover that what they have made is a terrestrial telescope.
An astronomical telescope produces an inverted image, so it is not
suitable for viewing objects on the earth. It is suitable for viewing
stars and other heavenly bodies. A terrestrial telescope provides an
erect image and this makes it suitable to view objectives on the earth.
The third lens between the objective and eyepiece is the erecting
lens. The angular magnification of the telescope is similar to that of
the astronomical telescope.
Step 3: In groups of four, let the learners discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of a terrestrial telescope over an astronomical
telescope.
The advantage a terrestrial telescope has over an astronomical
telescope is that it produces an upright image.
However, the telescope is so long. It is much longer than other kinds
of refracting telescopes. Its length is given by fo +fe +4f.
The erecting lens also reduces the intensity of light emerging through
the eye piece which makes the final image faint.

Lesson 14: Galileo Galilee, the scientist

Period 14: (40 Minutes)
Ask the learners if they have ever heard of a scientist named Galileo
Galilee.
Step 1: If some have ever heard of this scientist, ask them to explain what he
is known for?

48
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Guide them to recognise that Galileo was a great scientist well known
for his discoveries in astronomy. He made a telescope and gave it his
name Galilean telescope.
Step 2: Group the learners and provide each group with a concave lens of
focal length and a convex lens of focal length 20cm and guide them
to carry out activity 39 in the learner’s book page 113.
By use of guided questions lead the learners to discover that the
above lens combination is a Galilean telescope. A Galilean telescope
consists of an objective lens which is a convex lens of long focal
length and an eye piece which is a concave lens of short focal length.
Step 3: Galilean telescope in normal adjustment.
Guide the learners to derive expressions for angular magnification
for a Galilean telescope in normal.
Guide them to conclude that a Galilean telescope has a small field of
view and its eye ring is virtual (since the eye piece is concave) that
is, it is between the lenses and so inaccessible to the eye.

Lesson 15: Galilean telescope not in normal use

Period 15: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask the learners to describe when we say that a Galilean telescope is
not in normal use.
Step 2: Guide the learners to derive an expression for the angular
magnification of the telescope when not in normal use.
Step 3: Arrange the learners in groups of five and let each group carry out
activity 40 in the learner’s book page 115.
Guide the learners with the help of challenging and thought provoking
questions to conclude that unlike in an astronomical telescope where
the final image is inverted, the final image formed in a Galilean
telescope is erect. The telescope is also shorter than astronomical
telescope and hence portable. The distance between the lenses is
given by f0–fe.

49
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 16: Reflecting telescopes

Period 16: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Introduction
Locate a nearby place where there is a communications satellite dish
or a digital television dish and take your learners to the place and let
them observe the dish. To describe the possible uses of the dish that
they are looking at.
From their responses, lead them to develop conclusions that reflecting
telescopes use concave dishes to focus distant objects. Reflecting
telescopes consist of a large concave mirror of long focal length
as their objective. There are three kinds of reflector telescopes, all
named after their inventors, the Newtonian reflecting telescope,
Cassegrain reflector telescope and Coude reflector telescope.
Step 2: Using a ray diagram, ask your learners to explain how Newtonian
reflecting telescope works.
Step 3: By using guided questions, lead the learners to conclude that the
angular magnification for the telescope is similar to that of an
astronomical telescope.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs during group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.

50
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing

on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 17: Cassegrain reflector telescope and Coude reflector

telescope
Period 17: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Using a ray diagram, ask your learners to describe the structure and
mode of operation of a Cassegrain reflector telescope.
Step 2: With the help of guided and thought provoking questions lead the
learners to explain how the Newtonian telescope and Cassegrain
reflector telescope are combined to make a Coude reflector telescope.
Guide the learners to conclude that a combination is better in a way
that the plane and convex mirrors used in reflecting telescopes are
used to bring the light to a more convenient focus where the image
can be photographed and magnified several times by the eye piece
for observation.
Step 3: Arrange the learners in groups of five and set each group to carefully
study the figures in the learner’s book page 116, 117 and 118.
Let the group leaders present the views of their respective groups.

51
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Using various questioning techniques guide the learners to

consolidate their responses into:
The reflecting telescopes are free from chromatic aberration since no
refraction occurs.
The image formed is brighter than in refracting telescopes where
there is some loss of light during refraction at the lens surfaces.
Spherical aberration can be eliminated by using a parabolic mirror
instead of a spherical mirror as an objective.
They have a power because of higher ability to distinguish two
closely related objects because of the large diameter of the parabolic
mirror. We say that they have a high resolving power.
They are easier to construct since only one surface requires to be
grounded.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs during group making.
Encourage them also participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

52
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 18: Prism binoculars

Period 18: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask the learners to mention the devices that tourists and scientists
used in order to observe the behaviour of distant animals in the game
parks.
Using the learners’ responses tourists and scientists use prism
binoculars to focus on the birds and other wild life of interest in the
game parks.
Step 2: Ask learners to state some applications of total internal reflection.
Using leading and thought provoking questions build from their
responses the structure and mode of operation of prism binoculars.
Use a ray diagram to explain the formation of an image by a prism
binocular.
Step 3: In groups of three, let the learners discuss why prisms are preferred
to plane mirrors in prism binoculars.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity 40 in learner’s book
page 115 (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls should
be balaanced).

53
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Assign the learners in groups (select any number of learners

depending on the size of the class) make sure that they work in
harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs during group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

54
 Simple and compound optical instruments

Answers for exercises

1. The image must be on the same side of the lens as the distant object
(hence the image is virtual, di = −80 cm ), and nearer to the lens than
the object (hence diverging or negative lenses are indicated). As the
1
object is at a great distance, p is very large and is practically zero.
p
1 1 1 1 1 1
Then + = ⇔ + = ⇔ q = f = −80 cm diverging lens
p q f 0 q f

1 1
And Power in diopters P = = = −1.3 D
f −0.80
2. The difference between linear magnification and magnifying power
should be noted. M is the ratio of the apparent sizes of image and
object and involves a comparison of visual angles; m is the ratio of
the actual sizes of image and object. They do not necessarily have the
same value but in some cases they do. Magnifying power is m = 5.0
and magnification is γ = 6.0
3. (a) The final image is at infinity, the image formed by object is at
focal point of eyepiece pe = f e = 20 mm

The image distance q0 = l − pe = 16 − 20 = −4 mm

qo f o −4 × 20 10
The object is at po = = = = 3.3 mm
qo − f o −4 − 20 3

β h h
(b) Magnification: m = where β = 0 and α =
α pe N

β ho N h N q N −4 ×10 25
m= = × = ( o )( ) = (− 0 )( ) = (− )( ) = 1.5
α pe h h pe p pe 10 20
As m > 0 the image is erect relative to the object. m > 1 the
image is magnified.

f
4. (a) using equation d = we find that the diameter ranges from
f stop
200 200
d1 = = 71 mm to d 2 = = 9.1 mm
2.8 22

55
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

(b) The intensity of the light reaching the film is proportional to

d 2 . Since f is the same in each case, we conclude that the
f2
intensity in this case is proportional to the square of the aperture
diameter.
t1 d N t 71 22
= ( 1 ) 2 = ( 2 ) 2 ⇔ 1 = ( ) 2 = ( ) 2 = 62
t2 d2 N1 t2 9.1 2.8

1
If the correct exposure time at f 2.8 is s then the exposure at
1000
1 1
f 22 is t1 = 62 × = s to compensate for the lower intensity.
1000 6
In general, the smaller the aperture and the larger the f stop , the
longer the required exposure. Nevertheless, many photographers
prefer to use small apertures so that only the central part of the lens
is used to make the image. This minimizes aberrations that occur
near the edges of the lens and gives the sharpest possible image.

f 10
5. (a) Using equation N = = =5
d 2.0
d2
(b) The intensity of the light reaching the film is proportional to 2
f
Since f is the same in each case, we conclude that the intensity in
this case is proportional to the square of the aperture diameter.

d1 2 f d 9 81
( ) = ( 6 )2 ⇔ ( 1 )2 = ( )2 =
d2 f5 d2 6 36

1
If the correct exposure time at f 6 is s then the exposure at
90
81 1 1
f5 is t = × = s to compensate for the lower intensity.
36 90 40

56
UNIT 3 Moments and Equilibrium of
Bodies

Number of Lessons: 19
Learner’s book pages 125-154
Key unit competence: To be able to explain the principle of moments
and apply it to the equilibrium of a body.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• distinguish a vector and a scalar quantity.
• analyse the forces that keep a body in equilibrium.
• manipulate the resultant force as a vector sum.
• analyse free body diagrams.
• analyse diagrams of coplanar forces.
• locate the Centre of gravity of a flat object.
• solve problems involving vectors and scalars.
• solving problems involving moments and equilibrium of bodies.
• identify the application of vectors and scalars in life.
• recognise the various applications of the principle of moments
on daily activities.
• describe areas of application of equilibria of forces in life.

This unit will be taught in 19 lessons, each of 40minutes.

Evaluation will be carried out during allocated time.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Force as a vector 80 2

2 Moment of force about a point 120 3

(Principle of moments)
3 Types of equilibrium 40 2

4 Conditions for equilibrium of a body 40 1

about an axis.
5 Stevinus proof 40 1

6 Forces in equilibrium 80 2

7 Free body diagrams 40 1

8 Couples and torques 80 2

9 Equilibrium of coplanar forces 80 2

10 Archimedes principle of lever 80 2

11 Equilibrium of moment of forces 120 2

(Center of gravity and total weight)
Total 760 19

Lesson 1: Scalar and Vector quantities & Force as a vector

Period 1: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Ask them if
there is anything they know about this unit.
Leading and thought provoking questions, develop the concepts of
scalar and vector quantities using real life examples. Time, distance
travelled by a learner from home to school, Amount of money spent
per day etc.
Guide the learners to discover that Force is a vector.
Instruct the learners to list down examples of scalar quantities and
vector quantities.

58
 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 1 on page126 in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each
group should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically and they should
always put units.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work through the activities on page 126-128
(Activity 2 page 126 and Quick check page 126).
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Solutions to group work on page 128-129

Question Answer
1 C
2 B
3 B
4 D

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Question Answer
5 A
6 C
7 C
8 B
9 C
10 D

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 2: Moment of force about a point and principle of

moments
Period 2: (120 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Ask them if
there is anything they know about this part.
Using challenging and thought provoking questions guide the learners
to define the moment of force about a point and its applications in
real life.
By use of leading questions lead the learners to recognise the
importnce of these concepts in physics.
Request the learners to list down examples of the application of the
concept in real life.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 4 on page 129 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in
each group should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.

60
 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing

the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on pages 126 - 131.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholasti
c materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
Torque is the product of force and perpendicular distance
We define the torque t acting on the body from: t = F × d × sinα. The
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the axis
of rotation is called the moment arm of the force.
• The S.I unit of torque is Newton-meter [Nm] or meter-newton
[nM]
Couple of force
Couple is defined as a pair of forces acting on a body which are equal
in magnitude and which are anti-parallel.
A couple C consists of two equal and opposite parallel forces whose
lines of action do not coincide. It always tends to change (Refer to
learner’s book for explanation on forces pages 131)
Examples include the handle of a bicycle.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Note
With learners, investigate how forces (couple of force) brings about
rotation using a bicycle

Parallelogram of forces
Refer to Learner’s book 4 for notes and explanations on Pages 132-
133.

Equilibrium of coplanar forces

The following points will help learners to solve problems that involve
a body acted on by three co-planar forces.
a) The line of action of three forces must all pass through the same
point.
b) The principle of moments: The sum of all clock-wise moments
about any point must have the same magnitude as the sum of all
anti-clock wise moments about the same point
Center of gravity
The center of gravity is the average location of the weight of an
object. Refer to learner’s book 4 page 136.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 3: Types of equilibrium

Period 3: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Review their
previous knowledge of equilibrium by use of leading questions.
Follow the flow of content from page 137 to 139 in learner’s book,
and guide the learners to define Equilibrium of bodies.
Try to help learners to discover the types of Equilibrium
Help these learners to discuss these types i.e.
• stable equilibrium

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 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

• unstable equilibrium
• neutral equilibrium
Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 8 on page 137 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in
each group should be balanced).
• Arrange learners in groups (select any number of learners
depending on the size of the class) make sure that they work in
harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
As the lesson progresses, look at the following key points as they
will help learners to understand the concept;

Types of equilibrium
There are three types of Equilibrium namely;
• Stable
• Unstable and
• Neutral Equilibrium

Lesson 4: Conditions for a body to be stable

Period 4: (40 Minutes)
1.   The object’s base is broad.
2.   The Centre of gravity is as low as possible.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

3.   The vertical line drawn from the Centre of gravity should fall
within the base. Lowering the Centre of gravity of an object is
important for stability.
Together with learners perform the Activity below

Activity
Help the learners to perform the activity below

Requirements
• A log of wood
• A bottle
• A table
• A knife edge made of wood or A triangular glass prism
• A rectangular wooden block
Learner’s activity
Aim: To find out the effect of application of force onto the equilibrium
on the stability of a body
• Displace the desk. What happens when you withdraw the force
you applied?
• Place a bottle on a table so that it rests on its horizontal surface.
Displace or roll it. What happens?
• Place a knife edge on a table resting on its tip. Give it a small
displacement. What happens to it?
• From the observations made, how do you conclude?
Guide the learners in performing the experiment and lead them to
develop viable conclusions.

Possible deductions
• The desk returns to its original position
• The bottle rolls when displaced
• The knife edge falls in new position
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activity on page 139.
• check and mark work of each learner.
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 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Lesson 5: Stevinus proof

Period 5: (40 Minutes)
Remember that its the first time for learners to study this concept.
So care must be taken so that learners know and apply the proof.
Using the introduction on pages 144 and 145 in learner’s book, help
learners to develop the proof and its applications.
Ask your learners to list down applications of the law of equilibrium.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 10 on page 145 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, mix boys and girls).
• Arrange learners in groups (select any number of learners
depending on the size of the class) make sure that they work in
harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
This is an Extract of Learner’s Book, page 144
Stevin’s proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane, known
as the “Epitaph of Stevinus”.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

He derived the condition for the balance

of forces on inclined planes using a
T diagram with a “wreath” containing
D
R E evenly spaced round masses resting
B
Q on the planes of a triangular prism
P F (see the illustration on the figure.
S V
A C
G
He concluded that the weights required
O
were proportional to the lengths of the
H sides on which they rested assuming
N
the third side was horizontal and that
M
I
the effect of a weight was reduced in
L
K a similar manner.

Stevenus proof diagram

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on pages 145 and 146.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 6: Forces in equilibrium

Period 6: (80 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Review
learners previous knowledge by use of guided questions and thought
provoking questions.
Using the introductory work on page 143 in learner’s book, try to
explain the effects of forces that are in equilibrium citing examples.
Let the learners give you other examples depending how they are
understanding the concept.

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 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically and they should
always put units.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 126 (Activity
2 and Quick check page 126).
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
The following points will help learners to solve problems that involve
a body acted on by three co-planar forces.
(a) The line of action of forces must all pass through the
same point.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

(b) The principle of moments: The sum of all clock-

wise moments about any point must have the same
magnitude as the sum of all anti-clock wise moments
about the same point.
For the exercises and Notes check in learner’s book Page 148.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 7: Free body diagrams, couples & coplanar forces

Period 7: (40 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Review the
learners’ knowledge by use of challenging and leading questions.
Using the introductory work on page 147 in learner’s book, together
with your learners draw a free body diagram.
Set the learners to practise drawing free body diagrams.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourge
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

68
 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 129 - 139.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
A door knob is located as far as possible from the hinge line for a
good reason.
If you want to open a heavy door you must certainly apply a force,
that done, where you apply that force and in what direction you push
are very important.

The figure 3.1 on page 130 shows a force F acting on a body that is
free to rotate about an axis. The force
 is applied at the point Pwhose
position is defined by the vector d . The direction of F and d make
an angle α with each other.
We define the torque t acting on the body from:
t = F× d×sin α (Extracted from Learner’s Book, page 129)
The perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the
axis of rotation is called the moment arm of the force.
The S. I unit of torque is Newton-metre [Nm] or metre-newton [Mn]

Lesson 8: Couple of force

Period 8: (80 Minutes)
• Use the idea of married couple to explain the concept of couple
of forces.
• Guide learners to work out the activity 5.
In physics a couple C consists of two equal and opposite parallel
forces whose lines of action do not coincide. It always tends to
change rotation.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Resultant of coplanar forces

Refer to the notes in the learner’s book pages 131.

Parallelogram of forces
A force is a vector quantity. So it can be represented in size and

direction by a straight
 line drawn to scale. The sum or resultant R
of two forces F1 and F2 can be added by one of two vector methods.
Check on pages 132 to 133.

Resolved components
Therefore, when solving daily problems, it is often helpful to replace
one force by a combination of two forces in particular directions.
These directions are usually perpendicular to each other.
Their vector sum must is equivalent to the given force. If this
condition is fulfilled, we say that the force has been resolved into
components.
A simple geometrical construction provides the magnitudes of the
components: We can draw two lines from the end of the given force
vector parallel to the given directions. In this way, we get the so-
called parallelogram of forces. The magnitudes of the components
now can be read off from the sides of this parallelogram.
For the exercises and notes check in learner’s book Page 132-133.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4).

Lesson 9: Equilibrium of coplanar forces

Period 9: (80 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level.
Using leading questions, review the learners knowledge of coplanar
forces.
Using the introductory work on page 134-145 in learner’s book,
together with the learners draw a free body diagram (Refer to page
135 in learner’s book).

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 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Set the learners to practise drawing free body diagrams and use them
in problem solving.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourge
them also participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on pages 134 - 139.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
If a body is at rest, then, the net force is zero.
Therefore, if the resultant forces acting on a body is zero, the body is
stationary and said to be in equilibrium.
The following pointers will help learners to solve problems that
involve a body being acted on by three co-planar forces.
The line of action of the three forces must all pass through the same
point.
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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

The principle of moments: The sum of all clock-wise moments about

any point must have the same magnitude as the sum of all anti-clock
wise moments about the same point

Set the learners to work through exercises in learner’s book pages 149,
151-154.
References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Lesson 10: Archimedes and the principles of the lever

Period 10: ( 80 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Review the
learners knowledge of levers and archimedes principle on levers
using leading questions.
Using the introductory work on page 145 in learner’s book, set the
learners to continue practising the drawing of free body diagrams
(Refer to page 145 in learner’s book).

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

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 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 146.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
Building up from the earliest remaining writings regarding levers
date from the 3rd century BC and were provided by Archimedes.
“Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the Earth with it” is a
remark of Archimedes who formally stated the correct mathematical
principle of lever
For the exercises and Notes and Homework check in learner’s book
Page 145-149.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Lesson 11: Equilibrium of moments of force and centre of

gravity
Period 11: (120 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Review the
learners’ knowledge of moments of a force and centre of gravity
using guided questions.
Using the introductory work on page 137 in learner’s book, together
with the learners, draw a free body diagram.
Set your learners to practise drawing free body diagrams so as to
understand the concept.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 146.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
A lever is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to
a fixed point. The lever operates by applying forces at different
distances from the fulcrum, or a pivot.
References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4).

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 Moments and Equilibrium of Bodies

Answers for exercises

1. Let and be the components of the equilibrant and let act at a
distance from the left edge, with distance measured in units of L.
∑F x = 0 yields Fx − 80 cos 30 = 0 ⇔ Fx = 69.3 N .

∑F y = 0 yields (not forgetting the weight of the bar):

Fy + 50 + 80 cos 30 − 60 − 40 = 0 ⇔ Fy = 80 N
Taking moments about the left edge, resolving the 80 N force into
horizontal and vertical components, and noting that components of
forces on the bar have zero moment arm, ∑τ = 0 yields
( 0.2 )( 50 ) + ( x )(80 ) ( sin 300 ) − ( 0.8)( 70 ) − ( 0.51)( 40 ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0.325 m
The magnitude and the direction of are 106 N at 490 above positive
horizontal.
2. Since rod is homogeneous we can take weight of it at the center.

Equal potential energies; GA × 4h = GB × h ⇔ GB = 4GA

Moment of the system;
3GA + 1G = 1GB ⇔ 3GA + G = 4GA ⇔ GA = G
3. The person is in equilibrium, and so both the net torque and net force
must be zero. From the body diagram, calculate the net torque about
the center of gravity, with counterclockwise torque as positive.

Use that calculation to find the location of the center of gravity, a

distance x from the feet.
FA mA 35.1
∑τ = F x − F ( L − x) = 0 ⇔ x = F
B A
+ F
L=
m + m
L=
3.51 + 31.6
×1.72 = 9.05 ×10−1 m
A B A B

The center of gravity is about 90.5 cm from the feet.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

4 A.
a. The upward force n must balance all the downward forces
n = m f g + md g + Mg
b. Principle of moment about an axis:
l ml
m f gd − md g ( ) = 0 ⇒ d = d
2 2m f

B. Principle of moment:
(45 − 35)1.8
45 ×1.8 = 35 ×1.8 + 25 x ⇔ x = = 0.72 m
25

76
UNIT 4 Work, Energy and Power

Learner’s book pages 157-193

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit the learners should be
able to evaluate relationship between work energy and power.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• explain the concept of mass and energy
• evaluate quantitatively work, energy and power
• derive formulas of work energy and power
• describe and explain the conservation of energy in the universe
Others in the curriculum page 29
This unit is to be taught in 19 lessons, each of 40minutes
Evaluation must be carried out within the allocated time.

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Concept of work energy and power 80 2

2 Mathematical expression of PE, KE, work 80 2

and power
3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy& 120 3
Work energy theorem
4 Strain Energy, Gravitational Potential 120 3
Energy, power and Motion
5 Work done in Deforming a material, 120 3
Collision and Impulse
6 Conservation of linear momentum, 160 4
Interractions and collision
7 Problems Related to Energy conservation 80 2

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 1: Concept of work, energy and power

Period 1: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Remember that learners studied this unit in O’level. Review the
learners’ knowledge of the concepts of work, power and energy by
use of leading and thought provoking questions.
Make sure that learners’ contributions are respected. Extract key
points and should be noted in their books.
Using the introduction on page 157 in learner’s book, guide the
learners to describe the terms work, energy and power.
Work is done when a force moves its point of application along
the direction of its action.
From the formula, Work is the product of the component of the
force in the direction of the motion and displacement in that
direction.
That is: W = F × d × cosθ
Request the learners to list down examples of work, energy.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 4 on page 161 in learner’s
book.
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourge
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.

