Introduction to Philosophy

What is Philosophy?
The term philosophy is derived from Greek words meaning “love of wisdom”. Philosophy is the study of
fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Philosophy is the name that philosophers have given to both a discipline and a process. As a discipline,
philosophy is one of the humanities, a field of study out of which several other fields have evolved—physics,
biology, political science, and many others. As a process, philosophy is a penetrating mode of reflection for
understanding life’s most important truths. This mode is what we may call the philosophical method—the
systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and
knowledge. The method, however, is not a master key used exclusively by professional philosophers to unlock
mysteries hidden from common folk. The philosophical method is the birthright of every person, for we are all
born with the capacity to reason, to question, to discover. For thousands of years, great minds like Aristotle,
Plato, Confucius, Descartes, Aquinas, and Sartre have used it in their search for wisdom, and what they found
has changed countless lives.
Why Philosophy matters
Philosophy matters because it fosters intellectual curiosity, broadens our perspectives, and equips us with
critical thinking skills that are valuable in many aspects of life. It encourages us to question, explore, and
understand the world in a deeper and more meaningful way.
1. Philosophy's Uncertainty:
Russell emphasizes that the value of philosophy lies in its uncertainty. Unlike sciences that provide definite
answers, philosophy thrives on questions that do not have clearcut answers. This uncertainty keeps our
speculative interest in the universe alive and prevents us from being confined by the prejudices of common
sense and habitual beliefs. It encourages us to explore new ideas and perspectives, fostering a sense of wonder
and curiosity about the world.
2. Broadening Perspectives:
Philosophy helps us break free from the narrowmindedness that comes from unexamined convictions. It
encourages us to question our assumptions and consider new possibilities. By engaging with philosophical
questions, we learn to see the world from different viewpoints, which broadens our understanding and makes us
more openminded and tolerant of diverse perspectives.
3. Intellectual Liberation:
Russell argues that philosophy liberates us from the tyranny of custom and dogma. It challenges our desire
for quick and easy answers, pushing us to think critically and independently. This intellectual liberation allows
us to develop our own beliefs and values, rather than simply accepting those imposed by society or tradition.
4. Practical Benefits:
While philosophy may not produce obvious material benefits like science, it provides intellectual tools that
are valuable in various fields. Critical thinking, analytical skills, and sound argumentation are all honed through
philosophical inquiry. These skills are essential for problemsolving and decisionmaking in both personal and
professional contexts.
5. