Tensile Strength Testing
Tensile strength testing, often known as tension testing, is a fundamental method for determining
how materials respond to forces attempting to rip them apart. This test offers crucial information
about a material's mechanical properties, such as its strength, ductility, and elasticity.
Purpose
The primary goals of tensile strength testing are:
Mechanical parameters are assessed, including ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
and Young's modulus.
Evaluating Ductility: Measuring a material's ability to deform before failure using criteria
such as elongation and reduction in area.
Quality Control: Ensuring that materials satisfy defined standards and are appropriate for
their designated applications.
Apparatus
Tensile testing frequently uses the following equipment:
The Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is a multipurpose machine that applies controlled
tension (or compression) to a specimen. It comprises of two major components:
Load Frame: The structure that supports the specimen and houses both moving and
stationary crossheads.
Grips are devices that securely keep the specimen in place while testing.
Extensometer: An apparatus for precisely measuring the change in length of a specimen
while force is applied.
Data Acquisition System: Software and hardware for recording and analyzing data, such
as applied force and consequent deformation.
Pictures
Figure 1: Universal Tensile Tester
Figure 2: Tensile Test Procedure
Test Procedure
The tensile testing technique consists of several important steps:
Specimen Preparation: A sample of the substance is machined into a standard shape
and size, usually with a uniform cross-sectional region along the gauge length.
Mounting the Specimen: Place the specimen between the grips of the UTM, making
sure it is properly orientated to avoid bending forces.
Setting Test Parameters: Parameters such as loading rate and crosshead speed are set in
accordance with relevant requirements.
Performing the Test: The machine applies tensile tension at a predetermined rate. The
extensometer measures the specimen's elongation, while the data collecting system
records the force applied and the resulting deformation.
Percentage Reduction in Area
The %age reduction in are is:
A 0− Af
%age Reduction = ∗100 %
A0
Where,
Ao is the Original Cross-sectional area of the specimen & A f is the Final Cross-sectional area of
the specimen. A larger percentage signifies increased ductility, which means the material can
withstand extensive plastic deformation before failing.
Steps for Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture usually happens in the following stages:
Elastic Deformation: Under applied stress, the material deforms elastically, which is
reversible when unloaded.
Yielding and Plastic distortion: When the yield point is reached, the material experiences
plastic (permanent) distortion.
Strain hardening occurs when dislocation movements within a material's structure cause
it to grow stronger and more resistant to subsequent deformation.
Necking: A localized reduction in cross-sectional area occurs, usually at the weakest spot.
Microscopic voids emerge within the material, particularly around inclusions or defects,
and increase under prolonged stress.
Voids coalesce: As the voids increase, they merge, causing a crack to form.
Fracture: The crack spreads, resulting in the eventual separation of the substance.
Modes of failure in tension tests
Materials can display many failure modes under tensile loading:
Ductile failure is distinguished by substantial plastic deformation prior to fracture, which
is frequently associated with evident necking.
Brittle Failure: Occurs with minimum plastic deformation, and the fracture surface is
typically flat and perpendicular to the applied force.
Quasi-brittle failure has characteristics of both ductile and brittle failure, including
limited plastic deformation and a mixed fracture surface.
Difference Between Tensile and Compression Tests
While both tests measure material behavior under different loading circumstances, the following
key differences exist:
Loading Direction: Tensile tests apply forces that pull the material apart, whereas
compression tests apply forces that push the material together.
Failure Modes: In tensile tests, materials may display necking and eventually fracture, but
in compression tests, materials may buckle or crush.
Stress-Strain Behavior: Materials frequently exhibit distinct stress-strain reactions under
tension versus compression, influencing characteristics such as yield strength and
modulus of elasticity.
Understanding these distinctions is critical for choosing appropriate materials and constructing
components that can resist the unique loading conditions they will face in service.