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 Work, Energy and Power

• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas

basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 158-160.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content/points you should never forget

The S.I unit of work is Joule (J)
A Joule is the work done by a force of 1N when its application
point moves through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of
force.

Work is the scalar although force and displacement are both vectors.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 2: Mathematical expression of potential energy kinetic

energy and power
Period 2: (80 Minutes)
Remember that learners studied this concept in O’level and even
in previous lesson. Using thought provoking questions, review the
learners’ knowledge of potential and kinetic energy.
Together with the learners derive the equation for Kinetic Energy
1
K.E = m vmѴ2 2 where m is the mass and Ѵ is Velocity of the body.
2
Potential Energy P.E = mgh
Ask your learners to show that power is the rate of doing work.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Work done
Guide the learners to discover that Power =
time
Using guided questions lead the learners to discover the importance
of studying these concepts in physics.
Request the learners to list down different examples of potential
energy.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 5 on page 162 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in
each group should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Guide the learners to work through the exercises on page 168 in the
learner’s book.

Note
While doing this exercise try to move around in case of any assistance
to the learners. Help them mark and make corrections for the work.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on pages 164-166.
• check and mark work of each learner.
• giving exercises and tests.

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 Work, Energy and Power

The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular

method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
For notes and more questions use learner’s book page 167-168.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 3: Conservation of mechanical energy and work energy

theorem
Period 3: (120 Minutes)

Introduction
Using challenging and thought provoking questions, review the
previous lesson. Build on this to introduce the concept of work
energy theorem and conservation of mechanical enery.
Theorem: “The net work done on an object is equal to its change
in kinetic energy”
This is known as the work-energy theorem.
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy can be stated
as follows: “The total amount of mechanical energy of an isolated
body is a constant
Set the learners to read the content on page 168-169 in learner’s book.
Using thought provoking questions guide the learners to interpret the
information read.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 8 on page 170 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in
each group should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.

81
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.

Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 174.
• check and mark work of each learner.

Note: For other graphs and Equations, check in the learner’s book 4
and other books available in our library.
Lesson 4: Strain energy, gravitational p. e, power and motion
Period 4: (120 Minutes)
Using guided and thought provoking questions lead the learners to
define strain energy, gravitational potential energy and power.
Lead your learners to discover why they are studying this concept
in physics.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out activity 11 on page 176 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in
each group should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.

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• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing

the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the exercise on page 175.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Note for other information and Equations check in the books that are
available in your library.
Lesson 5: Work done in deforming materials, collision and
impulse
Period 5: (120 Minutes)
Review the previous lesson with the help of challenging and leading
questions.
Considering the figure extracted from learner’s book page 166.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Equilibrium position


F

On a spring on which a force F is exerted producing an extension of
length x. According to the Hooke’s law:
F = kx where k >0 is the constant depending on the string
1 2
The potential energy stored is p.e = kx
2
For more information see page 164 in learner’s book 4

About impulse
The impulse is equal to the total change of momentum.
For more information see page 176-178 in the learner’s book 4.

Collision
We define collision as an interaction between bodies in which the
time intervals during which the bodies interaction is small relative to
the time for which we can observe them

There are two types of collisions

• Elastic collision
• Inelastic collision
Explanations and formulas are in learner’s book.
Make learners to work out different activities under your guidance.
Let the learners participate in deriving these equations.

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 Work, Energy and Power

Guidance while teaching

• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically and they should
always put units (SI Units).

Extra content
Check in learner’s book page 180 to 185.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 180 to 185.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 6: Conservation of linear momentum

Period 6: (160 Minutes)
Using leading questions review the concepts of momentum and
linear momentum.
Momentum is “The product of body’s mass and its velocity”
Use challenging and thought provoking questions to guide the
learners to define the principal of conservation of linear momentum
This is:
When two or more bodies collide the total momentum is constant.
For more information about collisions, check in learner’s book
from page 174 to 185.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
For more information (Notes and exercises check in learner’s book
pages 174 to 185.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.

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 Work, Energy and Power

• making learners to work out the activities on page 176.

• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Lesson 7: Problems related to energy conservation

Period 7: (80 Minutes)
Review the previous lessons using challenging questions.
Make sure learner’s suggestions are clarified and written in their
books.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced.
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners
to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• check and mark work of each learner.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular

method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
You can use books in the library for more research or obtain
information from the Internet.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Answers for exercises

1. The boat is moving with v = 4.2 m / s to the left, in the direction
opposite the motion of the boater
2. Using Law of conservation:
m p v p + mc vc = (m p + mc )v ⇔ v p = −3.6 m / s or 3.6 m/s to the left

3. Conservation of momentum:

m2u2 900 × 20
m2u2 = (m1 + m2 )v ⇔ v = = = 6.67 m / s
m1 + m2 1800 + 900
4. a. Before collision: Total momentum is
pi = (0.4×5) + (0.2×2) = 24 N/s
After collision, Total momentum is
pf = (0.4×3) + (0.2×6) = 24 N/s
So we conclude that momentum is conserved

1 1
b. Before collision, K = m S u S2 + m B u B2 = 5.4 J
2 2

1 1
After collision K f = m A v A2 + m B v B2 = 5.4 J
2 2
Since total kinetic energy stays the same before and after
collision, the collision is elastic

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 Work, Energy and Power

5. Using Law of conservation:

m1u1 + m2u2
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2 )v ⇔ v = = 5.6 m / s (in the
m1 + m2
same direction).
6. Using Law of conservation:
m1u1 + m2u2
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2 )v ⇔ v = = −6.99 m / s
m1 + m2
or 6.99 m/s to the west. Make to the east positive:

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 UNIT 5 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric
Circuits

Learner’s book pages 197-237

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit the learner should be
able to analyse complex electric circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• correctically connect electric components in a circuit when
measuring current.
• connect electric components in series and in parallel.
• differentiate between a series and a parallel connection.
• determine characteristics of a series and parallel connection.
• describe the advantages of connection in series and connection
in parallel.
• differentiate between the different types of sources of electric
current.
• understand that to find an electric energy, there is another type of
energy which must be changed in electric energy.
• describe the important characteristics of a generator called emf
and an internal resistance
• develop positive values and attitudes such as curiosity, honesty,
and respect for evidence, perseverance and tolerance of
uncertainty through the study of electric circuit.
• calculate the energy and the power supplied by generators.
• calculate the power dissipated in the generator by Joule’s effect.
• explain how a generator is represented in an electric circuit.
• determine experimentally the emf and internal resistance of a
generator.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

• explain the difference between potential difference and

electromotive force.
• calculate the efficiency of a cell.
• write the Ohm’s law for a circuit having a cell and a resistor.
• connect cells and resistors in series and parallel and to determine
the effective emf and resistance.
• calculate the total emf and equivalent total internal resistance of
a combination in series and in opposition of cells (generators).
• identify some receptors.
• differentiate a receptor and a passive resistor.
• list the main characteristics of a receptor.
• determine the relation between the pd and the back emf at
terminals of a receptor.
• explain the condition of functioning when a circuit has a
generator, and a receptor.
• connect resistors and cells, and to measure the current through
the circuit.
• determine the equivalent resistance in a circuit, resolve simple
circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws.
• apply Kirchhoff’s rules in simple circuits.
• calculate the intensity of the current in simple circuit using
Kirchhoff’s rules.
• Solve problems related to Kirchhoff’s rules.
This unit is to be taught in 20 periods, each of 40 minutes.
Evaluation must be done in allocated time.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Review of elements of simple electric circuits 40 1
and their respective role: Making a simple
electric circuit,
2 Making a series and parallel circuits 80 2
3 Generators and receptors: Generators, sources 40 1
of electric current
4 Electromotive force of a generator, Internal 80 2
resistance of the generator
5 Relationship between the p. d and the emf at 40 1
terminals of a cell of closed circuit
6 Efficiency of a cell, Ohm’s law for a circuit 40 1
having a cell and a resistor.
7 Combination of cells, Combination of cells 80 2
(Interpretation of experimental results)
Combination in series and opposition,
Combination in parallel and mixing a series
and a parallel combination
8 Receptors: Back electromotive force 40 1
Internal resistance, The pd at terminals of a
receptor
9 Generators and receptors: Exercises 160 4

10 Kirchhoff’s rules 80 2
11 Kirchhoff’s rules: Exercises 120 3
Total 800 20

Lesson 1: Review of elements of simple electric circuits and

their respective role
Period 1: (40 Minutes)
• Making a simple electric circuit
Step 1: Divide the learners in groups of 3 or 4 learners each depending on
the number of learners in class.
Step 2: Show learners different materials relevant to the lesson and
recommend learners to follow the procedure and answer different
questions as suggested in the learner’s book.
Step 3: Instruct learners to carry out Activity 1 in the Learner’s book on page 199.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

Step 4: Explain to learners that in this unit, they will learn about electric
circuits, the reason why there is flow of electric current and what
makes an electric circuit. Also the Teacher should let learners explain
and discover that the way of producing light in the bulb is one of the
effects of electric current.
Step 5: In order to introduce the next lesson, show that an electric circuit is
composed of several electric components which can be combined in
different ways.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 2: Making a series and parallel circuits

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Let the Learners do Activity 2 and activity 3 pages 201 and 203 in
the learner’s book.
Step 2: Let them follow step by step the procedure in the learner’s book.
As suggested, they should be answering questions on the spaces
provided in the book.
Step 3: After submission of the work, give a summary giving the characteristics
of a series and parallel circuits. Together with the learners identify
the advantages and disadvantages of these connections.

Additional content
Characteristics of series and parallel circuits
• In series, the voltage at terminals of the battery is the sum of
voltages in different parts while the intensity of the current is the
same at each point of the circuit.
• In parallel, the voltage at terminals of the battery is the same as at
terminals of different branches while the intensity of the current
is the sum of intensities in different branches.
Advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel circuits
A series circuit is basically a circuit that contains just one single
path for the power source to go through. What this means is that the
circuit current has to flow throughout the entire load. More often
than not, this type of circuit is used with Christmas lights. The main
disadvantages are:
• If one component in a series circuit fails, then all the components
in the circuit fail because the circuit has been broken.
• The more components there are in a series circuit, the greater the
circuit’s resistance to the flow of the current.
• There are several advantages to keep in mind as well. Many
people will automatically reject a series circuit because of the

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

above disadvantages. Unfortunately, they will be missing out on

several advantages in the process.
• Adding Power devices: The biggest advantage of a series circuit
is that you can add additional power devices, usually using
batteries. Doing this will greatly increase the overall strength
of your output. This will help to give you more power. Your
bulbs may not shine as brightly once you have done this, but
you probably won’t notice the difference. This advantage by and
large outweighs the single disadvantage.
• Ease of Use: Series circuits are easy to learn and to make. Its
simple design is easy to understand. This will help you make
repairs without the help of a professional. This will also help you
calculate the voltage of your circuit.
Parallel circuits provide more than one path for current. After
current leaves a source, it follows two or more paths before returning
to the source. When several bulbs or components are connected in
parallel, fault in any one, or removal of any one does not affect flow
of current to others.

Advantages
• It is used in houses, so if one light goes out others do not get
affected by it.
• Every unit that is connected in a parallel circuit gets equal amount
of voltage.
• Parallel circuits are used in cases of multiple loads.
• It becomes easy to connect or disconnect a new element without
affecting the working of other elements. For example: the
elements that are connected via wall outlets can be switched on
or off without hampering the working of the other one running/ or
at rest, at the same time.
Disadvantages
• It requires the use of lot of wires.
• The source amperage is increased whenever we add a new load
to a parallel circuit.
• Due to proper working, sometimes the damage if any, caused to
the circuit, may get neglected. This is hazardous.
• We cannot increase or multiply the voltage in a parallel circuit.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• Multiple control devices are employed for the control of the

devices in parallel connection.
• Parallel connection fails at the time when it is required to pass
exactly same amount of current through the units.
• The design of a parallel circuit is very complex.
• Additional power sources like batteries cannot be added in
parallel connection.
• The teacher will lead the students to discover that in houses
installations are in parallel connection due to their advantages.
He’ll show that from WASAC (company of distribution of
electric energy in Rwanda) connections are also in parallel.
Step 4: After this lesson, the teacher will plan the teaching of the next lesson
on the sources of electric current. He will give the subject to learners
and tell them to go to do research on internet and books so that for
the next lesson learners will have ideas of what they have to study.
They can search for solutions to the following questions:
• What is a source of electric current?
• What is another name of electric sources of energy?
• List some of the sources of electric energy you have found.
• What type of energy is changed in electric energy?
Lesson Flow
• Set the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Recognise learners with special needs in group making.
Encourage them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 3: Generators and receptors

Period 3: (40 Minutes)

Generators; sources of electric current

Step 1: Remind the learners that they had already been given homework
in the previous lesson which consists of search on internet about
sources of electric energy. Ask them to present their findings and
guide them to develop conclusions.
Step 2: Let the learners carry out activity 4 page 205 in an appropriate place
(computer lab or another place) in order to complete the work they
did and to encourage the team work.
Step 3: Instruct the learners to carry out research individually and present
their findings.
Step 4: Set the learners discuss in class in order to find the correct ones.
After they discuss as a class, the answers found in others to give the
final ones.
Step 5: Together with your learners, develop and build a summary of the
activity.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Conclusion
A source of electric energy is any device, any apparatus which can
convert any kind of energy in electric energy. They are also called
generators.
For example a battery, a cell converts chemical energy in electric
energy. Dynamos, alternators, etc. convert mechanical energy in
electric energy. Solar panel converts solar energy in electric energy,
etc.

Lesson Flow
• Set the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 4: Generators: Electromotive force of a generator,

Internal resistance of a generator

Period 4: (40 Minutes)

Step 1: Set the learners to carry out activity 5 page 207 step by step, collect
data and answer questions therein.
Step 2: When the learners complete their assignment, the teacher will
summarise their findings and give the information in the learner’s
book.
Step 3: With learners, establish and explain different related formulae which
are in the learner’s book related to the activity.
Step 4: To wind up with the topic of electromotive force, work through
given examples on the unit. Check if answers are correct. They are
numerical applications of formula.
Step 5: Learners carry out activity 6 page 210. Select the generators to use
and the apparatus in which they will power. The purpose is to show
that after a certain time of functioning the generator increase the
temperature.
Step 6: Set the learners to give answers to questions which are in the activity.
Suggested answers:
The temperatures of cells are not equal. You’ll find that cells after
being used are hotter than before. The reason is because; the current
flowing in the circuit is also consumed by the cell. That hotness is
due to the Joule’s effect.
Step 7: Conclude by saying that: “We conclude that a cell as other generators
of electric current have a resistance called internal resistance”.
Step 8: The teacher develops more information from the learner’s book.
Step 9: Give some example with the purpose of retaining the formula. Check
what the learners have done.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 10: Emphasise on the symbol of a generator and show that it must have
the two characteristics (E, r).
Step 11: Explain that in charging a phone, there is an electric current flowing
in the battery. This raises the temperature in a battery and proves the
existence of an internal resistance. It’s not advised to use the phone
if it’s in the charge because the increasing of the temperature of the
phone in use plus the temperature when it’s in charging process can
make damage to the battery; even the working system of the phone.

Note: It’s possible that, when preparing this lesson the teacher has no
consecutive periods for that. He can teach them separately to mean the
emf and internal resistance. As each one has its activity it’s simple to
be done but make sure that the two are finished in two periods and all
information is given. But the best is to teach them in consecutive periods.
Step 12: Tell the learners that the activity which will be done is one among
many which help to find experimentally the emf and internal
resistance of a given generator (here the case of a cell).
Step 13: Set the learners to carry out activity 7 page 212. All steps must be
followed by learners as in the learner’s book and the teacher has to
make sure that every thing is done systematically.
Step 14: Check the plot of the graph and clearly explain (scales, directions.)

Note: As suggested in the learner’s book, the teacher can use Excel
(from computer) to plot the graph. In the case of no access to it,
the teacher should remind to learners the equation y = mx + b of a
straight line, how it’s sketched and that m is the gradient. How to find
coordinates of intersection of a line and axis, etc. Here, the teacher
should recall mathematical notions on a straight line.
Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing

the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Note: It’s possible that, when preparing this lesson the teacher has no
consecutive periods for that. He can teach them separately to mean
the emf and internal resistance. As each one has its activity it’s simple
to be done but make sure that the two are finished in two periods and
all information is given. But the best is to teach them in consecutive
periods.
Lesson 5: Relationship between the p.d and the emf at
terminals of a cell of closed circuit
Period 5: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Let the learners carry out activity 8. Learners must carry out the
experiment following procedures.
All steps must be followed up to the verification of the final relation.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 2: Carry out the interpretation of the relation. Pay attention because
the relation misses one element when verified experimentally. This
is due to the resistance R of the ohmmeter which was connected
in series with the internal resistance r of the cell but in the relation
found in the interpretation, there is no ohmmeter then that quantity
is zero.
Step 3: Let the learners work through those examples, just where they apply
the formula.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, mix boys and girls).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 6: Efficiency of a cell, Ohm’s law for a circuit having a

cell and a resistor
Period 6: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Before writing the title on the black board, let learners carry out
Activity 9 page 215 and from given answers (after question (e))
write the title “efficiency of a cell” on the black board.
Step 2: Suggested answers: (a) see the meanings in the previous lesson. (b)
No because in the relation we see that the total power supplied by the
cell is the sum of the power dissipated by the internal resistance of
the cell and the power supplied to the external circuit. (c) In general
it’s called the efficiency of the machine. (d) It has no unit and it’s
expressed in percentage [%]. (e) That special name is the efficiency
of the cell; it has no unit also because it’s a ratio of two quantities of
same unit. (f) No. (g) Yes
Step 3: After that, develop the relationships below and guide the learners
discover that it is true for all generators.
Pe
The ratio ɳ = P is the efficiency of a cell, where Pe: the power
supplied by a cell to the external circuit and P is the total power
supplied by the cell.

The efficiency is expressed as percentage [%].

Pe P – P1 P1
We can write: ɳ = P = P = 1 =
P
PPe e VI
VI V
η ɳ=
We can deduce other relations: = = ⇒ ɳ= %
PP EI
EI E
Step 4: Guide the learners to discover that the efficiency has no unit. It’s
a ratio between two quantities of same unit then this one will be
expressed in percentage.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 5: Build, together with the learners “Ohm’s law for an electric circuit
having a cell and a resistor and let learners carry out activity10 page
215.
Step 6: After the activity, let learners submit the work and guide them to
develop a summary. Some suggested answers: (a) In an electric
circuit the ratio between the voltage and the intensity of the current
is constant and gives the resistance of the circuit V/I = R. It means
V = R I. (b) In the circuit we have a resistor of resistance R, a cell
of emf E and internal resistance r and connecting wires. (c) Yes,
because electric current can flow through them. (d) They are in series
because the same current flows through each out of them (e) The total
resistance in series is given by the sum of constituting resistances.
We can write: P = EI, Pi = rI2, Pe= RI2
P VI
η =P =e P=i+ Pe ⇒ EI = I2r+ I2R = I2 (r + R)
P EI
E= (r + R)I
E
I = (r + R) is the intensity of the current flowing in the circuit
according to Ohm’s law.
Step 7: Assign the learners to work through examples in the learner’s book
page 216.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas

basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 7: Combination of cells, Combination of cells

(Interpretation of experimental results)
Period 7: (80 Minutes)
Combination in series and parallel. Mixing a series and a parallel
combination.

Combination of cells
Step 1: Carry out activity 11 page 217. Let learners work through this
activity step by step answering different suggested questions and
writing what they are observing as asked in the procedure.
Step 2: Discuss with the learners the results of their findings. Make sure that
learners make corrections to any false finding.
Step 3: After the activity, a copy of what was done should be submitted to you
by learners because this will help in interpretation and this will be helpful
in case the next lesson is not consecutive to the one of the activity.
Step 4: Before winding up with the lesson, guide the learners to discover that
what they found are experimental result which can be interpreted
mathematically.
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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Combination of cells (Interpretation of experimental results) Combination in

series and opposition Step 1: Give back to learners work
submitted in previous activity so that it helps them to check and verify
the correspondence of the mathematical result and experimental
result.
Step 2: When establishing relations, read questions on the previous activity
and learners will be giving answers found in the activity.
Step 3: Apply the laws of circuits as studied. For example, in series, the
voltage at terminals of the combination is the sum of voltages in
different parts of the circuit but the intensity of the current is the
same in the circuit. In opposition, the two cells have a tendency to
send the current in opposite directions and because the two emfs are
equal, there was no current flow but in the case of one battery, has an
emf greater than the other; it can send the current through the other.
Consider the case that resistors are conductors for that reason for the
two cases, resistances are in series. So, to find internal resistances,
we just consider resistances in series.
Step 4: Let learners do questions suggested in order to help them to retain
relations.
Step 5: Emphasise on the case that batteries are connected in series in order
to increase the emf and total resistance.
Step 6: Give some different cases in which the series combination is applied.
For example in a radio, etc.
Step 7: The teacher should guide the learners to discover how a combination
of batteries in opposition is applied (see learner’s book).

Combination of cells (Interpretation of experimental results)

Combination in parallel and mixing a series and a parallel
combination
Step 1: Give back to learners work submitted in previous activity so that it
helps them to check and verify the corresponding of the mathematical
result and experimental result.
Step 2: When establishing relations, read questions on the previous activity
and learners will be giving answers found in the activity.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

Step 3: Apply the laws of circuits as studied. For example, in parallel, the
intensity of the current at terminals of the combination is the sum of
intensities in different branches of the circuit but the voltage is the
same at terminals of the circuit.
Step 4: Lead the learners to discover that only identical cells can be connected
in parallel.
Step 5: The teacher will lead the learners that for some purposes some electric
circuits can have a mixture of series and parallel combinations. Each
series will be considered as one battery having an emf and an internal
resistance and all constituting series have same characteristics.
Step 6: Let learners work through suggested exercises and help them in the
case of a problem.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners work through the related activity in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in
each group should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• making learners to work out activities.

• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 8: Receptors: Back electromotive force, Internal

resistance
Period 8: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Let learners do activity 12 page 226. They observe the picture and
answer questions.
Step 2: Some suggested answers: (a) TV set, radio, fridge, electric motor,
kettle, iron, cooker, telephone, hair dryer. (c) No, there are those
which transform the whole energy consumed in heat and there are
some which transform a part of electric energy in another type of
energy which is not heat. (d) Those which transform the total electric
energy in heat are: iron, kettle, cooker and others are for the other
case. (e) The back emf and internal resistance.
Step 3: Provide a conclusion which is in the learner’s book page 222.
Step 4: Show that the internal resistance is defined in the same way as for
generators.

The p.d at terminals of a receptor

Step 1: Instruct learners to carry out activity 13 page 228. Learners will
perform this activity in step by step recording data and answering
different suggested questions as asked in the procedure.
Step 2: Guiding the learners because wrong results on this can affect results
in interpretation.
Step 3: As done for the case of a cell, guide the learners to develop the
information below (Interpretation).

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

Step 4: After the lesson, assign homework to learners which will be working
through exercises on pages 229 and 230.

Interpretation
Let P1 be the power converted into heat by Joule effect
P’ be the power converted into another type of energy which is not
heat.
The total power consumed by the motor (receptor) is given by:
P = P '+ PJ
VI = E ' I + I 2 r '
VI = I (PEe '+ Ir
VI') ⇒ V = E '+ Ir '
VIη==I (E’ =+ Ir’) ⇒ v = E’ + Ir’
P EI
From the relation above V > E ’
V −E'
The intensity of the current is therefore given by: I =
r'
Functioning Condition
For a circuit having a receptor and a generator, the following
condition must be respected: E > V > E.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 9: Generators and receptors: Exercises

Period 9: (160 Minutes)

Exercises

In general,
Step 1: It’s better that if you know you have a lesson together with a set
of exercises, leave questions to learners as homework. Let learners
think deeply about them at home and during the lesson. They can
discuss in groups and the teacher should guide the learners to develop
conclusion on what they found.
Step 2: Let the learners discuss given questions in groups and guide them.
Step 3: Prepare the lesson appropriately. This is the time to revise and to
emphasise on what learners have learned. So you can be reminding
learners what you taught related to the step in question.
Step 4: You are not obliged to solve all questions in the learner’s book. Solve
some and leave others to learners as homework.
Step 5: In preparing the lesson, choose other questions even outside the
learner’s book; the purpose is to raise the level of understanding of
the learners. Know the level, and their weakness to strengthen them.

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Step 6: Develop methods of solving exercises based on the level of learners.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 10: Kirchhoff’s rules

Period 10: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Step 1: Instruct learners to carry out activity 14 page 230. Learners carry
out the experiment step by step, record data and answer questions as
asked in the procedure.
Step 2: After the activity, let learners submit their work to you. The purpose of
this activity is to remind learners about combinations of resistances.
Step 3: Review their knowledge of the general formulae of resistances in
series and in parallel.
Step 4: In order to introduce this lesson, the teacher can show two circuits
represented by diagrams below (a) and (b). Show that for (a) it’s
possible and easy to calculate the current flowing in the circuit using
general method and but for (b) it’s more challenging to calculate the
currents without knowing methods; so we use other new rules called
Kirchhoff’s rules which will be studied in the next lesson.

B 14. 0V

E F
+ –
6. 0Ω 4. 0Ω
A
I2
I1
8. 0Ω 4. 0Ω I1
B – +
C B C
A I 6. 0Ω
I2 10. 0V I3

3. 0Ω

A D
2. 0Ω

Kirchhoff’s rules
Step 1: Guide the learners to discover that it’s easy and possible to know
characteristics of the first circuit using general methods but the
second requires other skills which must be learned and followed
with attention.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

Step 2: The teacher through the use of thought provoking questions, lead
the learners to develop the rules to learners as in the learner’s book.
He’ll give also notes to learners about just those rules.

Information for the teacher

• Figure 5.32(b) in the learner’s book represents a mechanical
analog of this situation, in which water flows through a branched
pipe having no leaks. Because water does not build up anywhere
in the pipe, the flow rate into the pipe equals the total flow rate
out of the two branches on the right.
• When applying Kirchhoff’s second rule in practice, we imagine
travelling around the loop and consider changes in electric
potential, rather than the changes in potential energy described
in the preceding paragraph. You should note the following sign
conventions when using the second rule:
○○ Because charges move from the high-potential end of a
resistor towards the low potential end, if a resistor is traversed
in the direction of the current, the potential difference V
across the resistor is -IR (Fig. 5.32 (a)).
○○ If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the
current, the potential difference V across the resistor is +IR
(Fig. 5.32 (b)).
○○ If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance)
is traversed in the direction of the emf (from + to -), the
potential difference V is -E. The emf of the battery increases
the electric potential as we move through it in this direction.
○○ If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance)
is traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from - to +),
the potential difference V is -E. In this case the emf of the
battery reduces the electric potential as we move through it.
• Limitations exist on the numbers of times you can usefully apply
Kirchhoff’s rules in analysing a circuit. You can use the junction
rule as often as you need, so long as each time you write an
equation you include in it a current that has not been used in
a preceding junction-rule equation. In general, the number of
times you can use the junction rule is one fewer than the number
of junction points in the circuit. You can apply the loop rule
as often as needed, as long as a new circuit element (resistor

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation. In

general, in order to solve a particular circuit problem, the number
of independent equations you need to obtain from the two rules
equals the number of unknown currents.
Step 3: Consider examples given in the learner’s book page 234 and guide
learners to solve them. Suggested procedure and answers are below:
Step 4: After that, give homework in order to retain that. Because if they
don’t work on it, they can forget how to apply them. The checking
will be done in the following lesson.

Lesson Flow
• Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
• Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending
on the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
• Help them in selecting their group leaders.
• Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
• Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing
the activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright
learners to assist the weak ones.
• Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
• Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas
basing on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.

114
 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular

method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Answers for exercises

1. V = iR = (5.0 A)(24 Ω) = 0.12 kV

L
2. By using the equation R = ρ with R = 8.0 Ω and ρ = 9.0 ×10 Ω.m
−8

A
We know further that the volume of the wire is LA = 5.0 ×10−6 m3.
Therefore we have two equations to solve for L and A
 L
−8
8.0 Ω = (9.0 ×10 Ω.m)( )  L = 21 m
 A ⇔ −7 2
 LA = 5.0 ×10−6 m3  A = 2.4 ×10 m

RA
3. Let’s find firstly the value of ρ : ρ = and because the wire’s
L
nature is maintained, the resistivity is also maintained. So why,
RA R0 Ao A
ρ= = = 5.0 0
L Lo L0 .

We were told that L = 3Lo To find A in terms of Ao , we note that

the volume of the wire cannot change. Hence, V = Lo A0 = LA

L0 A0 A0
From this, LA = Lo A0 ⇔ Ao = =
L 3
L ( R0 / Lo )(5.0 Ω)
Therefore, R = ρ = = 45.0 Ω
A Ao / 3
4. Let the two resistances be x and y.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

P 225
Then Rs = x + y = 2
= = 9.00 Ω therefore y = 9.00 − x
I 5.002

xy P 50.0
And Rs = = 2 = = 2.00 Ω so x 2 − 9.00 x + 18.0 = 0
x+ y I 5.002
Factoring the second equation, ( x − 6.00)( x − 3.00) = 0 so
x = 6.00 Ω or x = 3.00 Ω

Then, y = 9.00 − x gives y = 3.00 Ω or y = 6.00 Ω

The two resistances are found to be 3.00 Ω and 6.00 Ω

5. i1 = −1.5 A i2 = 0.25 A i3 = 1.25 A v1 = 3 V v2 = 2 V

v3 = 5 V
6. (a). The 20.0 Ω 5.0 Ω resistors are in series, so the first reduction is
shown in (b).

In addition, since the 10.0 Ω , 5.0 Ω , and 25.0 Ω resistors are then
in parallel, we can solve for their equivalent resistance as:
1 1 1 1
= + + ⇔ R = 2..94 Ω
R 10.0 5.00 25.0
This is shown in figure (c), which in turn reduces to the circuit
shown in figure (d).
Next, we work backwards through the diagrams applying Ohm’s
law to every resistor, real and equivalent.

The 12.94 Ω resistor is connected across 25.0 V, so the current

through the battery in every diagram is

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

V 25.0
I= = = 1.93 A
R 12.94

In figure (c), this 1.93 A goes through the 2.94 Ω equivalent

resistor to give a potential difference of:

V = IR = 1.93 × 2.94 = 5.68 V

7. There are three currents involved, so there must be three independent
equations to determine those three currents. One comes from
Kirchhoff’s junction rule applied to the junction of the three branches
on the left of the circuit: i1 = i2 + i3
Another equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to
the outer loop, starting at the lower left corner and progressing
counterclockwise
−1.4i3+6.0−22i2−1.4i3+9.0=023.4i1+1.4i3=15
The final equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to
the bottom loop, starting at the lower left corner and progressing
counterclockwise.
−1.4i3+6.0+18i2=018i2+1.4i3=6
Solve the bottom loop equation for I2 and substitute into the top
loop equation, resulting in an equation with only one unknown,
which can be solved.
410.4 −6 + 1.4i3
i3 = = 0.856 5 A i2 = = −0.266 7 A
479.16 18
i1 = −0.266 7 A + 0.856 5 A = 0.5898 A
8.

i. For parallel group resistance R1 we have

1 1 1 1 3
= + + =
R1 15 Ω 15 Ω 15 Ω 15 Ω
R1 = 5.0 Ω
Then
Req = 5.0 Ω + 0.3 Ω + 0.7 Ω = 6.0 Ω
And
ε 24 V
I= =
Req 6.0 Ω
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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

i. Method 1

The three resistor combination is equivalent to R1 = 5.0 Ω

. A current of 4.0 A flows through it. Hence, the p.d across the
combination is IR1 = ( 4.0 A )( 5.0 Ω ) = 20 V

This is also the p.d across each 15Ω resistor. Therefore, the
current through each 15Ω resistor is
V 20 V
I15 = = = 1.3 A
R 15 Ω

Method 2
In this special case, we know that one –third of the current will go
through each 15Ω resistor. Hence
V 4.0 V
I15 = = = 1.3 A
R 3Ω
ii. We start at a and go to b outside the battery:
V from a to b = − ( 4.0 A )( 0.3 Ω ) − ( 4.0 A )( 5.0 Ω ) = −21.2 V

The terminal p.d of the battery is 21.2V . Or, we could write for
this case of a discharging battery,
p.d = ε − Ir = 24 V − ( 4.0 A )( 0.7 Ω ) = 21.2 V

9.
(a) The current is counterclockwise, because the 16 V battery
determines the direction of current flow.
+16.0V − 8.0 V − I (1.6 Ω + 5.0 Ω + 1.4 Ω + 9.0Ω ) = 0
+16.0V − 8.0 V
I= = 0.47 A
(1.6 Ω + 5.0 Ω + 1.4 Ω + 9.0Ω )
Vb + 16.0 V − I (1.6 Ω ) = Va ,
(b)
so, Va − Vb = Vab = 16.0 V − ( 0.47 A )(1.6Ω ) = 15.2 V

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

Vc + 8.0 V − I (1.4 Ω + 5.0 Ω ) = Va , so

(c)
Vac = ( 5.0 Ω )( 0.47 A ) + (1.4Ω )( 0.47 A ) + 8.0 V = 11.0 V

10. This circuit cannot be reduced further because it contains no resistors

in simple series or parallel combinations. We therefore revert to
Kirchhoff’s rules. If the currents had not been labeled and shown by
arrows, we would do that first. No special care needed to be taken in
assigning the current directions, since those chosen incorrectly will
simply give negative numerical values.
We apply the node rule to node b in the figure above.
Current into b = Current out of b.

I +I +I
1 2 3
=0
(1)
Next we apply the loop rule to loop adba. In volts,
10.0
−7.0 I1 + 6.0 + 4.0 = 0 → I1 = A
7.0
(why must the term 7.0I1 have a negative sign?) we then apply the
loop rule to loop abca. In volts,
12.0
−4.0 − 8.0 + 5.0 I 2 = 0 → I 2 =A
5.0
(why must the signs be as written?)
Now we return to equation (1) to find
 10.0 12.0 
I 3 = − I1 − I 2 =  − −  A = −3.8 A
 7.0 5.0 
The minus sign tells us that I3 is opposite in direction to that shown
in the figure.

11.
(a) When S is open, , I 3 = 0 because no current can flow through the
open switch. Applying the node rule to point a gives
I1 + I 3 = I 2 or I 2 = I1 + 0 = I1
Applying the loop rule to loop acbda gives
−12.0 + 7.0 I1 + 8.0 I 2 + 9.0 = 0

Because , I 2 = I1

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

15.0 I1 = 3.0 or I1 = 0.20 A

Also I 2 = I1 = 0.20 A
(b) With S close, is no longer known to be zero. Applying the node
rule to point a gives I1 + I 3 = I 2 (1)
Applying the loop rule to loop acba gives
−12.0 + 7.0 I1 − 4.0 I 3 = 0 (2)
And to loop adba gives
−9.0 − 8.0 I 2 − 4.0 I 3 = 0 (3)

We must solve (1), (2) , and (3) for I1 , I 2 and I 3 and. From (3)
I 3 = −2.0 I 2 − 2.25
Substituting tis in (2) also gives
−12.0 + 7.0 I1 + 9.0 + 8.0 I 2 = 0 or 7.0 I1 + 8.0 I 2 = 3.0
Substituting for I3 in (1) also gives
I1 − 2.0 I 2 − 2.25 = I 2 or I1 = 3.0 I 2 + 2.25
Substituting this value in the previous equation finally gives
21.0 I 2 + 15.75 + 8.0 I 2 = 3.0 or I 2 = −0.44 A
Using this in the equation for I3 gives
I1 = 3.0 ( −0.44 ) + 2.25 = 0.93 A
From (1)
I 3 = I 2 − I1 = ( −0.44 ) − 0.93 = −1.37

12. Since there are three currents to determine, there must be three
independent equations to determine those currents. One comes from
Kirchhoff’s junction rule applied to the junction near the negative
terminal of the middle battery.
I1 = I 2 + I 3
Another equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the
top loop, starting to the negative terminal of the middle battery and
progressing clockwise.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Electric Circuits

12.0 V − I 2 (1.0Ω ) − I 2 (10Ω ) − I1 (12Ω ) + 12.0 V − I 2 (1.0Ω ) − I1 ( 8.0Ω ) = 0 →

24 = 11I 2 + 21I1
The final equation comes from Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to the
bottom loop, starting to the negative terminal of the middle battery,
and progressing clockwise.

12.0 V − I 2 (1.0Ω ) − I 2 (10Ω ) + I 3 (1.0Ω ) − 6.0 V + I 3 (15Ω ) = 0 →

6 = 11I 2 − 34 I 3
Substituting I1 = I 2 + I 3 into the top loop equation so that there are
two equation with two unknowns

24 = 11I 2 + 21I1 = 11I 2 + 21( I1 + I 3 ) = 32 I 2 + 21I 3 ; 6 = 11I 2 − 34 I 3

Solving the bottom loop equation for I2 and substitute into the top
loop equation, resulting in an equation with only one unkown, which
can be solved
6 + 34 I 3
6 = 11I 2 − 34 I 3 → I 2 =
11
 6 + 34 I 3 
24 = 32 I 2 + 21I 3 = 32   + 21I 3 → 264 = 192 + 1088 I 3 + 231I 3 → 72 = 1319 I 3 →
 11 
72 6 + 34 I 3
I3 = = 0.055 A, I 2 = = 0.714 A, I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 0.769 A
1319 11
Also find the terminal voltage of the 6.0 V battery.

V ter min al
= E − I 3 r = 6.0V − ( 0.055 A )(1.0Ω ) = 5.85V

13. Using Kirchhoff’s rules,

12.0 − ( 0.0100 ) I1 − ( 0.0600 ) I 3 = 0
10.0 + (1.00 ) I 2 − ( 0.0600 ) I 3 = 0
and I1 = I 2 + I 3
12.0 − ( 0.0100 ) I 2 − ( 0.0700 ) I 3 = 0
10.0 + (1.00 ) I 2 − ( 0.0600 ) I 3 = 0
Solving simultaneously,

I 2 = 0.283 A downward in the dead battery

I 3 = 171 A downward in the starter
The currents are forward in the live battery and in the starter, relative

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

to normal starting operation. The current is backward in the dead

battery, tending to charge it up.

14. Recall the following facts:

1) The current is the same (0.125 A) at all points in this circuit
because the charge has no other place to flow.
2) Current always flows from high to low potential through a resistor.
3) The positive terminal of a pure emf (the long side of its symbol)
is always the high-potential terminal. Therefore, taking potential
drops as negative, we have the following:

V = − IR = − ( 0.125 A )(10.1 Ω ) = −1.25V ; A is higher.

a) ab

b) V BC
= −ε = −9.0 V ; B is higher.

c) V CD
= − ( 0.125 A )( 5.0 Ω ) − ( 0.125 A )( 6.0 Ω ) = −1.38V ; C is
higher.

d) V DE
= +ε = +12.0 V ; E is higher.

e) V CE
= − ( 0.125 A )( 5.0 Ω ) − ( 0.125 A )( 6.0 Ω ) + 12.0 V = +10.6 V
E is higher.

f) V = − ( 0.125 A )( 3.0 Ω ) − ( 0.125 A )(10.0 Ω ) − 9.0 V = −10.6 V

CD

; E is higher.
Notice that the answers to e) and k) agree with each other.

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UNIT 6 Sources of Energy in the
World

Learner’s book pages 241-265

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, the learner should be
able to evaluate energy sources in the world

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• have a general idea about energy and source of energy.
• list different sources of energy and their definitions.
• differentiate renewable energy from non-renewable energy
• identify energy sources in the world.
• explain what happens to the renewable/non-renewable energy
sources that remain after many years of energy use.
• describe renewable and non-renewable energy and sources of
energy in Rwanda.
• explain the contribution of solar energy to other energies.
• describe how renewable and non-renewable energies are created
and extracted.
• define relationships that demonstrate or validate theory, and to
critically evaluate the adequacy of model output in comparison
with the complexities of nature.

This unit is to be taught in 20 lessons, each of 40minutes

Evaluation must be done during the allocated time

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number Periods
number of
minutes
1 World energy sources 80 2

2 Renew A bead activity 80 2

3 Fossil fuel, Nuclear energy, 240 6

Renewable energy
4 Advantages and disadvantages of 80 2
renewable and non-renewable energy.
The sun, prime energy source of
world energy.
5 Creation and extraction of renewable 80 2
and non-renewable energy
6 Visits and field studies 240 6
Total 800 20

Lesson 1: World energy sources

Period 1: (80 Minutes)

Step 1: Group the learners and instruct learners to carry out activity 1 page
242 step by step and to answer questions. In the activity, there are
some definitions in the table which must be understood by learners.
This will help them in the continuation and other activities.
Step 2: Let learners submit their work to you and follow the method described
below to teach them.
• Ask learners what they think of when they hear the word “energy.”
Write down their answers. (Many learners will likely think first
about their own personal energy; e. g. , “I don’t have much energy
today. ”)
• Guide the class, come up with a definition for the word “energy”
and the term “energy source. ” Standard definitions are:
○○ Energy: The ability to do work, or the cause of all activity.
○○ Energy source: Something that can be tapped to provide
heat, chemical, mechanical, nuclear, or radiant energy.

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 Sources of Energy in the World

• Have the learners list as many energy sources as they can.

Write this list on the blackboard. Among scientists and energy
professionals, a standard list of current energy sources would
include: biomass (plant matter), nuclear, coal, oil, geothermal,
solar, hydro (rivers), wave or tidal, natural gas, wind. Your learners
may come up with some variations on this list or additions to it
that are also acceptable: animal energy, food, propane, batteries,
gasoline, water, charcoal, human energy, wood.
• Guide the learners to develop a list of energy sources and arrange
them into two categories: renewable and non-renewable. Guide
them to develop the following definitions:
○○ Renewable – Energy sources that are replaced by natural
processes at a rate comparable to their use.
○○ Non-renewable – Energy sources that are limited and
can eventually run out; these sources of energy cannot be
replaced on a timespan of human significance.
• Ask the learners to use these definitions to decide which of their
energy sources are renewable and which are non-renewable.
You may wish to provide learners with some of the following
information: The major examples of renewable energy sources
are solar, wind, hydro, and biomass (plant matter).
• Lead the learners to develop conclusions that in contrast to fossil
fuels, renewable sources of energy produce little or no pollution or
hazardous waste and pose few risks to public safety. Furthermore,
they are an entirely domestic resource. Long before we actually
run out of coal, oil, or gas, however, the environmental and social
consequences of extracting, processing, transporting, and burning
fossil fuels may become intolerable. In addition, it will not be
economically viable to extract all of our fossil fuels, as renewable
resources will eventually become competitive.
• Ask learners to list as many current uses of renewable energy
sources as they can. Answers can range from small devices like
solar-powered calculators to large-scale production of electricity
from hydroelectric dams to occasional uses like wood for cooking
on camping trips and wind for sailboats.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 2: World energy sources

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
Renew a bead activity

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 Sources of Energy in the World

Step 1: Group the learners and set them to work through activity 2 page 244
step by step and answer questions, them fill in tables, and analyse
data. Let them discuss results in group, and carry out calculations,
etc.
Step 2: Be careful because this activity requires many skills at the same
time. It’s very long, do your best in order not to come back to it
several times. It means you can be following all steps and make sure
everything is correct.
Step 3: Use at least one hour for data collection and calculation and another
one for discussion.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• making learners to work out activities

• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 3: World energy sources

Period 3: (240 Minutes)
• Fossil fuel
• Nuclear energy
• Renewable energy
Step 1: In this lesson the activity will be of reading. Let learners carry out
activity 3. In groups, let them read and give explanation to each other.
Let them discuss what is written. The purpose is to learn more about
sources of energy. They’ll be learning also about sources of energy
in Rwanda at the same time. Here learners, in case of a problem in
understanding, will try to help each other in groups.
Step 2: Let this activity be carried out two times. The first one is to read
the material in the learner’s book and the second carry out research
on internet in order to add more knowledge. That will be in the
following lesson.
Step 3: Follow carefully this activity. Make sure that learners are really
learning and explanations are effective in groups. Emphasise more
about sources in Rwanda.
• Fossil fuel
• Nuclear energy
• Renewable energy
Step 1: Applying what they have read, learners will carry out activity 4 and
activity 5. In groups, they’ll follow step by step, and answer different
questions.
Step 2: Monitor carefully this activities.
Step 3: In the table of activity 5, suggested answers are below. This will
serve also as answers for the next activity.

