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Intro to Pathophysiology
 INTRODUCTION TO
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
BY
ASHFAQ AHMAD SAHIL
LECTURER INS-KMU
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Objectives
At the end of this session the students will
be able to:
 Define Pathology and pathophysiology.
 Differentiate among pathophysiology and
other biomedical sciences.
 Discuss the basic concepts of disease and
its development.
 Briefly discuss each of the five component
the disease process:
Prevalence, Etiology, Pathogenesis,
Clinical manifestation, Outcomes. Intro to Pathophysiology
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Pathology
 The word pathology is derived from Greek
word “pathos” meaning "feeling or
suffering“, and logy, "the study of".
 The scientific study of disease is called
pathology.
 Pathology deals with the study of the
structural and functional changes in cells,
tissues, and organs of the body that cause or
are caused by disease.
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Physiology
 Physiology
deals with the functions of the
human body.

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Pathophysiology
 The term combines the words pathology and
physiology.
 Thus, pathophysiology deals not only with the
cellular and organ changes that occur with
disease, but with the effects that these changes
have on total body function.
 Pathophysiology also focuses on the
mechanisms of the underlying disease and
provides the background for preventive as well
as therapeutic health care measures and
practices.
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Cont...
 An alternative definition is "the study of the
biological and physical manifestations of
disease as they correlate with the
underlying abnormalities and physiological
disturbances.

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Microbiology
 Microbiology (from Greek micros, "small", bios,
"life"; and logy)
 It is the study of microscopic organisms, which
are defined as any living organism that is
either a single cell (unicellular), a cell cluster,
or has no cells at all (acellular). This includes
eukaryotes, such as fungi , and prokaryotes.
 Viruses and prions, though not strictly classed
as living organisms, are also studied.

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Cont...
 Microbiology is a broad term which includes
virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology,
immunology and other branches.
 Microbiology deals with isolation and
identification of infectious agents such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites that
cause diseases.
 Specimens such as urines, feaces and swabs
are examined to identify pathogens to select
the appropriate treatment.
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Hematology
 Hematology (from the Greek hema "blood"
and logy means study),
 Hematology is the branch of medical
sciences that is concerned with the study
of blood, the blood-forming organs, and
blood diseases. The laboratory work that goes
into the study of blood is frequently
performed by a medical technologist to
identify the pathogenic agent which cause
diseases.
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Immunology
It is the branch of microbiology that covers
the study of all aspects of the immune
system in all organisms.
 It deals with the physiological functioning of
the immune system in states of both health
and diseases; abnormalities may be the
result of either under activity
(immunodeficiency) or over activity
(autoimmunity and allergy /hypersensitivity)
of the immune system.
 Generally, immune systems interact with
pathogenic microbes.
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Health
 In 1948, the Preamble to the Constitution
of the World Health Organization (WHO)
defined health as a “state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease
and infirmity,”

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Disease
A disease has been defined as an
interruption, cessation, or disorder of a body
system or organ structure that is
characterized usually by a recognized
etiologic agent or agents, an identifiable
group of signs and symptoms, or consistent
anatomic alterations.
 The aspects of the disease process include
etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic
changes, clinical manifestations, diagnosis,
and clinical course.

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Etiology
The word is derived from the Greek,
aitiologia, "giving a reason for” It is the
study of causation or origination.
 There are two types of etiology:
1. Genetical.
2. Acquired.
 Genetical: due to abnormalities of
chromosomes, called mutations or defect
in genes.
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Cont.….
Acquired: which may be caused by:
 Biologic agents (e.g., bacteria, viruses),
 Physical agents (e.g., trauma, burns,
radiation)
 Chemical poisons. (e.g., poisons, alcohol)

 Nutritional deficiencies (excesses or

Risk factors
 The multiple factors that predispose to a
particular disease often are referred to as
risk factors.

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Congenital conditions
 Congenital conditions are defects that are
present at birth, although they may not be
evident until later in life.
 Congenital conditions may be caused by
genetic influences, environmental factors
(e.g., viral infections in the mother, maternal
drug use, irradiation, or intrauterine
crowding), or a combination of genetic
and environmental factors.
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Pathogenesis
 Pathogenesis is the sequence of cellular
and tissue events that take place from the
time of initial contact with an etiologic
agent until the ultimate expression of a
disease.
 The ability of an agent to cause disease
depend on its speed of production,
extent of tissue damage, and production
of toxin.
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Morphology
 Morphology refers to the fundamental
structure or form of cells or tissues.
 Morphologic changes are concerned
with both the gross anatomic and
microscopic changes that are
characteristic of a disease.

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Clinical Manifestations
 Clinical manifestations are the observable
symptoms by which a disease may be
diagnosed.
 It is how a disorder 'manifests' itself to an
observer.
 Signs and symptoms are terms used to
describe the structural and functional
changes that accompany a disease.

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Cont.…
 A symptom is a subjective complaint that is
noted by the person with a disorder, whereas
a sign is a manifestation that is noted by an
observer.
 Pain, difficulty in breathing, and dizziness are
symptoms of a disease.
 An elevated temperature, a swollen
extremity, and changes in pupil size are
objective signs that can be observed by
someone other than the person with the
disease.
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Diagnosis
 A diagnosis is the designation as to the nature
or cause of a health problem (e.g., bacterial
pneumonia or hemorrhagic stroke).
 The diagnostic process usually requires a
careful history and physical examination.
 The history is used to obtain a person’s
account of his or her symptoms and their
progression, and the factors that contribute to
a diagnosis.
 The physical examination is done to observe
for signs of altered body structure or function.
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Cont.….
 Laboratory tests, radiologic studies,
computed tomography (CT) scans, and
other tests often are used to confirm a
diagnosis.

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Clinical Course
 The clinical course describes the evolution
of a disease.
 A disease can have an acute, subacute,
or chronic course.
 An acute disorder is one that is relatively
severe, but self-limiting.
 Chronic disease implies a continuous,
long-term process.

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Cont.….
A chronic disease can run a continuous
course or can present with exacerbations
(aggravation of symptoms and severity of
the disease) and remissions (a period during
which there is a decrease in severity and
symptoms).
 Subacute disease is intermediate or
between acute and chronic: it is not as
severe as an acute disease and not as
prolonged as a chronic disease.
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Outcome
 Thecondition of a patient at the end of
therapy or a disease process, including
the degree of wellness and the need for
continuing care, medication, support,
counseling, or education.

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Basic concepts
 In infection by pathogen is influenced by
several factors:
1. Mechanism of action: pathogens directly
interfere with cellular metabolism, render
the cell dysfunctional and damage cell
because of the accumulation of
pathogenic substances and toxin
production.

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Cont.…

2. Virulence: the potency of a pathogen

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Cont.….
4. Toxigenicity: A factor important in
determining a pathogen's virulence, such
hemolysin, leucocidin and other exotoxins,
and endotoxin.
 Hemolysin destroy erythrocytes, and
leucocidin destroys leukocytes, both are
product of streptococci and
staphylococci.

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Cont.…..
5. Portal of entry: the rout by which a
pathogenic organism infect the host:
direct contact, inhalation, ingestion, or
bite of an animal or insect.
 Spread of infection is facilitated by the
ability of pathogens to spread through
lymph and blood and into tissue and
organs, where they multiply and cause
disease.

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Incidence
 In epidemiology, Incidence reflects the number
of new cases arising in a population at risk during
a specified time.
 The population at risk is considered to be persons
without the disease but who are at risk for
developing it.
 It is determined by dividing the number of new
cases of a disease by the population at risk for
development of the disease during the same
period (e.g., new cases per 1000 or 100,000
persons in the population who are at risk).
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Prevalence
 In epidemiology, the prevalence of a
disease in a statistical population is defined
as the total number of cases of the risk
factor in the population at a given time, or
the total number of cases in the population,
divided by the number of individuals in the
population.
 It is used as an estimate of how common a
disease is within a population over a certain
period of time.
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Levels of Prevention
 There are three fundamental types of
prevention:
 Primary prevention, secondary
prevention, and tertiary prevention.

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Primary prevention
 Primary prevention is directed at keeping disease
from occurring by removing all risk factors.
 Examples of primary prevention include the
administration of folic acid to pregnant women
and women who may become pregnant to
prevent fetal neural tube defects, giving
immunizations to children to prevent
communicable disease, and counseling people
to adopt healthy lifestyles as a means of
preventing heart disease.
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Secondary prevention
 Secondary prevention detects disease early when it is still
asymptomatic and treatment measures can effect a cure or
stop
it from progressing.
 Screening includes history taking (asking if a person smokes),
physical examination (blood pressure measurement),
laboratory tests (cholesterol level determination), and other
procedures (colonoscopy) that can be “applied reasonably
rapidly to asymptomatic people.”
 Most secondary prevention is done in clinical settings.
 All types of health care professionals (e.g., physicians, nurses,
dentists, audiologists, optometrists) participate in secondary
prevention. Intro to Pathophysiology
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Tertiary prevention
 Tertiary prevention is directed at clinical
interventions that prevent further deterioration or
reduce the complications of a disease once it has
been diagnosed.
 In persons with diabetes, for example, tertiary
prevention requires more than good glucose
control—it includes provision for regular
ophthalmologic examinations for early detection
of retinopathy, education for good foot care, and
treatment for other cardiovascular risk factors such
as hyperlipidemia.
 Tertiary prevention measures also include measures
to limit physical impairment and the social
consequences of an illness. Intro to Pathophysiology
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References
 Carol M.P, & Glenn M (2009) PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Concepts of Altered Health States ( 8th Edition).

 Tortora, G. J., & Anagnostakos, N. P. (2000).

 Wilson, S. A. P & LM. (1997). Clinical concepts of

SUMMARIZATION

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Intro to Pathophysiology