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 Sources of Energy in the World

Energy Advantages Disadvantages

source
Biomass • Abundant and • Burning biomass can result in air
renewable. pollution.
• Can be used to burn • May not be cost effective.
waste products. • May result in deforestation.
Fossil fuels • Available in plenty. • Environment degradation.
• Easier to find. • Need truckloads of reserves.
• Extremely efficient. • Public health issues.
• Easier to transport. • Finite energy source.
• Generate thousands jobs. • Rising cost.
• Easy to set up. • Health of coal-mining workers.
Geothermal • Provides an unlimited • Start-up/development costs can be
supply of energy. expensive.
• Produces no air or water • Maintenance costs, due to corrosion,
pollution. can be a problem.
Hydropower • Abundant, clean, and • Can have a significant environmental
safe. impact.
• Easily stored in • Can be used only where there is a
reservoirs. continuous water flow.
• Relatively inexpensive • Best sites for dams have already been
way to produce developed.
electricity.
• Offers recreational
benefits like boating,
fishing, etc.
Nuclear • Lower greenhouse gas • High construction costs due to
emissions. complex radiation containment
• Powerful and efficient. systems and procedures.
• They can produce power • High subsidies needed for
continuously and need construction and operation, as well as
to be shut down for loan guarantees.
maintenance purpose • High-known risks in an accident.
only. We say they are • Unknown risks.
reliable.
• Long construction time.
• Cheap electricity.
• Target for terrorism (as are all
• Low fuel cost. centralized power generation
• Easy transportation. sources).

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Energy Advantages Disadvantages

source
Solar • Unlimited supply. • May not be cost effective.
• Causes no air or water • Storage and backup are necessary.
pollution. • Reliability depends on availability of
sunlight.
Wind • Is a “free” source of • Requires constant and significant
energy. amounts of wind.
• Produces no water or air • Wind farms require significant
pollution. amounts of land.
• Wind farms are relatively • Can have a significant visual impact
inexpensive to build. on landscapes.
• Land around wind farms
can have other uses.

In the case of problems in these activities, the teacher can allow

learners to access internet again.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

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 Sources of Energy in the World

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 4: Advantages and disadvantages of renewable and non-renewable

energy, the sun, prime energy source of world energy

Period 4: (80 Minutes)

Step 1: Instruct learners to carry out activity 6 page 262. In groups, let them
follow step by step, answer different questions. This activity is like
a summary of what was already done. Answers have been given
already. Let learners work without any support, Books, internet, etc.
By your will, it can be even a quiz.
Step 2: In this lesson, the teacher will guide the learners to discover that
the sun is the prime source of energy and contributes a lot to other
sources. She/He’ll give the information which is at the page 257 of
the learner’s book.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 5: Creation and extraction of renewable and non-

renewable energy
Period 5: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Set learners to carry out activity 7 page 263. Let them learn in detail
how renewable and non renewable energy is created. Let them give
also some different ways to extract them.
Step 2: The table below contains some suggested answers for the creation
and extraction. For the extraction of different types of energy, the
teacher will judge the accuracy of them.
Step 3: After, the teacher will summarise giving information on page 264-
265.

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 Sources of Energy in the World

Lesson 6-20: Visits and field studies

Period 6-20: (240 Minutes)
This lesson is for the whole of the remaining periods
Step 1: A part of the remaining time can help you to cover what you didn’t
in the normal time due to some circumstances.
Step 2: The visit (field studies is also an activity. Learners have to leave the
school and go to the field to see clearly what they learn in class.
Step 3: Choose the place and the activity to do according to the availability,
the distance of the place. Also the financial situation of the school.
Step 4: The place and study visits must be related to the curriculum and on
subjects in it.

You should know this

A field study is a general method for collecting data about users,
user needs, and product requirements that involves observation and
interviewing. Data are collected about task flows, inefficiencies, and
the organisational and physical environments of users.
Investigators in field studies observe users as they work, taking
notes on particular activities and often asking questions of the users.
Observation may be either direct, where the investigator is actually
present during the task, or indirect, where the task is viewed by some
other means like a video recorder set up in an office. The method is
useful early in product development to gather user requirements. It
is also useful for studying currently executed tasks and processes.

Steps in field studies

• Field studies should be carefully planned and prepared in order
to ensure that the data collected is accurate, valid, and collected
efficiently. The equipment needed will depend on the type of study
being conducted. The process first starts with clearly stating the
problem and defining the area of study. From there, a hypothesis,
or a theory of explanation, is set forth to explain any occurrences
expected for the specified group or phenomena. This is why,
before a field study is conducted, it is important to identify the
data/phenomena to observe.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• Once the hypothesis has been established, the data can be

classified and scaled so that it will be easy to know how to
categorize information. Observations are classified because not
all field observations will be needed; therefore, the observer can
know what to look for and what to disregard. Observations are
also scaled to give the observer a way to rank the importance or
significance of what has been observed. Once field observations
are concluded, this data will be analysed and processed in order
to resolve the problem initially presented or to accept or reject the
hypothesis that was presented.

Answers for Exercises

1. Renewable energy resource is a type of energy that cannot be
exhausted in nature while non-renewable energy can be exhausted
in nature.
2. Common renewable sources:
Solar – This is the conversion of sunlight into electrical energy
using mirrors and boilers or photovoltaic cells, commonly seen on
house roofs.
Hydro – Hydroelectricity is made with dams that block a river to
collect
water. When the water is ‘let go’, the pressure turns turbines, which
turns a generator, making electricity.
Geothermal – Water is pumped through the pipes to transfer the
heat indoors.
Wind – When wind turns the blades of a windmill or wind turbine,
it spins a turbine inside a generator to produce electricity.
Biomass – Biomass uses natural materials like trees and plants to
make electricity.
Non Renewable Energy
• Coal
• Natural gas
• Petroleum
• Nuclear fission

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 Sources of Energy in the World

3. Anemometer
4. Solar (renewable energy in general )
• Solar is by far the most promising; it’s the sector that everyone is
desperately hoping, crossing their fingers, praying that technology
continues to improve the most dramatically. Why? Because
sunlight is by a long shot the most abundant power source on the
planet. Enough energy falls on the earth’s surface in the form of
sunlight in a single hour to power all of modern civilization for
a year.
• Wind power will be nearly as important in coming years. It’s
perhaps the most established renewable energy source (besides
hydro),
5. Benefits are:
• Less global warming.
• Improved public health. The air and water pollution emitted by
coal and natural gas plants is linked with breathing problems,
neurological damage, heart attacks, cancer, premature death, and
a host of other serious problems.
• Inexhaustible energy. Strong winds, sunny skies, abundant plant
matter, heat from the earth, and fast-moving water can each
provide a vast and constantly replenished supply of energy.
• Jobs and other economic benefits. Compared with fossil fuel
technologies
• Stable energy prices
• Reliability and resilience
• Others…………………………………….
6. Why don’t people use more renewable energy now?
• People don’t want to be forced to change their lifestyles to
accommodate the environment. In their opinion, the environment
doesn’t take precedence over the other issues in the life so
one reason people don’t take advantage of renewable energy
technologies is because they don’t like change.
○○ Renewable energy is also not completely reliable even
though it is sustainable
○○ It often relies on weather like the sun or water. For example,
hydroelectric engines require rain, wind turbines require

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

movement in the air, and solar panels need the sun. All of
these are unpredictable and inconsistent.
○○ it is a new technology. Money is the most effective incentive
when it comes to people whether it be a negative or positive
incentive, and in this case this rule of thumb works against
the use of renewable energy.
○○ Other reasons…………………………..
7. Renewable energy is environmentally friendlier than fossil fuels.
• Renewable energy sources cannot be depleted
• Renewable energy industry can create many new jobs
• Renewable energy helps against climate change
• Renewable energy helps against pollution.
• Renewable energy offers variety of energy sources to choose
from.
• Renewable energy sources are available in all countries of the
world.
• Renewable energy can help improve energy independence of
many countries in the world.
• Renewable energy can improve our future energy security.
• Renewable energy can help decrease expensive foreign fuel
import.
• Renewable energy can stop fighting over oil resources.
• Renewable energy can move science forward by opening the way
for scientists to discover new ways of harnessing energy.
• Renewable energy can improve many of our current technologies.
• Renewable energy sources such as solar energy have almost
unlimited potential.
• Renewable energy can build strong domestic energy industry.
• Renewable energy is long-term energy solution because world
will eventually run out of fossil fuels.
• Each country can choose renewable energy source that best suits
their needs.
• Renewable energy offers cheaper energy solutions for isolated
and remote areas.

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 Sources of Energy in the World

• Renewable energy sources are much cleaner compared to coal

and other fossil fuels.
• Renewable energy sources are responsible for far less greenhouse
gas emission than fossil fuels.
• Renewable energy sources are becoming more reliable.
• Renewable energy can lead the world to safe and clean energy
future.
• Others……………….

137
 UNIT 7 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation)
and Power Generation

Learner’s book pages 269-275

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, the learner will be able
to analyse energy degradation/dilapidation and power generation

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• explain what energy degradation is.
• describe how electricity is produced by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field.
• demonstrate some concepts on thermodynamics.
• describe the importance of the study of thermodynamics.
• illustrate how thermal energy can be changed into work.
• use a system diagram to show how energy is used.
• explain what a Sankey diagram is.
• describe why a Sankey diagram is used.
• show how the flow of energy is illustrated on diagrams.
• draw a Sankey diagram.
• discover relationships that demonstrate or validate theory, and to
critically evaluate the adequacy of model output in comparison
with the complexities of Nature;
• record their own observations, order their experiences, make
decisions and set their own priorities as to what to focus on and
what to ignore.
• engage in “authentic” activities done by professionals as first
steps towards their development;
This unit is to be taught in 20 lessons, each of 40 minutes.
Evaluation must be done within allocated time.

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 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation) and Power Generation

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Energy degradation 80 2
Definition of energy degradation/dilapidation
Production of electric energy by rotating coils
in magnetic field
2 Conservation of thermal energy into work by 80 2
single cyclic processes
3 Conservation of thermal energy into work by 80 2
single cyclic processes
4 Energy flow diagram illustrating energy 80 2
degradation

5 Energy flow diagram illustrating energy 80 2

degradation
6 Visits and field studies 240 6
Total 800 20

Lesson 1: Energy degradation

Period 1: (80 Minutes)
• Definition of energy degradation/dilapidation
• Production of electric energy by rotating coils in magnetic field
Step 1: In this lesson, start by using thought provoking questions to develop
the definition of energy degradation. After that lead the students to
develop the concept, thermal energy is the most degraded form of
energy. Also demonstrate that energy can be transformed from one
form to another and is called energy transformation.
Step 2: Instruct learners to carry out activity 1 page 270. In this activity,
learners will perform an experiment to investigate how electric
energy is produced when a coil rotates in a magnetic field. They
follow the instructions in the activity step by step and answering
questions in the activity.
Some suggested answers:
(a) The needle is deflected, first in one direction, then in the other.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

(b) As the magnet moves through the coil, electrons move in the
coil. This is an electric current, of course. When this current
flows in the winding around the compass, it causes a magnetic
field which surround the compass. This magnetic field causes
the compass needle to move, just in the same way that bar
magnet causes a compass needle to move.
(c) As one pole of the magnet moves through the winding, the
needle moves in one direction. When the other pole of the
magnet passes through the winding, the needle moves in the
opposite direction. Because, the purpose of the microampere
meter, which measures very, very small amounts of current, is
to indicate the direction of flow of current in one direction or
the other.
Step 3: Learners are not obliged to give exactly the same answers but you
can guide them to give similar ones. After the activity, guide the
learners to discover that when a coil rotates in a magnetic field there
is production of electromotive force; on this basis the production of
electricity by alternators, electric dynamos, and other generators of
electric current.
Step 4: Let learners carry out activity 2 page 271. Let them respond to
questions. From their answers, guide them to develop the following
information.
Step 5: Suggested answers and information to give:
(a) Emergency generators are used in homes, hospitals, and
apartment houses; portable generators are used to run farm
equipment and amusement park rides, etc.
(b) Electricity is a very useful form of energy because it can be easily
transferred from one place to another, using wires. This makes
it much more efficient in terms of time and energy, compared
to previous, more commonly used forms of energy like coal.
To use energy from coal directly in a house, transporting
it will take more energy than transporting electricity.
Electricity can be transformed from many different types
of energy sources, and all of these types of energy require a
generator to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
eventually.

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 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation) and Power Generation

(c) A charged object moving through a magnetic field will

experience a force. In a wire for example, the force causes
electrons to move to one end in the wire. This force is called
electromotive force (emf). In a generator, a coil rotates in a
magnetic field. This rotation causes an induced emf in the
coils.
Step 6: Talk about what is on the page 271-272.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular

method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 2: Energy degradation

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
Conversion of thermal energy into work by single cyclic processes
Step 1: In this lesson, learners carry out research in the activity 3. Assign to
the learners guiding questions on which the research is based. This is
to determine how they behave in a situation of having just a general
subject.
Step 2: Guide them by orienting in what you want them to do.

Lesson 3: Conservation of thermal energy into work by single

cyclic processes
Period 3: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Remind the learners that in the previous lesson learners carried out
research following activity 3 page 272 there were guiding questions
on which the research was based.
Step 2: Discuss with the learners and lead them to develop a much more
appropriate report. The teacher then sets them to study the notes on
page 273 in the learner’s book.

Lesson 4: Energy degradation

Period 4: (80 Minutes)
Energy flow diagram illustrating energy degradation
Step 1: Set learners to work through activity 4 page 274. They will follow
the instructions step by step and will answer questions therein.
Step 2: Follow and guide the activity and obtain answers that will be from
the result of the learners work.

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 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation) and Power Generation

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.
Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 5: Energy degradation

Period 5: (80 Minutes)
Energy flow diagram illustrating energy degradation

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 1: Set learners to work through activity 5 page 275. Instruct them to
search the internet to find answers to the questions posed. They will
follow step by step the given instructions and will answer questions.
Step 2: Follow and guide learners as they carry out the activity. Let them
discuss in groups their reports and submit the work.
Step 3: After the discussion are done with you and at the end, give the
summary and information below.

What is a Sankey Diagram?

A Sankey diagram is a graphic illustration of energy, material or
money transfers between processes. In relation to this sub-unit,
Sankey diagrams can be used to display the flow of energy, i. e. how
useful energy is produced.
Usually, the flows are illustrated as arrows. The width of the arrows
is proportional to the size of the represented flow. Sankey diagrams
are a better way to illustrate which flows represent advantages and
what flows are responsible for waste and emissions.

The Sankey Diagram and Work

When working with Sankey diagrams most physics Sankey diagram
are used to examine energy efficiency. But when using the idea of
work, consider the Input energy to input work and the useful output
energy to output work. This “conversion” holds true the principal of
work, energy and the Sankey diagram.

How to draw a Sankey Diagram

A Sankey diagram illustrates an input/output situation. It is drawn to
scale - there are lots of variations as to how they are drawn the only
thing they have in common is that the width of the ‘arms’ represents
the magnitude of energy transferred but the length of the ‘arms’ does
not!
Sankey diagrams allow us to visualise flow through a process or
system more easily that numerical data can. They show not only the
order of changes but also the quantitative distribution of values in
the transfers.

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 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation) and Power Generation

Sankey diagrams do add an indisputable expressive power

to mathematical rendering of a system. When professionally
constructed, Sankey diagrams represent flow in a manner that can be
understood by anyone, instantly.
However, Sankey diagrams can be difficult, time-consuming, and
uninteresting, to produce by hand - very tedious to draw! The benefits
of being able to generate these diagrams automatically, anytime,
are obvious to anyone who has tried to draw one and commercial
computer packages for their production are available. They are used
not only in physics and engineering to demonstrate how energy is
distributed but also for cash flow in businesses.

A Sankey diagram – a ‘to scale’ diagram representing energy transfers

Useful energy output

(to the left right)
Energy input (from
the left of the diagram)
Width
represents
the amount
of energy
Length has NO
significance

Wasted or unwanted
energy forms
(vertically down)

Work out the efficiency

Useful energy output –

Useful output 6 little squares
Efficiency = Total input
Energy input – 20 little
squares 6
= 20 = 0. 3

Wasted or unwanted
energy – 14 little
squares

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

The teacher has to explain clearly diagrams. He has also to do

research about it.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Energy Degradation (Dilapidation) and Power Generation

Lesson 6: Visits and field studies

Period 6: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: A part of the remaining time can help you to cover what you didn’t
in the normal time due to various circumstances.
Step 2: The study visit (field studies are also learning activities. Learners
have to leave the school and go to the field reinforce what they learnt
in class theoretically.
Step 3: Choose the place and the activity according to the availability, the
distance of the place. Also the financial standing of the class or the
school.
Step 4: The sites and activities to carry out in study visits must be related to
the curriculum and on subjects in it.

What you should remember

A field study is a general method for collecting data about users,
user needs, and product requirements that involves observation and
interviewing. Data are collected about task flows, inefficiencies, and
the organizational and physical environments of users.
Investigators in field studies observe users as they work, taking
notes on particular activities and often asking questions of the users.
Observation may be either direct, where the investigator is actually
present during the task, or indirect, where the task is viewed by some
other means like a video recorder set up in an office. The method is
useful early in product development to gather user requirements. It
is also useful for studying currently executed tasks and processes.

Steps in field studies

• Field studies should be carefully planned and prepared in order
to ensure that the data collected is accurate, valid, and collected
efficiently. The equipment needed will depend on the type of
study being conducted. The process first starts with clearly
stating the problem and defining the area of study. From there,
a hypothesis, or a theory of explanation, is set forth to explain
any occurrences expected for the specified group or phenomena.
This is why, before a field study is conducted, it is important to
identify the data/phenomena to observe.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• Once the hypothesis has been established, the data can be

classified and scaled so that it will be easy to know how to
categorise information. Observations are classified because not
all field observations will be needed; therefore, the observer can
know what to look for and what to disregard. Observations are
also scaled to give the observer a way to rank the importance or
significance of what has been observed. Once field observations
are concluded, this data will be analysed and processed in order
to resolve the problem initially presented or to accept or reject
the hypothesis that was presented.

Answers for exercises

Part a:
1. D 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. C
Part b:
6. a) A Sankey diagram is used for visualization of energy flows. It
shows energy flows with arrows proportional to the flow quantity.
b) Energy degradation can be defined as the process by which energy
becomes less available for doing a work.
c)

7. In essay form question, it must appear the following main parts:

a) a good introduction
b) a body: which contains at least 6 paragraphs ideas
c) a good conclusion

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UNIT 8 Projectile and Uniform
Circular Motion

Learner’s book pages 279-306

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learners should be
able to analyse and solve problems related to projectile and circular
motion

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• define and explain terms used in projectile and circular motion
• relate circular motion to linear motion.
• give examples of circular motion and projectile motion
• derive expressions of projectile motion
Others in the curriculum page 36
This unit is to be taught in 20 lessons, each of 40minutes
Evaluation must be done during allocated time

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number Periods
number of
minutes
1 Definition of projectile motion and related 80 2
terms
2 Applications of projectile motion 80 2

3 Graphs of projectile motion 80 2

4 Expressions of projectile motion 80 2

5 Definition of key terms of circular motion 80 2

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Serial Lesson title Number Periods

number of
minutes
6 Relationship between angular and linear 80 2
parameters
7 Uniform circular motion 80 2

8 Distance time graph of Circular motion 80 2

9 Centripetal force 80 2

10 Applications of Circular motion 80 2

Lesson 1: Definition of projectile motion and related terms

Period 1: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Remember that learners never studied this unit in O’level. Using
relevant life examples introduce the concept of projectiles and
proctile motion.
Using the introduction on page 279 in learner’s book, guide the
learners to provide definitions to the terms:
• A projectile
• Projectile motion
• Range
• Time of flight
• Maximum Height
Lesson Flow
Let the learners do activity 1 page 280 in the learner’s book.
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activity on page 281.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional content
The path taken by a projectile is called a trajectory.
The motion of a projectile is a free motion under gravity.
There are three cases: oblique projection, vertical projection and
horizontal projection.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 2: Applications of projectile Motion

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
By use of probing and challenging questions review the previous
lesson.
Guide the learners to discover the relevance and why they are
studying these concepts in physics.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out activity 2 on page 281 in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.
Guide the learners to work through the exercises on page 292 in the
learner’s book.

Note
While doing this exercise try to move around in case of any assistance
to the learners, help them. Mark and make corrections for the work

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 281.
• check and mark work of each learner.
• giving exercises and tests.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
For notes and more questions use learner’s book.

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 3: Graphs of projectile motion

Period 3: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Using thought provoking and leading questions, review the previous
lessons focussing especially on the trajectory of a projectile.
Using the developed knowledge of the trajectory of a projectile, guide
learners to develop knowledge on how the graphs of a projectile
motion are built.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do activity 3 on page 286 in learner’s book (if it is
a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Let them
also participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.
As the lesson progresses, emphasise the key points as they will help
learners to understand the concept.
Use the graph below to illustrate the concept of projectile motion.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

y
→
v
y
= 0 at this point

→ S
v →
v
→ →
v
vy x

→ → →
→ v v v
vy0 → x hmax y
v0

α →
I
vx
0 → →
v x0 γ =→
g →
v y

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods:
by asking them oral questions.
making learners to work out the activities.
check and mark work of each learner.

Note for other graphs and equations check in the learner’s book 4 and
other books available in the school library.
Lesson 4: Expressions of projectile motion
Period 4: (80 Minutes)
Review the previous lesson by use of leading questions and emphasise
the key points.
Using the equations of linear motion, lead the learners to discover
the equations for determination of maximum height range and time
of flight of the projectile.

v0 2 sin 2 α
Expression for maximum height ymax = hmax =
2g
2v0 sin α
Expression for time of flight. t f =
g

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

v0 2 sin 2α v02 sin 2α

Expression for range R = xmax = R=
g g
Guide the learners to develop the parametric equation for parabolic
motion.
Guide the learners to discover the importance and why they are
studying this concept in physics.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do activity 4 on page 288 in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Lesson 5 and 6: Introduction to circular motion &relationship

between angular & linear parameters
Period 5 and 6: (160 Minutes)
Using guided and probing questions review the previous learnt
material.
Using thought provoking questions lead the learners to develop
definitions of key terms in circular motion.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

A motion is said to be circular if the trajectory is a circle of constant

radius.
Angular displacement is the rate of change of angle
q = w0+t

If a body is at rest, θo = 0
Thus, q = wt
Using the work in learner’s book, try to explain clearly these
equations
Let the learners participate in deriving these equations.
Guidance while teaching
Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present their reports to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically and they should
always use units (SI Units)

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

Extra content

Centripetal acceleration
As we said, in a circular uniform motion, there is acceleration.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities 5 and 6 on page 288
and 290.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 7 & 8: Uniform circular motion and distance time graph

of Uniform circular motion
Period 7 and 8 (160 Minutes)
By use of leading questions review the ideas used in plotting graphs
of linear motion.
Using the introductory work on page 291-292 in learner’s book,
construct a free body diagram.
Ask the learners to mention examples of uniform circular motion in
real life.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Work to discuss during the lesson ( part of work in

learner’s book )
Distance time-graph of a uniform circular motion
When an object executes a circular motion of constant radius R, its
projection on an axis executes a motion of amplitude a that repeats
itself back and forth, over the same path.

+a

P’ x P
0 X
θ
M

When M executes a uniform circular motion, its projection on X-axis

executes a back and forth motion between positions P and P’ about
O.
Considering the displacement and the time, we find the following
graph.

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

x (m)
+a

0 t (s)

-a

For more information (Notes and exercises check in learner’s book

page 292.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities from the learner’s
book.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Lesson 9 and 10: Centripetal force & Applications of Circular motion

Period 9 and 10 (160 Minutes)
Step 1: By using probing and thought provoking questions review circular
motion and centripetal force.
We expected these learners to have learnt about centripetal force.
Step 2: Through skilful questioning guide the learners to define centripetal
force.
Centripetal force is the force that keeps the body to move in circular
path.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 3: Using the introductory work on page 291 in learner’s book, guide the
learners to draw a free body diagram.
Step 4: Let the learners give you other examples of centripetal forces in real
life.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 316.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on+ the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

Additional content
Remember that the force that is always directed towards the center is
termed ascentripetal force. The value of F of the centripetal force is
given by Newton’s second law, that is:
F = ɣ = Mv Where m is the mass of the body and v is its speed in
2

R
circular path of radius R. If the angular velocity of the body is W we
can also say, since V = RW,
F = mRω2
When a ball is attached to a string and is swung round in horizontal
circle, the centripetal force which keeps it in a circular orbit arises
from the tension in the string.

ball

string breaks

ball flying off along tangent

Other examples of circular motion will be discussed. In all cases it

is important to appreciate that the forces acting on the body must
provide a resultant force of magnitude Mv toward the center.
2

R
You can use learner’s book and other books in the library for more
research or obtain information from the internet.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4).

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Answers for exercises

1.
Correction

vox = vo cos 500 = 40 m / s × 0.642 = 25.7 m / s

voy = vo sin 500 = 40 m / s × 0.766 = 30.6 m / s

a y = − g = −9.8 m / s 2

1
y = voy − gt 2 → y = 0
2
0 = 330.6 m / s × t − ( 4.9m / s 2 ) × t 2

4.9t 2 = 30.6t

t = 6.42 s
2.
Correction:

vox = v0 cos 300 = 40m / s × 0.866 = 34.6m / s

voy = v0 sin 300 = 40m / s × 0.500 = 20.0 m / s

a y = g = 9.8 m / s 2 → ax = 0

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

1 2
y = voy t + gt
2

170 m = (20.0m /)t + ( 4.9 m / s 2 ) t 2

1
−20.0 + ( 400 + 3332 ) 2
t= = 4.2 s
9.8

3.
Correction

yoy = v sin θ = 128sin 300 = 64 m /

a)
1 2
s y = voy t + gt
2

0 = 64 t + 1
2(
−32 ) t 2 = ( 64 − 16t ) t

t=4s

1
b) H = voy + gt 2
2
1
H = 64 ( 2 ) + ( −32 )( 2 ) = 64 m
2

c) sx = vx t = ( v cos θ ) t = 128 ( cos 300 ) 4 = 512 ( 0.866 ) = 443m

4.
Correction

y = tan θ x − gx 2 / ( 2vo2 cos 2 θ 0 )

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

5 = 0.58 × 20 − 9.8 × 20 / ( 2vo2 × 0.75 )

vo = 20 m / s

5.
Correction

1
y = voy t − at 2
2
voy = vo sin 30o = 72.8 m / s

1
y = ( 72.8 × 5 ) − × 9.8 × 52 = 241 m which is the elevation
2
The horizontal distance

x = vox t = vo cos θ t = ( 61.1× 5 ) = 305 m

6.
Correction

vox = 20 cos 40o = 15.3 m / s

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

vox = 20 sin 40o = 12.9 m / s

Then x = vx t → t = 3.27 s

1
y = voy t + a y t 2
2
1
y = ( −12.9 × 3.27 ) + × 32.2 × ( 3.27 ) = 130m
2

2
7.
Correction

1 2
a) y = voy t + a y t , or
2
1
80m = 0 + × 9.81× t 2
2
t = 4.04 s

b) x = vx × t = 330 × 4.04 = 1330 m

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

c) v fy = voy + a y t = 0 + 9.8 × 4.04 = 40 m / s

v = 402 + 3302 = 332 m / s

8.
Correction
v 2 62
a) a = = = 24m / s 2
r 1.5
b) T = ma = 0.3 × 24 = 7.2 N
9.
Correction:

v2
a=
r
2π r Tv
T= ......r =
v 2π
Therefore

v2 v 2π v 60 × 2 × 3.14
a= = = = = 7.5 m / s 2
Tv T T 50
2π 2π
10.
Correction:

v2
a=
r
v2 2π r
13 = v=
0.02 ……. v = 0.51 m / s ……. T
3.14 × 6.28 × 0.02
0.51 =
T
T = 0.25 s
1 1
f = = = 4 Hz
T 0.25

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 Projectile and Uniform Circular Motion

11.
Correction:
2
 2π r 
  4π 2 r 4 × ( 3.14 ) × ( 4 ×10 )
2 6
2
v  T 
a= = = 2 = = 0.016 m / s 2
(100000 )
2
r r T

12.
Correction:
time
T= = 0.4 s
revolutions
ΣF = m × a
mv 2
FTension =
r
m × 4×π 2 × r
FTension =
T2
FTension = 1.7 N

13.
Correction:
ΣF = m × a
mv 2
FTension =
r
Ftension × r
v= = 8.9 m / s
m
2π r 2π r
v= ⇒T = = 0.56 s
T v
t = 30T = 16.9 s

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

14.
Correction:

a)

b) Y-component = 1.2 N , Y-component cancels a force of gravity

0 FTx
c) tan 22.6 = → FTX = 1.2 tan 22.60 = 0.50 N
FTy

d) r = 0.60 sin 22.6 = 0.231 m

mv 2 Fx × r
e) ΣFx = →v= = 0.98 m / s
r m

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UNIT 9 Universal Gravitational
Field

Learner’s book pages 309-318

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learners should
be able to explain the gravitational field potential and its applications
in planet motion

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• discuss universal gravitational law.
• explain universal gravitational field.
• derive Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
• apply the law of universal gravitation and Kepler’s laws to
planetary motion.
Others in the curriculum page 37
This unit is to be taught in 20 lessons, each of 40 minutes
Evaluation must be done during the allocated time

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Newton’s laws of universal gravitation 80 2

2 Gravitational field 80 2

3 Universal Gravitational field potential 80 2

4 Gravitational potential 80 2

5 Relation between universal gravitational 80 4

constant and force of gravity
6 Kepler’s laws 80 4

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Serial Lesson title Number of Periods

number minutes
7 Problems on gravitational potential 80 2

8 Problems on Natural and artificial 80 2

satellites

Lesson 1: Universal Gravitation field potential

Period 1: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Review the law of Universal Gravitation by use of probing and
leading questions.
Make sure that learners do not confuse it with newton’s laws of
motion
Using the introduction on page 309 in learner’s book, guide the
learners to develop and state Newton’s law of Gravitation.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do activity on page 310 in learner’s book
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

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 Universal Gravitational Potential

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities on page 314.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Additional Content/Points You Should Never Forget

The gravitational field strength g at any point in a gravitational field
F
is the force per unit mass at that point: g =
m
In studying gravitation, Newton concluded that the gravitational
attractive force that exists between any two masses:
• is proportional to each of the masses
• is inversely proportional to the square of their distances apart.
The law states that ‘The force of attraction between two
masses m1 and m2 a distance r apart is directly proportional to
the product of masses and inversely to the square of distance
r of separation.’ This force acts along the line joining the two
mm
particles. In magnitude the force is given by: F=G 1 2 2
r
For more notes consult learner’s book and other available books in
the school library

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 2: Gravitational field

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
By skilfully questioning the learners review the concept of
gravitation field.
Using learner’s book, page 310, guide the learners to define the
term gravitational field.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

A field is a region of space where forces are exerted on objects with

certain properties.
(Extract of learners information).
This diagram shows that:
• Gravitational forces are always attractive – the
Earth cannot repel any objects.
• The Earth’s gravitational pull acts towards the
center of the Earth.
• The Earth’s gravitational field is radial; the
field lines become less concentrated with
increasing distance from the Earth.
The force exerted on an object in a gravitational
field depends on its position.

The less concentrated the field lines, the smaller the force. If
the gravitational field strength at any point is known, then the size of
the force can be calculated.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out activity 3 on page 315 in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them also participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

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 Universal Gravitational Potential

Guide the learners to work through the exercises on pages 309 in the
learner’s book.

Note
While doing this exercise, try to move around in case of any assistance
to the learners Help them mark and make corrections for the work

Assessment Criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
• giving exercises and tests
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
For notes and more questions use learner’s book.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 3: Gravitational field potential

Period 3: (80 Minutes)

Introduction
Use challenging and thought provoking questions for reviewing the
previous lesson. Build on this to introduce the concept of gravitational
field potential.
Guide the learners to develop the concept of field potential and ask
them to define it.
The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the
potential energy per unit mass placed at that point, measured relative
to infinity.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Using the way how content is arranged in learner’s book, guide

learners to read and interpret the information on it.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners work through the examples on page 316 in learner’s
book (if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each
group should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.

Note: For other graphs and Equations check in the learner’s book 4 and
other books available in our Library.
Lesson 4: Gravitational potential energy
Period 4: (80 Minutes)
Rewrite the previous lesson.
These learners already know potential energy PE=mgh

174
 Universal Gravitational Potential

Build on that using their suggestions to come up with the meaning of

Gravitational field potential.
Remember that:
When an object is within the gravitational field of a planet, it has a
negative amount of potential energy measured relative to infinity.
The amount of potential energy depends on:
• the mass of the object
• the mass of the planet
• the distance between the centers of mass of the object and the
planet.
The Centre of mass of a planet is normally taken to be at its Centre.
The gravitational potential energy measured relative to infinity of a
mass, m, placed within the gravitational field of a spherical mass M
can be calculated using: p. e = – GMm
r
Gravitational potential, V, is given by the relationship:
GM
V=–
r
Gravitational potential is measured in J kg–1.
(Extract from learner’s book 4)
Guide the learners to discuss the importance of and why they are
studying this concept in physics

Lesson Flow
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them also participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities.
Check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Note
For other information and equations check in the learner’s book 4
and other books available in our library.

Lesson 5: Relation between universal gravitational constant and

force of gravity
Period 5: (80 Minutes)
By use of leading questions, review the previous lesson.
Considering amass m, placed within the gravitational field of the
Earth, mass M, experiences a force, F, given by: F = G Mm
r2
Where r is the separation of the centers of mass of the object and the
Earth.
It follows from the definition of gravitational field strength as the
force per unit mass that the field strength at that point, g, is related
to the mass of the Earth by the expression: g = F = GM
m r2
The same symbol, g, is used to represent: gravitational field strength
free-fall acceleration
Let the learners participate in deriving these equations.

176
 Universal Gravitational Potential

Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book page 317 (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically and remind them
that they should always put units (SI Units).

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 6: Kepler’s laws

Period 6: (160 Minutes)
Review the concepts in circular motion and the gravitational field.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Using the introductory work on page 315 in learner’s book, develop

ideas and use learners suggestions that take you to Kepler’s laws.
These are:
Kepler’s first law: The path of each planet about the sun is an ellipse
with the sun at one focus (or planets describe ellipse about the sun
as one focus).
Kepler’s second law: The line joining the sun to the moving planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Kepler’s third law: The squares of the times of revolution T of the
planets about the sun are proportional to the cubes of their mean
distances r from it: T = constant
2

r2
T 2 4π 2 T2 4p2
The value of this constant is 3 = =
r GM r3 GM
M is the mass of the sun in this case

Lesson Flow
Let the learners read through page 315 in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.
For more information (Notes and exercises check in learner’s book
pages 316 to 317.

178
 Universal Gravitational Potential

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out the activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Lesson 7: Problems in gravitational potential

Period 7: (80 Minutes)
Review the concepts in gravitational potential.
Assign them exercises related to gravitational potential.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book (if it is a mixed
school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
You can use books in the library for more research Or obtain
information from the internet.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Lesson 8: Problems on natural and artificial satellites

Period 8: (80 Minutes)
Review the previous lesson.
Guide the learners to develop ideas and concepts about the motion of
natural and artificial satellites.
Guide them to build short notes on the motion of both natural and
artificial satellites.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out work in learner’s book page 318 (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
work. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to assist
the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.

180
 Universal Gravitational Potential

Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing

on learners’ ideas.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.
You can use books in the library for more research or obtain
information from the internet.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)

Answers for exercises

1.

Correction

T 2  T 2 
 3  =  3 
r E  r m

2
T 3
rM = rE ×  M  = 1.5 A.U
 TE 

2.
Correction:

T2 
 3  = ( 7.06 ×10 hr / km ) for Phobos
−11 2 3

 r E

T2 
 3  = ( 7.12 ×10 hr / km ) for Deimos
−11 2 3

 r E

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Since only two significant digits were given for orbital radius of
Phobos, we can conclude that, the data are consistent with Kepler’s
third law.
[Link]:
Newton’s 2nd Law
∑ F = ma
mv 2 Gravity provides the centripetal acceleration
Fgravity =
r

GM mars mdeimos mdeimos v 2 Deimos is the mass moving in a circle

=
r2 r

v2r Rearranging to solve for mass of mars

M mars =
G

M mars =
( 4π r ) 2 3

v=
2π
( GT ) 2
Substituting T

M mars = 6.4 ×1023 kg ≈ 0.1M earth Make sure to convert everything to SI units

[Link]:
Newton’s 2nd Law
∑ F = ma
Fgravity = mg Gravity is only force acting in free fall

GM mars mobject r = radius of mars since that is the distance to its

= mobject g center
rmars 2

GM mars Rearranging to solve for radius, g = 3.7 m s 2

rmars =
g

rmars = 3.4 ×106 m Consistent with the accepted value

M mars Using formula for the volume of a sphere

Density =
4 3π r 3

Density = 3.9 kg m3 = 3.9 g cm3 The density of common rocks ranges from 2.5-3 g/
cm3

182
 Universal Gravitational Potential

[Link]:
∑ F = ma Newton’s 2nd Law

mv 2 Gravity provides the centripetal acceleration

Fgravity =
r

GM mars m planet m planet v 2 Planet is the mass moving in a circle

2
=
r r

GM star 4π 2 r 2π
= 2 Substituting v =
r2 T T
Solving algebraically for r
r = ( GM starT 2 4π 2 )
1
3

r = 1.4 ×1010 m Although the star is somewhat less massive than our
sun the planet orbits at less than 0.1 AU. Since radi-
ation also follows an inverse square law. This means
the starlight on this planet is around 100 times more
intense than on earth!

[Link]:
m1m2 6.67 ×10−11 × 90 × 90
F =G = = 3.38 ×106 N
( 0.40 )
2
r2

7. Correction:
4 2
me = ρ × v = πRE ρ
3
Gme
g=
RE2
3g
G= = 9 ×10−11 m 2 / kg 2
4πρ re

[Link]
mm 1 1× m2
w1 = G 1 2 2 ⇒ × 9.8 = 6.67 ×10−11 ×
( )
2
R 6 1.738 ×106
m2 = 7.4 ×1022 kg

183
 UNIT 10 Effects of Electric and
Electric Potential Fields

Learner’s book pages 321-345

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, the learner should be
able to analysis electric and potential fields.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• recognise that an object can be charged by rubbing and there can
be attraction or/and repulsion between two charged objects.
• describe the Coulomb’s law for two charges being at certain
distance.
• apply the Coulomb’s law in resolving of problems
• solve some problems related to the Coulomb’s law.
• define the electric field is.
• calculate the electric field of a point charge.
• analyse an electric field of a point charge.
• recognise the existence of field lines.
• define the field lines.
• represent field lines of isolated charges and like and unlike
charges.
• recognise a uniform electric field.
• explain how a uniform electric field is created.
• calculate mathematically an electric field due to a distribution of
charges.
• state the principle of superposition of electric fields.
• determine the relation between the field strength and the charge
density.
• solve some problems related to electric field.

184
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

• calculate the work done by an electric force.

• explain what is the potential in the field.
• calculate the potential difference and energy of charges.
• find the relation between E and V.
• solve some problems related to electric potential
• find the equation and the trajectory of the motion of electric
charges in an electric field
• mention an example of the field of applicability of the motion of
charges in an electric field.
• calculate the velocity of particles when they leave an electric field.
• describe what is lightning and how it is produced.
• mention the dangers which can be caused by lightning and
measures to avoid them.
• explain the importance of lightning conductor in life.
• observe and inquire about effects of electric problems; formulate
hypothesis to it.
• describe functioning of lightning arrestors.

This unit is to be taught in 20 lessons, each of 40minutes

Evaluation must be done during the allocated time

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 Coulomb’s law 80 2
2 Exercises 80 2
3 Electric field 80 2
Notions and definitions
Electric field due to a point charge
4 Field lines 80 2
5 • Uniform field 80 2
• Electric field due to a distribution of
charges
• Field strength and charge density

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Serial Lesson title Number of Periods

number minutes
6 • Exercises 80 2
7 • Potential difference 80 2
• Work of electric force
• Potential in a field
• Potential difference, work and energy
of a charge
• Relation between E and V
8 Exercises 80 2
9 Motion of electric charge in an electric 80 2
field
10 Lightning and lightning protection 80 2
Total 800 20

Lesson 1: Coulomb’s law

Period 1: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Before you start the activity, review the electrification of objects.
Step 2: Guide the learners to discover that there are three ways to electrify
an object which are: by rubbing, by contact and by induction.
Step 3: Let learners carry out activity 1 page 322 Step by step, let them
perform the experiment and answer questions.
Step 4: Pass through to see how the experiment is being done and suggest
ways to follow in case of a problem.
Step 5: The possible result as conclusion, there can be attraction or repulsion
between two objects.
Step 6: Assign the learners to read the information below the activity 1;
learner’s book page 323.
Step 7: Instruct learners to carry out activity 2 page 323. Following the
procedure. Let them write and record data. Advise the learners on
the appropriate handling of materials as there are some which can be
easily discharged. They must be careful also in measuring, especially
lengths.

186
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

Step 8: In the use of computer, guide learners in the filling of data in excel
and how to carry out some calculations and to plot a graph with it.
In the case of no access to computers it can be done manually and
results will be the same.
Step 9: When learners finish the activity, guide them to interpret the results.
Draw a diagram showing two positive charges and remind learners
that there can be repulsion or attraction depending on signs of charges.
For the actual case, there is repulsion and show arrows expressing
the repulsion and guide learners to discover that in case of attraction
they change direction. The magnitude of the force acting between
them when they are separated by a distanced is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance but also is directly proportional to the
product of charges and that expresses the Coulomb’s law. He’ll state
the law and will give the mathematical relation of it. He’ll tell them
that the situation can be in different mediums that can affect the
magnitude of the force; reason why there is a constant k in the relation
which depends on the medium and its value depends on a constant
called permittivity of the medium. The way is in the learner’s book
on the same page. Show that the relation can take different forms
depending on the permittivity. Give also some values of the relative
permittivity for information and reference to learners.
Step 10: In the case of lack of the Coulomb’s apparatus, the teacher
demonstrate considering the similarity with magnets and show that
it respects the same law.
Step 11: Work through the examples (exercises) applying the law to show its
applicability.
Step 12: Assign other questions to learners as homework to be done in the
following lessons.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.

187
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage

them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 2: Coulomb’s law

Period 2: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Let the learners discuss given questions in groups and guided by the
teacher, and take common solution.
Step 2: Prepare the lesson well because this is to apply what you taught. You
must know also this is the time to revise and to emphasise on what
learners have learned. So remind the learners on what you taught’s
related to the step in question.
Step 3: You are not obliged to do all questions in the learner’s book. Leave
others to learners as homework.

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 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

Step 4: In preparing the lesson, choose other questions even outside the
learner’s book; the purpose is to raise the level of understanding of
the learners. Know the level, weakness and ways to strength them.
Step 5: The procedures of solving are based on the level of learners.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 3: Electric field

Period 3: (80 Minutes)
• Notions and definitions
• Electric field due to a point charge
Step 1: Let learners respond to questions for the introduction of the lesson.
Suggested answers: (a) The force acts even when charges are at a
certain distance. (b) The reason is that around charges, there is a
region in which charges undergo an electric force. (c) When the
distance increases the force decreases.
Step 2: Guide the learners to discover that when a charge is placed in a
region of the space around another charge, experiences a coulomb
force. This created region by the charge is called the electric field.
Bringing a charge q in a region where there is a charge q’, q enters in
a quantity E so that the force is F = qE. From that, we write E = F/q.
Step 3: Lead the learners to discover that the electric field is a vector quantity
because it has a direction and a magnitude. That can also be shown
considering that it’s the ratio of a vector and a scalar.
Step 4: From the above relation, knowing that the force is in Newton [N]
and the charge in coulomb [C] Show the unit of E which is [N/C].
Step 5: To express the electric field due to a point charge, consider the
general formula of the force (Coulomb’s law) and the relation E =
F’/q after simplification of charges he will give the relation of E.
Step 6: For two positive charges, there is repulsion and the vector force
diverges from the charge. That is also the direction of the electric
field. When a negative charge is near a positive charge, there is
attraction and in this case, the force changes the direction. From that
observation, we have the figure 10. 5 showing directions of electric
fields for the two cases of charges.
Step 7: Give examples to learners to work out but help them in correction.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).

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 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on

the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 4: Electric field

Period 4: (80 Minutes)
Field lines
Step 1: Let learners carry out activity 4 page 330 and follow the procedure
up to the end and record their observations.
Step 2: Follow each step and everything done by learners in this experiment.
Agree with them before each connection and start. Because working
with high voltages is very risky to people so every one must be
careful.
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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Teaching notes
(a) Just as scientists talk of a magnetic field in the space around
a magnet, they talk of electric fields in the space around an
electric charge. The grains of semolina behave like electric
compass needles (electric dipoles), and line up to show the
direction of the electric field.
(b) There is an electric field spreading out from any electric
charge, ready to influence any other charge and exert a force
on it. This is similar to the Earth’s readiness to influence mass
such as the Moon, or a learner, or a mug on the edge of a table,
with a gravitational force. However, the force that an electric
field exerts is not there until there is a charge for the field to
push or pull on. You could say ‘charged’ just means ‘ready to
make forces.

+ –

+ ? +

–
– – – – – –
+ + + + + +

+
(c) The illustrations show some electric field patterns which can
be modeled in this demonstration.
Step 3: In many schools, it may be difficult to perform this activity because
to realise these voltages, it’s not easy for poorly equipped labs. Also
to find all materials. So in this case the teacher can use magnets
and iron fillings to visualise the magnetic field lines and tell learners
that it is similar to electric field lines. The direction of the magnetic

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 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

field can be tested putting a compass in the field. And it can be

observed that the needle of the compass takes a direction tangent to
the magnetic field line.
Step 4: From that, the teacher will guide learners to define a field line and
draw diagrams of field lines of isolated charges, like charges and
unlike charges. This is observed considering magnets and iron
fillings. The positive charge is similar to the north pole of the magnet
and the negative charge is similar to the south pole of the magnet.
Field lines which are on diagrams of figure 10.9 can be observed.
And the direction of E can be shown by the direction of the needle of
the compass in the magnetic field.

Lesson 5: Electric field

Period 5: (80 Minutes)
• Uniform field
• Electric field due to a distribution of charges
• Field strength and charge density
Step 1: Discuss the uniform electric field from what learners have observed
and recorded from the previous activity. Ask them to present what
they observe when the two electrodes (or magnets) were parallel.
As answer, field lines were parallel. Then the teacher guide them to
discover a uniform electric field. Lead them to conclude that a field
in which field lines are parallel is a uniform field. In such field the
magnitude of the electric field has the same value; it doesn’t depend
on the distance. To create such field, we set two parallel plates which
have opposite signs and which are parallel. Between the plates the
field is uniform.
Step 2: In groups, learners carry out activity 5 page 333. Each group must
have a sheet of paper, a pen and a ruler. The activity is to apply
geometrical skills to determine the total electric field due to a
distribution of charges. Let them follow the procedure up to end and
discuss in groups and submit their work to. Then harmonise what
they found following the procedure below.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Mathematical relation
Let us consider various point charges q1, q2, q3, … positive or negative
having fixed positions. Let us put a point charge q at the point A.

If each point chargeq1, q2,q3… was alone,

 it would
 exert on thecharge

q a force given by F1 = qE1 , F2 = qE2 , F3 = qE3 , with E1 , E2 , E3 ,
When the charges act together the fields that they create are stacked
and the charge q is subjected to the resultant one concurrent forces:
      
F = F1 + F 2 + F3 + ... = q E 1 +(E 2 + E 3 + ... )

 F   
E = = E1 + E2 + E3 + ...
q

Conclusion: The electric field created at a point of space by a system

of point electric charges taking up fixed positions is equal to the
geometric sum of the electric fields created in this point by each
point electric charge.

Step 3: About the relation between the field strength and charge density,
follow and explain as it’s in the learner’s book.
Step 4: Work through examples in learner’s book page 338 in order to apply
what they’ve learned but the teacher will help them in the case of
problem.
Step 5: At the end, give them homework, exercises learner’s book page 334
which will be corrected in the following lessons.

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 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 6: Electric field

Period 6: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Set the learners to discuss given questions in groups and guide them
to take the common solution.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 2: Prepare the lesson carefully because this is to apply what you taught.
This is the time to revise and to emphasise on what learners have
learned. So he can remind the learners what he taught related to the
step in question.
Step 3: You are not obliged to work through all questions in the learner’s
book. Leave others to learners as homework.
Step 4: In preparing the lesson, choose other questions even outside the
learner’s book; the purpose is to raise the level of understanding of
learners. Know the level, their weakness how to strengthen them.
Step 5: Remember that procedures of solving are based on the level of
learners.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.
Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;

196
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

• by asking them oral questions.,

• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 7: Potential difference

Period 7: (80 Minutes)
• Work of electric force
• Potential in a field
• Potential difference, work and energy of a charge
• Relation between E and V
Step 1: Set learners to work through activities 6, 7 and 8 page 335 and 336
because they are related to the same lesson and it can be good to do
it in that way.
Step 2: Activities consist of questions whose answers will constitute notes
for learners but everything had to be from learners.
Step 3: After what was from learners, conclude by developing their
presentation into notes identical to the notes below.
Work of electric force

Let E be a uniform electric field. If in this field
 we put an electric charge q, it will be subjected to
AB F a force given by the expression F = q × E . If the
force moves the electric charge q from A to B it
accomplishes a work given by the expression:
q>0

WAB = F × AB and F = q × E ⇒ WAB = q × E × AB

If d = AB, we have WAB = q × E × d

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Remark: The work in the uniform field does not depend on the way followed
to pass to A at B but only distance separating A and B.
Potential in a field
When an object is held at a height above the earth it is said to have
gravitational potential energy. A heavy body tends to move under
the force of attraction of the earth from a point of great height to one
of less, and we say that points in the earth’s gravitational field have
potential values depending on their heights.
Electric potential is analogous to gravitational potential, but this
time we think of points in an electric field. So in the field round a
positive charge, for example, a positive charge moves from points
near the charge to points further away. Points round the charge are
said to have an “electric potential”.
The electric potential at the point in the field is defined as the energy
required to move unit positive charge from infinity to the point.

Potential difference, work and energy of charges

Let us consider two points A and B in an electrostatic field of strength
E, and let us suppose that the force on a positive charge q has a
component F in the direction AB. Then if we move a positively
charged body
 from B to A, we do work against this component of
the field E .
We define the potential difference p. d between A and B as the work
done in moving a unit positive charge from B to A.
Let VA be the electric potential at the point A and VB
the electric potential at the point
 B. To move a positive
charge from A to B, the force F produces a work given by:
WAB = q( V A − V B ) = qV AB with V A > V B
W
VA − VB = VAB = AB
q where VA − VB = VAB
is called potential difference.
The work done will be measured in Joules [J]. The unit of potential
difference is called the volt [V] and may be defined as follows. The
potential difference between two points A and B is one volt if the

198
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

work done taking one coulomb of positive charge from B to A is one

Joule.

Remarks
• Often we use the electron – volt [eV] as unit of the electric energy.
The electron – volt is the energy obtained by an electron charge
subject to a p. d of 1 volt.
We have: 1[eV] = 1. 6x10-19 C. 1V
= 1. 6 x 10-19 [CV]
=1. 6 x 10-19[J]
• Mesurement of the potential difference is carried out with a
voltmeter connected in parallel with the generator.
Relation between E and V
The work done to move a charge q from A to B in the field is given
by the expression:
WAB = q.E.d
The same work according to the potential one at A and B is given by
the expression:
wAB= q(vA– vB)

We can write: qq..EE.

.d d=
= qq(v
V AA(−– VvBB)) ⇒ V A − V B = E .d
From this expression, we see that another unit of the electric field is
Volt per metre  V  ; and the potential due to point charge at any
 m
q.d
point situated at a distance d is given by: V = E.d = k 2 ⇒
q 11 qq d
V =k =
d 4πε4πε dd
The teacher will demonstrate examples of application to learners and
they’ll work through them if the time allows. If not, learners can
think about them at home and before the starting of the next lesson
they can do correction.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

Lesson 8: Electric potential

Period 8: (80 Minutes)

Exercises

Step 1: Set the learners to discuss given questions in groups and guide them
as they come to a common solution.
Step 2: Prepare the lesson carefully because this is to apply what he taught.
This is the time to revise and to emphasise on what learners have
learned. Remind the learners on what you taught related to the steps
in question.
Step 3: You are not obliged to work through all questions in the learner’s
book. Leave others to learners as homework.
Step 4: In preparing the lesson, choose other questions even outside the
learner’s book; the purpose is to raise the level of understanding
of learners. Know the level, their weakness and how to strengthen
them.
Step 5: Procedures of solving them are based on the level of learners. The
teacher is the one to choose them.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.

201
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing

on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.
Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 9: Motion of electric charge in an electric field

Period 9: (80 Minutes)

Step 1: Set learners carry out activity10 page 339. Let them observe pictures,
search in internet and establish relations. In the case of no access to
Internet, they can even use book for the research. So the teacher will
be careful when combining all those situations.
Step 2: Guide the learners to respond to all questions. This is to develop
work from many situations at the same time.
Step 3: Appreciate the work of learners and guide them in the process but
encourage them do everything themselves.
Step 4: Lead them to develop notes similar to the information below in order
to ensure that learners have done what they were expected to do.
Some suggested answers: (a) That is the inside of a TV set, (b)
The electron gun, plates of deviation and a fluorescent screen. (c)
(Learners will research), Production of electron by electron gun.
This can be done in different way (to research). The produced
electrons are sent in a system of plates between which an electric
field exists then are sent on a screen on which we observe the arrival
of electrons. (d) The upper plate is charged positively because if it
was charged negatively the electric force could be acting downward

202
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

due to the direction of electric field lines. Other questions are in the
information which must be given to students.
On the figure below, charges, here we consider electrons, with a
horizontal vector velocity of magnitude Vo entering between two
horizontal plates P1 and P2 separated by a distance d. A p. d V =
VP1 – VP2 is applied between the plates. We assume the electric field
between the plates is uniform and acts on electrons on a horizontal
distance l measured from 0. The point A is the point where electrons
get out the electric field; l is the distance through which the uniform
field acts and x the horizontal trajectory travelled by electrons. In the
electric field, an electric force acts vertically on the charges. So there
is deflection of electrons in the electric field.
Guide the learners to discover the trajectory of the motion in the field
and some of its characteristics.

P1 γ

+++++++++
A
a
γ d
0 C I

P2
l

 x = v0tA (1)

In fact: l = x, we have:  1 2
 y = 2 tA (2)

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

xx x EE E
InIn(1)(1)t AInt=(1) t ,=F= mɣ
A = , AF m,γmFγand
= mFγ F=and
=and Fwhere
eEeE
= =where γ= ɣ=e eγ= = e
eE γwhere is the
v0v0 v0 mm m
acceleration of electrons. The equation of the trajectory travelled
in the field is given by
1  V  x2
y = e 
2  dm  v0 2
Knowing that E = V ,
d
1 E x2
ctory traveled in the field iswe
given by: y = e
write:
2 m v02
The trajectory between 0 and A is a parabola of equation:
1 E x2
y= e
2 m v02

Velocity in A
A being a point where electrons leave the electric field, the velocity
in A is given by:
   eEl
eEl
vvAA ==vvxx ++vvyy ⇒ 2 2
and vvyy ==γɣt
⇒vvAA == vvxx2 ++vvyy2,, vvxx ==vv00 and γttAAA ==
mv
mv00
22
 eVl
eVl222
The
The velocity
velocityin
in A is: vvAA == vv ++
A is: 00
dmv
dmv00 

Note:
• In establishing the formula, the teacher should remember that the
motion is in the X-Y plane so each quantity has two components;
according to OX and another according OY. This is the reason
why we have an equation for the horizontal motion and another
for the vertical motion.
• The teacher should guide the learners to discover that there are
so many applications of cathode ray tubes which are a useful
practical example of the motion of electrons in the electric field.
He’ll give some examples as TV, oscilloscope and others. Lead
them to discover that oscilloscopes are used in many fields. In
hospital, meteorology stations and in so many places if it’s the
case of studying variation of a quantity in time.

204
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

• After this lesson the teacher will assing a homework in which the
learners will do research for the following lesson doing activity11.
Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 10: Lightning and lightning protection

Period 10: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: Tell the learners that they have already done activity 10 as homework.
So in this lesson, learners can finalise it in discussions.
Step 2: As the explanation of the activity is in the learner’s book, the research
done by learners must go beyond what is in the learner’s book. Ask
them for example to explain how the lightning is produced. How the
lightning rod works, etc.
Step 3: Discuss the dangers of lightning to buildings and people; show how
to be protected from it. Talk to learners that it’s not good to be under
rainfall in order to avoid that.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

206
 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Answers for exercises

1.
Correction

Q1 + Q2 = 20 µ C
a)

Q1Q2
0.075 = 9 ×109 ×
32
Q1Q2 = 75µ C 2

Q1 ( 20 − Q1 ) = 75 OR

Q12 − 20Q1 + 75 = 0

Q1 = 5µC and Q2 = 15µ C

Q1Q2
−0.525 = 9 ×109 × OR Q1Q2 = −525µC 2
b) 9
Q12 − 20Q1 − 525 = 0

Q1 = 35 µ C and Q2 = −15 µ C
2.
Correction:

Q1Q2
F1 = K
r2

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

F1 = 43.2 N away from Q1

Q1Q2
F2 = K
r2
F1 = 28.8 N towards Q1

F = F1 − F2 = 14.4 N away from Q1

3.
Correction:
Q
E=K
r2
E = 10.8 KN / C

4.
Correction:

E = E1 + E 2 + E3 + E 4

Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 4 µc

E1 = − E 4 , E 2 = − E3 , therefore , E = 0

5.
Correction:
Q
v=k
r
v = +2340 v

6.
Correction:

Q Q 
v( x) = k  1 + 2 
 x x −1
x = 40 cm , or x = −200 cm

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 Effects of Electric Fields and Electric Potential

7.
Correction:
Q
v=k
r
v = 27.2 V
U = −eV = −27.2 eV

8.
Correction:
Here, we are supposed to give different ideas by basing upon the
following points:
A) A good introduction
B) Main body
C) A good conclusion

209
 UNIT 11 Applications of laws of
thermodynamics

Learner’s book pages 349-379

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should
be able to evaluate applications of first and second laws of
thermodynamics in real life.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• differentiate internal energy and total energy.
• explain the work done by an expanding gas.
• state the first law of thermodynamics.
• apply the first law of thermodynamics to explain the work done
in isothermal, isochoric, isobaric and adiabatic processes.
• define and distinguish between principal heat capacities.
• state the second law of thermodynamics.
• explain thermodynamic processes in heat engines.
• explain the impact of heat engine on climate.
This unit is to be taught in 24 lessons, each of 40minutes.
Evaluation must be done in allocated time.

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number Periods
number of
minutes
1 Internal energy and total energy (thermal 40 1
energy).
2 Thermodynamic systems 40 1

210
 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Serial Lesson title Number Periods

number of
minutes
3 Work done by an expanding gas 40 1

4 Specific heat capacities 40 1

5 First law of thermodynamics 40 1

6 Relationship between Cp and Cv 40 1

7 Application of the first law of 40 1

thermodynamics in isovolumetric process
Work of electric force
Potential in a field
Potential difference, work and energy of a
charge
Relation between E and V

8 Application of thermodynamics in an 40 1
isobaric process
9 An isothermal process 40 1

10 Application of thermodynamics in an 40 1
isothermal process
11 Adiabatic change 40 1

12 Application of the first law of 40 1

thermodynamics to derive the equations for
an adiabatic change
13 Solving problems concerning the gas 40 1
changes
14 Second law of thermodynamics 40 1

15 Applications of second law of 40 1

thermodynamics
16 The petrol engine 40 1

17 A two stroke engine 40 1

18 Diesel engines 40 1

19 A two stroke diesel engine 40 1

20 The refrigerator 40 1

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Serial Lesson title Number Periods

number of
minutes
21 Heat engines and climate change 40 1

22-24 Exercises 120 3

Total 800 20
Introduction
When heat flows to or from a system, or work is done on or by
a system, there is a change in the energy of this system. The
study of these processes that cause these energy changes is called
thermodynamics.
A thermodynamic system consists of a fixed mass of matter, often a
gas, separated from its surroundings, perhaps by a cylinder or a piston.
Heat engines such as petrol engine (otto engine), diesel engine, and
so on contain thermodynamic systems designed to convert heat into
mechanical work. Heat pumps and refrigerators are thermodynamic
devices used for transferring heat from a cold body to a hotter one.

Lesson 1: Internal energy and total energy (thermal energy)

Period 1: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to state what happens at boiling point if one is boiling
water in a container covered with a loose cover.
From the learners’ responses, explain to the learners that when this
sauce pan is heated, the heat gained is used to boil off the water and
extra work is done to push the sauce pan cover. This total heat energy
supplied is called thermal energy.
Step 2: Put learners in groups of four and instruct them to do activity 2 page
351 in the learner’s book.
Explain to the learners that when the bicycle tube is left exposed to
sunshine, it gets heated and the molecules in the gas gain energy and
hence its kinetic energy increases. As a result, they collide frequently
with the walls of the tube and therefore exert high pressure on the
walls and the tube bursts. The energy possessed by the molecules
of the gas is called internal energy of the gas. This energy depends

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

on the temperature of the gas. When a gas is heated, its temperature

increases and hence the average speed of molecules also increases
increasing the internal energy of the gas. Further increase of heat
supplied means that extra energy is absorbed by the molecules of
the gas, hence expanding and pushing the tyre. As a result, the tyre
bursts.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 2: Thermodynamic systems

Period 2: (40 Minutes)
Instruct learners to carry out activity 3 in the learner’s book on page
352.
From the above activity, ask them to explain the term thermodynamic
system. Ask the learners to describe the different types of
thermodynamic systems i. e open and closed systems giving examples
for each case.
Step 2: Instruct learners to carry out activity 4 in learner’s book page 353.
Remind the learners that heat is the energy that flows by conduction,
convection or radiation from one body to another because of a
temperature difference between them. These bodies where exchange
of heat to other forms of energy occurs are called thermodynamic
systems.
A thermodynamic system consists of a fixed mass of matter, often
a gas, separated from its surroundings, perhaps by a cylinder and a
piston. For example, Head engines such as a petrol engine, a steam
turbine and jet engine all contain thermodynamic systems designed
to convert heat into mechanical work. Head pumps and refrigerators
are thermodynamic devices for transferring heat from a cold body to
a hotter one.
In such devices, energy is transferred from one system to another by
a force moving its point of application in its own direction.
The energy of a system, whether transferred to it as heat or work is
termed as the internal energy of the system.
When there is no heat transfer between two systems, that is, the two
are at the same temperature, they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Help them in selecting their group leaders.

Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 3: Work done by an expanding gas

Period 3: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to explain why a bicycle pump gets hot when one
pumps air into it.
Step 2: If possible, look around your school and let the learners fill a bicycle
pump and feel what happens.
Step 3: Use leading questions to guide the learners to discover that when
you compress air in a bicycle pump, your muscles transfer energy
to the handle, which in turn transfers energy to the molecules of
air in the pump. This additional energy makes the molecules move
faster. As they are compressed into a smaller space, they also collide

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

more often with the wall of the pump, so they transfer more energy
to the metal wall and it becomes hot.
Step 4: Guide the learners to derive the work done by the expanding gas.
Use a syringe to show the change in volume when the gas expands.

Lesson 4: Specific heat capacities

Period 4: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Instruct the learners to carry out activity 7 page 359 in the learner’s
book.
Step 2: Guide to the learners to discover that, gases are considered to have a
number of specific heat capacities. A change in temperature of a gas
is likely to cause large changes in pressure and volume of the gas but
for solids or liquids, the change in pressure is neglected since they
are almost not affected by pressure.
In solids and liquids, heat energy is calculated by measuring the mass
of the liquids and solids. However in gases, we replace the mass with
the number of moles of a gas.
When the specific heat capacity of a gas is measured in terms of
its moles, it is known at principal specific heat capacity. There are
two important heat capacities: the molar heat capacity and constant
volume (Cv) and molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp).
The principal molar heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) is defined
as the heat required to increase the temperature of one mole of a gas
at constant volume by one Kelvin.
The principal molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) is the
amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one mole of a
gas at constant pressure by one Kelvin.
The molar heat capacities have units Jmol-1K-1.
Since at constant volume, the work done by a gas is zero, from W
= PΔV, ΔV = 0), then it is evident that the principal K molar heat
capacity at constant pressure, Cp is greater than that at constant
volume, Cv. The heat supplied at constant pressure is used to increase
internal energy plus the work done in the expansion of the gas.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

Lesson 5: First law of thermodynamics

Period 5: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to recall what they observed in the previous activity.
Ask them to explain why heat supplied at constant pressure is higher
than that at constant volume.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 2: Lead the learners to conclude that when a quantity of heat ΔQ is

supplied to a gas, two things happen:
(i) the heat supplied may increase the internal energy, U, of the
gas and the gas may expand and do some work, W in moving
the piston.
Statement of the law of thermodynamics: The amount of heat
supplied is equal to the change in internal energy of the gas
plus the work done by the gas.
i. e ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
(ii) The magnitude of internal energy depends on the temperature
of the gas i. e the internal energy is high at a high temperature
and low at low temperature.
Step 3: since ΔW = PΔV,
It follows that ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV
When n moles of a gas are considered, the amount of heat supplied
at constant pressure is nCpΔT, whereas the amount of heat supplied
at constant volume would be nCvΔT.

Lesson 6: Relationship between Cp and Cv

Period 6: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to state the first law of thermodynamics.
With the help of the law of thermodynamics, guide the learners to
derive the relation, Cp- Cv = R
From the first law of thermodynamic, at constant volume,
ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
ΔQ = ΔU = 1 x Cv x ΔT
It therefore follows that ΔU = CvΔT ………………. (i)
At constant pressure, ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
In this case, ΔU = CvΔT; ΔW = PΔV
And ΔQ = CpΔT

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

From equation (i)

ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW, ………………………………………(ii)
It follows that CpΔT = CvΔT + PΔV………………. . . . (iii)
Step 2: Ask learners to state the ideal gas equation.
From the ideal gas equation, PV = RT.
If the volume of the gas changes by ΔV and the temperature by ΔT;
P(V +ΔV) = R (T + ΔT).
PV + PΔV = RT + TΔT
= PΔV = RΔT………………(iv)
Substituting (iv) in (iii)
Cp = CvΔT + RΔT
CpΔT = (Cv + R) ΔT
CP = Cv + R
Therefore (Cp – Cv)= R
Where R is the universal molar gas constant whose value is 8. 31
Jmol-1K-1

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 7: Application of the first law of thermodynamics in is

- ovolumetric process
Period 7: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Let the learners carry out activity 8 on page 360 in learner’s book.
When the pressure in a system changes but the volume is constant,
you have what is called an isochoric process. An example of this
would be a simple closed container, which can’t change its volume
as seen in the activity 8.
An isovolumetric or isochoric change is the one that occurs at
constant volume. It means that the pressure and temperature of the
gas are changing at constant volume.
Step 2: Lead the learners to conclude that in this case, the volume is constant,
and from the law of thermodynamics, no work is done by the gas since
ΔV = 0.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Step 3: Guide the learners to derive the expression for work done in an
isovolumetric( isochoric) process.
This process takes place at constant volume and since
ΔV = 0, ΔW =∫PΔV = 0
ΔQ = ΔU
= CvΔT
Hence, in this process, the energy supplied is used to increase the
internal energy since the internal energy is independent of the
volume.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

• making learners to work out activities.

• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 8: Application of thermodynamics in an isobaric process

Period 8: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Put the learners in groups of four.
Step 2: Let each group choose a leader and they discuss activity 9 in the
learner’s book on page 360. Let each group present their views.
Step 3: Consolidate their responses by explaining to them that heating
substances in open containers imply that the pressure of the
substance is kept constant. This process is called an isobaric process.
An isobaric process is the one that occurs at constant pressure.
Heating of water in an open vessel and the expansion of a gas in a
cylinder with a freely moving piston are typical examples of isobaric
processes. In both cases, the pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure. For example, when a liquid is being heated, its volume
increases and the pressure inside the container is constant since the
number of collisions between water molecules and the walls of the
container is constant.
The same process occurs when a gas enclosed in a cylinder with a
frictionless piston is heated such that at any time, the gas pressure
equals the external pressure.
Step 4: Work done by the gas in the isobaric process
Guide the learners to derive an expression for the work done by the
gas in the isobaric process using the first law of thermodynamics.
From the law of thermodynamics, ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

In this case the external heat supplied is equal to the increase in

internal energy, CV of the gas plus the work done by the gas.
ΔQ = CVΔT + ΔW
When the gas expands from volume V1 to V2,
PΔV = P(V2 – V1)
It follows that ΔQ = CVΔT + P(V2 – V1).

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.

223
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular

method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 9: An isothermal process

Period 9: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Divide the learners in groups of four and provide each group with a
polythene bag and an ice-water mixture.
Step 2: Instruct the learner to carry out activity 10 in the learner’s book on
page 362.
Step 3: Let each group present their findings.
Possible responses: The gas condenses into water and the water
formed settles at the bottom of the polythene bag.
The temperature on the thermometer remains constant.
Step 4: This change is called Condensation. It takes place at constant
temperature and is thus an example of an isothermal process.
In an isothermal process, volume of a gas changes with pressure at
constant volume. An isothermal change can be reversible. It is either
a compression or expansion of a gas at a constant temperature.
Step 5: Conditions necessary for an isothermal process to occur
Let the learners carry out activity 11 on page 363 in the learner’s
book.
For an isothermal process to take place, the gas must be contained
in a thin –walled heat conducting vessel/container in good thermal
contact with a constant temperature reservoir.
The process must be carried out slowly to allow time for heat
exchange to take place.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Lesson 10: Application of thermodynamics in an isothermal

process
Period 10: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Work done by a gas in an isothermal change.
Ask learners if they have ever tried to boil water in a closed sauce
pan.
Ask them what happens to the cover when the vapour starts to come
off the water.
Possible response: The vapour pushes the cover off the pan.
Step 2: Guide the learners to conclude that the vapour does work on the
cover since it acts on it and pushes it upwards.
Step 3: Guide the learners to derive the expression for the work done by the
gas in an isothermal process.
From the first law of thermodynamics, ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW.
When the volume of gas changes by ΔV at constant temperature
then the pressure has also to change so that the ideal gas equation is
satisfied.
The work done, W is then given by
W= ∫Pdv
But PV = RT (For 1 mole of gas)

RT
It follows that P =
V
v 2 dv
Thus, W = RT ∫ = RTln[V]v2
v1 v v1

W = RTln[V]v2
v1

V2
W = RT ln
V1
From the above equation, the following can be drawn;
(i) When the gas expands (i. e V2>V1), then W is positive.
(ii) When the gas is compressed (i. e V2>V1), thus W is negative,
meaning that work is done on the gas in compressing it.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 11: Adiabatic change

Period 11: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Look for a bicycle pump and a tube, divide the learners into groups
of five.
Step 2: Let the learners pump the tube and leave the inflated tube standing
for five to ten minutes.
Step 3: Let the learners open the tube slowly while placing their other hand
in the path of the air coming out of the tube. Ask the learners what
they have noticed.
Possible response: The air coming out of the tyre is warm.
Step 4: Ask the learners to explain why the air coming out of the tube is
warmer the surrounding air.
As one pumps, the air molecules are compressed into a smaller space,
they thus collide more often and so they transfer more energy to one
another and become hot. No heat has been supplied to the system. It
is called an adiabatic compression.
Step 4: Let the learners pump the tyre again.
Let them leave it standing and go back to class but make sure that the
tyre is not exposed to sunshine.
Instruct the learners to open the tyre after two hours after the lesson
and note the temperature of the air coming out of the tube. Lead
them to discover that the air coming out will be cold compared to the
surrounding air.
Guide the learners to conclude that heat has been lost but not to the
surroundings by the air but when the air is left standing, expansion
occurs. This is associated with a decrease in temperature. It is called
an adiabatic expansion.
Step 5: Application of first law of thermodynamics to derive the expression
for the work done by the gas in an adiabatic change.
An adiabatic change is process in which no heat enters or leaves the
gas system. It is either an expansion or a compression.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Since ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV and ΔQ = 0

0 = CvΔT + PΔV
Or ΔU = -PΔV
If the gas expands, it does work, its internal energy is reduced and
hence the temperature is lowered.
If the gas is compressed, work is done on the gas, its internal energy
will increase and therefore its temperature rises.
Step 6: P-V diagram for an adiabatic change.
Guide the learners to draw a pressure – volume diagram for an
adiabatic change.
Step 7: Conditions that is necessary for an adiabatic change to occur
Ask learners how they always protect themselves from a bad weather.
Possible response: By wearing jackets and sweaters.
On a cold day, we always wear woolen jackets to protect ourselves
from coldness. Therefore no heat is either lost to the surrounding and
or gained. In this case, an adiabatic process is achieved.
Therefore, for an adiabatic process to be achieved, the gas must be
contained in a thick –walled and perfectly insulated isolated container,
and the process must be carried out rapidly to avoid any possible
heat exchanges between the gas system and the surroundings.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

227
 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 12: Application of the first law of thermodynamics to

derive the equations for an adiabatic change
Period 12: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to state the law of thermodynamics.
Response: It states that,
ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV
Step 2: Relationship between pressure and volume.

Guide the learners to derive the relation pvɣ = a constant

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Step 3: Instruct learners to derive the relation between pressure and

temperature;
ɣ ɣ
T P1- = a constant

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 13: Solving problems concerning the gas changes

Period 13: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Work through the example on page 367 in the learner’s book.
A gas has a volume of 0.02m3 at a pressure of 2x105Pa and a
temperature 27oC. it is heated at constant pressure until its volume
increases to 0.03m3. Calculate the:
(i) External work done.
(ii) New temperature of the gas.
(iii) Increase in internal energy of the gas if its mass is 16g, its
molar heat capacity at constant volume is 0. 8 Jmol-1K-1 and
the molar mass is 32gm.
Step 2: Write the equation of the example on page 368 in the learner’s book
and call a learner to do it from the chalk board.
Step 3: Correct the learner’s work by talking about key points to consider
while attempting such questions.
Step 4: Instruct learners to attempt number 3 of the exercise on page 368-
369 in the learner’s book.

Lesson 14: Second law of thermodynamics

Period 14: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners if they know of some devices that use liquids or gases
to operate.
Possible response: Engines, domestic hot water supply, refrigerators
Step 2: Ask the learners how liquids or gases are used in each device.
Possible responses: The engines consume fuels for example petrol
and diesel to operate. In the domestic hot water supply, when hot
water is ran from the lower tap, cold water enters the system from
the reservoir tank.
Step 3: Statement of second law of thermodynamics
Explain to the learners that some devices like those mentioned above
use fluids which move with in the device in different cycles.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

For example, “no heat engine can perform a cyclic operation whose
only result is to convert internal energy into mechanical energy”
This is the statement of first law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics can also be stated as “no
refrigerator (or heat pump) can transfer internal energy from a cold
reservoir to a hot reservoir without some external agent doing work.
”

Lesson 15: Applications of second law of thermodynamics

Period 15: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Heat engines
Ask learners if they have ever heard of engines.
Ask them where the engines are exactly used and how they operate.
Lead them to conclude that any device which will convert heat
cyclically into mechanical work is called a heat engine. It is a
machine, which changes heat energy, obtained by burning a fuel, to
kinetic energy.
The material which, on being supplied with heat, performs mechanical
work is called the working substance.
The working substance of engines in motor vehicles are liquid petrol
and diesel.
Step 2: Carnot cycle.
Ask the learners how the petrol and diesel are used in an engine.
The cycle of operations through which the working substance has
been taken is called carnot’s cycle. The heat is absorbed taken in at
one constant temperature and all the heat rejected to the sink is given
out at another constant temperature. No work is done at any stage in
overcoming frictions, and no heat is lost to the surrounding, and the
cycle is completely reversible.
A carnot cycle is called an ideal heat engine because in all practical
engines, work is done in overcoming friction and heat is lost to the
surroundings.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 3: Otto cycle and diesel engine.

Guide the learners and explain the two types of cycles. An Otto
cycle is an idealised thermodynamic cycle which describes the
functioning of a typical spark ignition reciprocating piston engine,
the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile
engine.
The Otto cycle consists of adiabatic compression, heat addition
at constant volume, adiabatic expansion, and rejection of heat at
constant volume.
The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle, which approximates
the pressure and volume of the combustion chamber of the Diesel
engine.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 16: The petrol engine

Period 16: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Let the learners carry out activity 18 In the learner’s book on page
374.
Explain to the learners that many vehicles use petrol in order to move.
Such vehicles are small cars and motorcycles. The engine they have
is called a petrol engine since it uses petrol to operate. It operates
by moving the piston. The upward and downward movement of the
piston is called a stroke. There are two types of petrol engines; a
four stroke engine and a two stroke engine. In petrol engines, Petrol
is mixed with air and exploded inside the engine cylinder. The
explosion is used to force down a closely fitting piston.
Step 2: Four stroke engine:
This is the common type of petrol engine. It is called a four stroke
engine because there is only one power strike in four strokes. The
other strokes suck petrol and air in, compress the mixture and push
the burnt gas out.
Step 3: The strokes of a petrol engine: Discuss with the learners the sequence
of the four strokes of the engine.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

(i) Intake stroke: In this, inlet valve opens, air and petrol mixture
enter the cylinder, and the piston goes down as the exhaust
valve closes decreasing the pressure within.
(ii) Compression: Both valves are shut, the piston moves up
compressing the petrol and air.
(iii) Power stroke: Both valves are still shut, spark plug produces
a spark which ignites the mixture, the piston moves down and
power is obtained plus some energy (chemical-mechanical-
heat).
(iv) Exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve opens, the piston moves up
and pushes the burnt gases through the exhaust valve.
Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

• making learners to work out activities,

• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 17: A two stroke engine

Period 17: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to state the four strokes in the four stroke petrol engine.
Step 2: Guide the learners on how the two stroke engine works. Talk about
the two strokes of the engine. Explain to the learners that this engine
has a [power stroke every down stroke. It has no valves as in a four
stroke engine. It relies on the petrol uncovering holes in the cylinder
walls to let petrol and air in, and the exhaust gases out. These holes
are called parts.
Compression and explosion: In this stage the piston is full of petrol-
air mixture, with the piston compressing the mixture. As the piston
moves up the cylinder, it covers the exhaust and the transfer ports. At
the same time, the inlet port is un covered and the crank case takes in
more petrol-air mixture. When the piston reaches the top, the spark
plug sparks and explodes the fuel, forcing the piston down.
Inlet and exhaust: After a piston has been forced down by exploding
fuel, it uncovers the exhaust and transfer ports. The motion of the
piston moving down into the crank case, through the transfer port
and into the cylinder. The new mixture coming into the cylinder
blows the burnt gases out through the exhaust port.
Step 3: Display a chart showing these cycles for the learners to understand
better.
Step 4: Guide the learners to discover where the two stroke petrol engine
is applicable i. e in small motor cycles, lawn mowers and portable
generators.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 18: Diesel engines

Period 18: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to give examples of vehicles which use petrol engines.
Build on their responses and explain to the learners the type of
vehicles which use diesel engines. The engine is used in heavy
vehicles such as lorries, buses, trailers, and ships.
Step 2: Structure of a diesel engine:

Ask the learners to list down the strokes of a petrol engine. Build
on their responses to describe the structure of the diesel engine.
The Diesel engine uses diesel to operate. A diesel engine can operate
by making two or more strokes.
The operation of two and four stroke Diesel engines is similar to that
of the petrol varieties. However, diesel is used instead of petrol. There
is no spark plug and the carburetor is replaced by a fuel injector.
The main difference between the diesel engine and the petrol engine
is the way in which fuel is burnt. In a diesel engine, the injector
pump is compressed so much that it becomes hot enough to ignite
the diesel.
Step 3: The four stroke diesel engine.
This is the most common type of diesel engine. The sequence of the
strokes is;
1. Intake: in this, the inlet valve is open, Piston moves down and
air is drawn into the cylinder.
2. Compression: In this, both valves are closed, piston moves
and compresses the air and diesel fuel is sprayed through the
injector.
3. Explosion: In this, valves are closed, fuel air mixture ignited
and the piston moves down because of explosion.
4. Exhaust: In this, the exhaust valve opens and the piston moves
up and pushes the burnt gases out through the exhaust valve.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Lesson 19: A two stroke diesel engine

Period 19: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to describe the working of a four stroke engine.
From their responses, guide them to conclude that the two stroke
diesel engine has only the Compression and explosion stroke and the
intake and exhaust. This makes the engine more powerful.
Step 2: Display a chart and explain to the learners the two strokes of the
engine.
• Compression and explosion: In this, the piston moves up
compressing the air in the cylinder making it hotter. Diesel is then
sprayed through the injector. The heat of compression ignites the
fuel and the explosion forces the piston down.
• Intake and exhaust: In this, the piston is forced down by the
exploding diesel fuel, uncovering the exhaust and the inlet ports.
Compressed air is blown in through the inlet port and burnt gas
out through the exhaust port, and fills the cylinder with fresh air.
The cycle is then repeated.
Step 3: Differences between a petrol engine and a diesel engine.
Ask learners to state the differences from the structures of the engines
and their workings.
Step 4: Advantages of diesel engine over petrol engines.
Instruct learners to work through the activity 20 on page 376 in the
learner’s book.
Diesel engines, sometimes called compression ignition (C. I) engines,
though heavier than petrol engines, are reliable and economical. Their
efficiency of about 40% is higher than that of any other heat engine.
A disadvantage of the diesel engine is that its higher compression
ratio means that it needs to be more robust, and is therefore more
massive

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on

the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Lesson 20: The refrigerator

Period 20: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Ask learners to work through activity 21 on page 376 of the learner’s
book.
Step 2: Display a chart and explain how the refrigerator works.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

A refrigerator is used to cool substances. It cools things by evaporation

of a volatile liquid called Freon. The coiled pipe around the freezer
at the top contains Freon which evaporates and takes latent heat from
the surroundings so causing cooling. The electrically driven pump
removes the vapour and forces it into heat exchanger(pipes with
cooling fins outside the rear of the refrigerator). Here the vapour is
compressed and liquefies giving out latent heat of vaporization to the
surrounding air. The liquid returns to the coils around the freezer and
the cycle is repeated. An adjustable thermostat switches the pump on
and off, controlling the rate of evaporation and so the temperature of
the refrigerator.
Guide the learners to discover that it uses a process which is a cycle
of evaporation, compression cooling, evaporation again.
Step 3: Look around the school where there could be a refregerator and take
learners to observe. Give more clarifications from there.

Lesson 21: Heat engines and climate change

Period 21: (40 Minutes)
Step 1: Put learners in groups of five and ask them to discuss the causes of
pollution in Rwanda.
Let the group leaders present their findings.
Possible answers: Smoke from industries pollutes air and spills of
oils from cars pollute water in the rivers.
Guide the learners to conclude that most of air pollution is caused
by the burning of fuels such as oil, natural gas and gases as a result
of combustion.
Step 2: In groups of five, ask the learner to explain how water and air
pollution affect the environment and the climate.
Possible answers: people in hale the gases and get poisoned.
When it rains, the oil spills are transported into rivers and since oil
is less dense than water, it settles on top and prevents evaporation.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Guide the learners to discover how air pollution has an adverse effect
on the climate. Climate change is the greatest environmental threat
of our time endangering our health.
When a heat engine is running, it emits greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, which contributes to global warming. Fuels used in
heat engines contain carbon. The carbon burns in air to form carbon
dioxide. The Carbon dioxide and other global warming pollutants
collect in the atmosphere and act like a thickening blanket, and
destroy the ozone layer. Therefore the sun’s heat from the sun is
received direct on the earth surface and causes the planet to warm
up. As a result of global warming, the vegetation is destroyed; ice
melts and water tables are reduced.
Heat engines especially diesel engines produce Soot. The dark
particles in the soot absorb incoming and scattered heat from the
sun; they can promote the formation of clouds that can have either
cooling or warming impact; and black carbon can fall on the surface
of snow and ice, promoting warming and hence increasing melting.
Similarly, some engines leak for example old car engines, and oil
spills all over. When it rains, this oil is transported by rain water to
lakes and rivers. The oils then create a layer on top of the water and
prevent free evaporation of the water.
Step 3: Put the learners in groups of five and discuss ways of reducing the
effects of heat engines on the environment.
Possible answers: Banning old vehicles from towns

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if it
is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should
be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.

240
 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and smartly.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school library.

Answers for exercises

1.
Solution:
The heat capacity at constant volume is more important because it
is closely related to the internal energy of a chemical system.
2.
Solutions:
Isothermal: is one on which the system changes in such a way
that the temperature remains constant throughout.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Isobaric: is on in which the pressure on the system remains

unchanged throughout the process.
Isovolumetric or isochoric: is one in which the volume of the
system remains the same.
Adiabatic process: is one in which no heat transfer takes place
into or out of the system.
3.
Solution:
When a gas is heated a t constant volume, the entire heat energy
supplied goes to increase the internal energy of the gas molecules.
But when a gas is heated at a constant pressure, the heat supplied
not only increases the internal energy of the molecules but also
does mechanical work in expanding the gas against the opposing
constant pressure.
Hence, the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure, Cp, is greater
than its specific heat at constant volume Cv

R
c p − cv =
M
4.
Solution:

a) wAB = 0 , since dw = Pdv = 0

T2 P2 1 T
b) = = or T2 = 2 = 136.58 k
T1 P1 2 2
c) The constant –pressure process returns the gas to the original
temperature.

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 Applications of laws of thermodynamics

T1 = 273.16 K , since pressure is constant and V double

1 1 1
WBC = PdV
1 = PV
1 1 = RT1 = (8.31)(273.15) = 1135 J
2 2 2
5.
Solution:

The equation for internal energy is,

ΔU = q + w
ΔU= q+0
ΔU = q = 50 J
6.
Solution:

∆Q = ( 800 cal )( 4.184 J / cal ) = 33.5kJ and ∆w = 6.00kJ

Therefore, from the First law ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W ,

∆U = ∆Q − ∆W = 33.5 kJ − 6.00 kJ = 27.5 kJ

7.
Solution:

∆Q = cm ∆T = ( 4184 J / kg .k )( 0.050 kg ) (160 C ) = 3.4 ×103 J

If we ignore the slight expansion of the water, no work done on
the surroundings

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W

∆U = ∆Q = 3.4kJ
8.
Solution:

∆Q = mL f = ( 5 g )( 80 cal / g ) = 400 cal

As ∆W = 0 , from the first law, ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W

∆U = ∆Q = (400cal )(4.184 J / cal ) = 1.7 kJ

9.
Solution:

∆Q = mc∆T = ( 0.11 cal / g .0 c ) (1700 g ) ( 2800 c ) = 52 kcal

∆v = vβ∆T = ( 216 ×10−6 m3 )( 3.6 ×10−5 0 c −1 )( 2800 c ) = 2.18 ×10−6 m3

∆W = P ∆V = (1.0 ×105 N / m 2 )( 2.18 ×10−6 m3 ) = 0.22 J

∆U = ∆Q − ∆W = ( 52 000 cal )( 4.184 J / cal ) − 0.22 J

= 218 000 J − 0.22 J ≈ 2.2 ×105 J

10.

Solution:

a) ∆U = ∆Q − ∆W = ( 500 cal )( 4.184 J / cal ) − 400 J = 1.69 kJ

b) ∆U = ∆Q − ∆W = ( 300 cal )( 4.184 J / cal ) − ( −420 J ) = 1.68 kJ

c) ∆U = ∆Q − ∆W = ( −1200 cal )( 4.184 J / cal ) − 0 = −5.02 kJ

244
UNIT 12 General Structure of the
Solar System

Learner’s book pages 383-415

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, the learner should be
able to illustrate and describe the general structure of the solar system.

##
Learning objectives
Learners should be able to:
• identify and explain scales for estimate astronomical distances.
• explain the phenomenon of eclipse.
• explain the phenomenon of phases of the moon.
• distinguish the inner and outer planets.
• outline and describe the positions of the eight planets with the sun.
• differentiate comets and meteorites and asteroids.
• explain Kepler’s laws.
• state Kepler’s laws.
• solve some problems related to Kepler’s laws.
• observe the universe and identify planets and stars.
• distinguish a star and a planet.
• explain the existence of constellations.
• define and apply celestial coordinates.
• identify celestial coordinates.
• define and apply celestial coordinates.
• identify celestial coordinates.
This unit is to be taught in 20 lessons, each of 40 minutes.
Evaluation must be done in allocated time.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Unit Breakdown
Serial Lesson title Number of Periods
number minutes
1 • Astronomical scales 80 2

2 • Sun-Moon-Earth system 160 4

• Eclipses (Lunar and solar eclipses)
• Phases of the moon
3 • The solar system 240 6
• Inner and outer planets
• Comets
• Meteorites
• Asteroids
• Kepler’s laws
4 Kepler’s laws :Exercises 80 2

5 Stars patterns: Constellations 80 2

6 • Celestial coordinates 80 4
• Equatorial coordinates system
• Horizontal coordinates system

Total 800 20

Lesson 1: Astronomical scales

Period 1: (80 Minutes)
Step 1: The teacher will introduce the lesson showing to learners that the
scale depends on the measurement wanted to be done. He will guide
the learners to discover that in astronomy, the meter cannot be used
due to big distances to be measured. So other scales can be used.
Step 2: Set the learners to work through activity 1 on page 384. Make sure
that all steps are followed. The activity must be read carefully by
learners before to be performed.
Step 3: Ask the learners to emphasise on the case they have because they
have to know how to convert to astronomical scales.

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 General Structure of the Solar System

Step 4: Ask the learners to read through the information in the learner’s
book on the page 383-385.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners carry out the related activity in learner’s book (if
it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Lesson 2: Sun-Moon-Earth system

Period 2: (160 Minutes)

Eclipses (Lunar and solar eclipses)

Step 1: Explain to learners that in their motion, the earth and the moon can
occupy different positions so at a certain time rays from the sun
cannot reach the moon or the earth due to the position of one of
them. In that case, we have an eclipse. He’ll show the difference
between a lunar eclipse and a solar eclipse.
Step 2: Ask the learners if they have ever seen an eclipse. Was it a solar or
a lunar eclipse? He’ll explain that solar eclipses are much rarer but
today they will be lucky enough to see both.
Step 3: Instruct learners to carry out activity 2 on page 387. Let them create
an eclipse by performing the experiment. Let them follow step by
step procedures.
Step 4: Instruct the learners to read through the information below activity
2, before the following activity.
Step 5: Instruct learners to consider the apparatus in activity 2 and carry out
activity 3 on page 389. Let them perform the experiment following
step by step.
Step 6: Ask them to read through the information in the learner’s book.

Information to the teacher

On page 390 figure 12.1, surrounding the shadow cone, also called
the umbra, is an area of partial shadow called the penumbra. The
approximate mean length of the umbra is 1,379,200 km; at a distance
of 384,600km, the mean distance of the moon from the earth, it has
a diameter of about 9170km.
Before the moon enters the umbra in either total or partial eclipse, it
is within the penumbra and the surface becomes visibly darker. The
portion that enters the umbra seems almost black, but during a total
eclipse, the lunar disk is not completely dark; it is faintly illuminated
with a red light refracted by the earth’s atmosphere, which filters out
the blue rays. Occasionally a lunar eclipse occurs when the earth is

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 General Structure of the Solar System

covered with a heavy layer of clouds that prevent light refraction; the
surface of the moon is invisible during totality.

Related to the solar eclipse and the Figure 12. 2

The length of the moon’s umbra varies from 367, 000 to 379, 800
km, and the distance between the earth and the moon varies from
357, 300 to 407, 100 km. Total solar eclipses occur when the moon’s
umbra reaches the earth. The diameter of the umbra is never greater
than 268.7km where it touches the surface of the earth, so that the
area in which a total solar eclipse is visible is never wider than that
and is usually considerably narrower. The width of the penumbra
shadow, or the area of partial eclipse on the surface of the earth, is
about 4828km. At certain times when the moon passes between the
earth and the sun, its shadow does not reach the earth. At such times,
an annular eclipse occurs in which an annulus or bright ring of the
solar disk appears around the black disk of the moon.
The shadow of the moon moves across the surface of the earth in
an easterly direction. Because the earth is also rotating eastward,
the speed of the moon shadow across the earth is equal to the speed
of the moon traveling along its orbit, minus the speed of the earth’s
rotation. The speed of the shadow at the equator is about 1706 km/h;
near the poles, where the speed of rotation is virtually zero, it is
about 3380km/h. The path of a total solar eclipse and the time of
totality can be calculated from the size of the moon’s shadow and
from its speed. The maximum duration of a total solar eclipse is
about 7. 5 minutes, but these are rare, occurring only once in several
thousand years. A total eclipse is usually visible for about 3 minutes
from a point in the center of the path of totality.

Phases of the moon

Step 1: Introduce the lesson by asking learners if the moon appears in the
same way all time in the sky. Probably they’ll say no. Guide the
learners to discover that there are different phases of the Moon that
make it appear a little different every day, but it looks the same again
about every four weeks. The Moon can sometimes be seen at night
and sometimes during the day.

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Step 2: Instruct the learners to carry out activity 4 on page 391 which will
be the focus of the discussion. In groups of 3 to 5 learners let them
discuss following; the instructions spelt out in the activity.
Suggested answers: (a) At night, Yes, it can be seen during the day
too. At different times of the month it is easier to see. (b) Sometimes
you can only see a little white sliver and sometimes you can see the
whole moon. (c) Explain that it takes the moon 29 days (about 1
month) to travel around the earth and the different phases that we see
are when the moon is at different points in that orbit.
Step 3: After discussion, ask the learners to read through the information
about it in the learner’s book.

Information to the teacher

Through the use of probing and through provoking question lead
the learners to develop notes similar to the set below.
The Moon’s orbit around Earth is tilted 5° from the plane of Earth’s
orbit. Because of this tilt, when the Moon is at the point in its orbit
when it is between Earth and the Sun, the Moon is usually a little
above or below the Sun. At that time, the Sun lights the side of the
Moon facing away from Earth, and the side of the Moon facing
toward Earth is dark. This point in the Moon’s orbit corresponds to
a phase of the Moon called the new moon. A quarter moon occurs
when the Moon is at right angles to the line formed by the Sun and
Earth. The Sun lights the side of the Moon closest to it, and half of
that side is visible from Earth, forming a bright half-circle. When
the Moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, the face

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 General Structure of the Solar System

of the Moon visible from Earth is lit, showing the full moon in the
sky.

Waning Last quarter Waning

gibbous crescent

Full New

Earth
Moon Moon

Waning Waning Toward sun

crescent Last quarter gibbous

In the figure, we can see different phases for which explanations are
given.

First quarter
When the Moon reaches the first quarter of its phases, it appears as a
half-moon. One half of the Moon is now lit up by sunlight.

Waxing Gibbous
After the first half-moon, or first quarter, the Moon moves towards
full moon. As more of it is lit up, the Moon is said to be waxing. It
is also said to be gibbous (between a semicircle and a full circle in
shape).

Full Moon
When the Moon appears as a full moon, all of its visible side is in
sunlight.

Waning crescent
After a full moon, the Moon begins to decrease again. The Moon is
now said to be waning. It is also said to be gibbous (between a semi
circle and a full circle in shape).

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 Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Guide Book 4

Last quarter
The Moon continues waning until it reaches its last quarter, also
known as half-moon.

Waning Gibbous
After a full moon, the Moon begins to decrease again. The Moon
is now said to be waning. It is also said to be gibbous (between a
semicircle and a full circle in shape).

New moon
With a new moon, the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth,
causing none of the illuminated side of the Moon to be visible to the
Earth.

Waxing crescent
After a new moon, the Moon moves through a crescent phase. The
moon is now said to be waxing.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners work through the related activity in learner’s book
(if it is a mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group
should be balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.
Identify learners with special needs in group making. Encourage
them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

252
 General Structure of the Solar System

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.
• making learners to work out activities.
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 3: The solar system

Period 3: (240 Minutes)
Inner and outer planets
Step 1: While introducing the lesson, through review of the previous lesson,
the teacher will define what the solar system is. He’ll show different
constituents of a solar system and show that the aim of the lesson is
the study of that.
Step 2: Let the learners carry out activity 5 on page 393. Pass around to
guide with the learners. Give some material to learners performing
the activity. Step by step the activity must be carried out. It’s an
interesting activity so that learners can go away from lesson spirit
and think that it’s a game. You must watch out that issue.
Step 3: After the activity, assign the learners to read through the notes below
activity 5.

Inner and outer planets

Step 1: Ask the learners to present their findings from the previous activity.
Step 2: Give information to learners about the lesson and what they will be
discussing.

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Information to the teacher

The table below constitutes more information about Inner and Outer
planets: Ask the learners to make short notes on the inner and outer
planets after their research. Discuss with your learners the importance
issues related to the topic.

The Inner Planets The Outer Planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune

Small size Huge!

Earth is the largest of the Inner Planets, Jupiter, the largest planet, has a
with a diameter of 12, 756 km (7, 926 diameter of 142, 984 km (88, 846
miles). Mercury is the smallest with a miles). Neptune is the smallest of the
diameter of 4, 878 km (3, 031 miles) Outer Planets with a diameter of 49,
532 km (30, 779 miles)

Have solid surfaces and thin/no Balls of gas with no surface

atmospheres Most of the Outer Planets are made of
In theory, it would be possible to stand gas. It is likely that they have a much
on each of the Inner Planets, although smaller solid or liquid centre. It would
you would only survive on Earth. be impossible to stand on any of the
Outer Planets.

Greater Density Smaller Density

The size and composition of the planets Despite being larger, the elements that
is caused by the density of the elements make up the Outer Planets are less
that make up the planets. The elements densely packed together causing them
in the Inner Planets are more closely to be quite light for their size.
packed together, causing them to be
smaller on solid.

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Varied atmospheres Similar atmospheres

The contents of the atmospheres of The atmospheres of the Outer Planets
the Inner Planets varies from planet consist mostly of Hydrogen and
to planet. Mercury has no atmosphere Helium, with Methane also being
although Sodium and Helium can be present in the atmospheres of Uranus
detected above the surface. Venus’ and Neptune. Other gases are present
atmosphere is mostly Carbon Dioxide although in much smaller quantities.
with a very small amount of Nitrogen.
Earth’s atmosphere is mostly Nitrogen
with a smaller amount of Oxygen
and even smaller amounts of other
gases. Mars has a similar composition
of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as
Venus although has a much thinner
atmosphere.

Known by the ancients Not known by the ancients

The existence of the Inner Planets has Of the Outer Planets, only Jupiter
been known about for thousands of and Saturn were observed by ancient
years. The earliest astronomers didn’t astronomers. The existence of Uranus
know that the four objects (including and Neptune was not known until
Earth) were planets, but they knew they relatively recently. Uranus was
existed. discovered in 1781 and Neptune in
1846.

Spin slowly Spin quickly

Compared to the much larger Outer All of the Outer Planets spin quicker
Planets, the Inner Planets spin quite than the Inner Planets. Uranus spins
slowly. Earth spins the quickest, taking slowest, taking 17 hours and 14 minutes
23 hours and 56 minutes to spin on its to spin on its axis. Jupiter takes only 9
axis. Venus takes 243 days to spin on its hours and 55 minutes to spin on its axis.
axis, spinning in an opposite direction This rapid rotation causes Jupiter and
to the other planets. Saturn to appear squashed, wider across
the equator than from top to bottom.

Orbit the Sun quickly Orbit the Sun slowly

Because they are quite close to the Sun, The Outer Planets orbit the Sun from
the Inner Planets complete an orbit millions of miles and have a much
quickly. Mercury takes only 88 days to greater distance to cover to complete
orbit the Sun. Mars takes 687 days. an orbit, so take much longer to do
so. Jupiter takes almost 12 years to
complete an orbit and Neptune takes
over 164 years.

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Few Moons Lots of Moons

Only Earth and Mars have moons All of the Outer Planets have many
orbiting them. One moon orbits Earth moons orbiting them. There are 63
and two small moons orbit Mars. moons known to orbit Jupiter, 60
orbiting Saturn, 27 orbiting Uranus and
13 orbiting Neptune.

No rings Rings
None of the Inner Planets have rings All of the Outer Planets have rings
orbiting them orbiting them. The rings are thin discs
of dust and rocks possibly caused by
moons being broken up or not being
completely formed while orbiting the
planet. Saturn has the most visible ring
system of any of the planets.

Multiple space craft visitors All Outer Planets visited by one space
Due to being close to Earth, there have craft
been several missions to the other There have been multiple visits to
Inner Planets, especially to Mars and Jupiter and Saturn, but Uranus and
Venus. Mercury has been visited by two Neptune have only been visited once.
spacecrafts. This was by Voyager 2 (which also
visited Jupiter and Saturn)

Comets, Meteorites
Step 1: Set the learners to carryo ut activities 6 and 7 on page 400 and 402 is
about reading notes and understandings.
Step 2: In groups, instruct the learners to read notes. Using probing questions
make sure that they have understood what you assigned them to do.
Step 3: After that, let them answer questions in the activity 6 and activity 7.

Asteroids
Step 1: Let the learners work through activities 8 in the learner’s book on
page 403.
Step 2: In groups, let the learners read notes. Using probing questions make
sure that they have understood what you assigned them to do.
Step 3: After that, let them answer questions.

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Kepler’s laws
Step 1: Kepler’s laws exist. There is a way they are stated. In this lesson let
learners carry out activity 9 on page 405 which will help them to
recall those laws.
Step 2: Set the learners to perform the activity following step by step and
apply mathematical notions. This part concerns geometry.
Step 3: In the part (a) of the activity, lead learners to draw manually an
ellipse. The pencil will act as the trajectory of a planet moving,
describing an ellipse.
Step 4: In part (b) learners observe areas swept out on the diagram and
present a conclusion. Guide learners to discover that these areas are
the same. Since the base of these triangles are shortest when the
earth is farthest from the sun, the earth would have to be moving
more slowly in order for this imaginary area to be the same size as
when the earth is closest to the sun.
Step 5: For part (c) there is a table containing some data for planets Earth
and Mars. The purpose is to show that values T2/R3 are almost equal
for those planets but here quantities are in SI units. Let learners fill
the missing data in the last column.
Step 6: In (d) there is a table containing data for all planets. The purpose is
the same as in (c). To fill the last column in order to conclude the
third law.
Step 7: Lead the learners to discover that the activity was related to laws
called Kepler’s laws for planetary motion. From the activity lead the
learners to develop and state Kepler’s laws.

Information to the teacher

Most planetary orbits are almost circles, and careful observation
and calculation is required in order to establish that they are
actually ellipses. Calculations of the orbit of the planet Mars first
indicated to Johannes Kepler its elliptical shape, and he inferred that
other heavenly bodies, including those farther away from the Sun,
also have elliptical orbits.

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Kepler’s work (published between 1609-1619) improved the heliocentric

theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, explaining how the planets’ speeds
varied, and using elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits with epicycles.
Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler’s would
apply in the solar system to a good approximation, as consequences
of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.
Kepler’s laws are part of the foundation of modern astronomy.

Lesson 4: Kepler’s laws

Period 4: (80 Minutes)

Exercises

Step 1: Set the learners to discuss given questions in groups and guide them
as they develop a common solution.
Step 2: Prepare the lesson because this is to apply what you taught carefully.
This is the time to revise and to emphasise on what learners have
learned. Remind them what you taught related to the step in question.
Step 3: You are not obliged to do all questions in the learner’s book. Leave
others to learners as homework.
Step 4: In preparing the lesson, choose other questions even outside the
learner’s book; the purpose is to raise the level of understanding
of learners. Know the level, their weakness and how to strengthen
them.
Step 5: Procedures of solving exercises are based on the level of learners.

Lesson Flow
Let the learners do the related activity in learner’s book (if it is a
mixed school, the number of boys and girls in each group should be
balanced).
Put learners in groups (select any number of learners depending on
the size of the class) make sure that they work in harmony.
Help them in selecting their group leaders.

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Recognise learners with special needs in group making. Encourage

them to actively participate in their respective groups.
Move around the class guiding learners as they are performing the
activity. In case of any assistance you can make bright learners to
assist the weak ones.
Let the learners discuss their findings in their groups and finally
present to the whole class.
Consolidate the lesson by developing and giving your ideas basing
on learners’ ideas.

Note
Help the learners to work neatly and systematically.

Assessment criteria
Learners may be assessed using the following methods;
• by asking them oral questions.,
• making learners to work out activities,
• check and mark work of each learner.
The methods mentioned above can be varied. The use of a particular
method depends on the size of the class, level of learners, availability
of scholastic materials, time of the day and the moods of the learners.

References
Learner’s book 4 (Physics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Book 4)
Other available Physics books in the school Library.

Lesson 5: Stars patterns: Constellations

Period 5: (80 Minutes)
1. This lesson starts by an activity 10 on page 409 of reading and
research in internet. Let learners read the provided notes in the
learner’s book and calmly read and answer questions.
2. Let them search in internet to know more and to finalise the
answering of questions.

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Lesson 6: Celestial coordinates

Period 6: (80 Minutes)
Equatorial coordinates system
Step 1: Introduce the lesson by showing the reason why the study of celestial
coordinates.
Step 2: Let learners carry out activity 11 on page 412 which concerns
research on internet and answer questions related to the activity.
Step 3: Some suggested answers in this information are:
There is an important difference between the equatorial and
geographic coordinate systems: the geographic system is fixed to the
Earth; it rotates as the Earth does. The Equatorial system is fixed to
the stars, so it appears to rotate across the sky with the stars, but of
course it is really the Earth rotating under the fixed sky.
The latitudinal (latitude-like) angle of the Equatorial system is
called Declination (Dec in short). It measures the angle of an object
above or below the Celestial Equator. The longitudinal angle is
called the Right Ascension (RA in short). It measures the angle
of an object East of the Vernal Equinox. Unlike longitude, Right
Ascension is usually measured in hours instead of degrees, because
the apparent rotation of the Equatorial coordinate system is closely
related to Sidereal Time and Hour Angle. Since a full rotation of the
sky takes 24 hours to complete, there are (360 degrees / 24 hours) =
15 degrees in one Hour of Right Ascension.
The equatorial coordinates for deep-sky objects and stars do not vary
appreciably over short durations of time, since they are not affected
by the diurnal motion (the daily apparent rotation of the sky around
the earth. However, note that this takes 1 sidereal day, as against 1
solar day). They are suitable coordinates for making catalogs of stars
and deep-sky objects (note that Galactic Coordinates also work well,
but are cumbersome to use from an earth point-of-view). However,
there are effects that cause the RA and Dec of objects to vary over
time, namely Precession and nutation, and proper motion, the latter
being even less important.

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Horizontal coordinates system

Step 1: Set the learners to work through activity 12 on page 413 which
concerns reading and research on Internet and answer questions
related to the activity.
Step 2: Let them read the provided notes and carry out research on Internet
about horizontal coordinates then answer questions.
Step 3: Make sure that learners have understood what they read in notes and
on Internet.

Answers to activity 13 on page 415

1. Azimuth
2. Altitude
3. Zenith

Answers for exercises

1. e 2. d 3. e 4. d 5. d
6. a 7. d 8. b 9. b 10. c
11. b 12. d 13. d 14. a 15. b
16. b 17. a 18. a 19. d

20. Solution:
rate × time = distance

(186 000 miles / sec ond ) × time = 35 000 000 miles

time = 35 000 000 miles / (186 000 miles / sec )

time = 188 sec onds (about three minutes.)

21. Solution:
rate × time = dis tan ce
( 60 miles hour ) × time = 35000000 miles
time = 35000000 miles ( 60 miles hour )
time = 583333 hours = 24306 days ≈ 67 years

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22. Solution:
rate × time = dis tan ce
(186000 miles sec ond ) ×12sec = 2232000 miles

Divide by 2 to get the one way distance of 1116000 miles

23. Solution:
(a )1LY = 63240 AU so then
2400000 LY × ( 63240 AU 1LY ) = 1.5 ×1011 AU
(b)1 LY = 5.88 ×1022 miles so then
2400000 LY × ( 5.88 ×1022 miles 1LY ) = 1.4 ×1019 miles

24. Solution:

(a )8.58 LY × ( 63240 AU 1LY ) = 543000 AU

(b) If Sirius is 8.58 LY away, then a beam of red light will need
8.58 light years to get there.

25. Solution:
 4π 2  3
TM2 =   r ⇒ TM = 88.3days
 GmS 

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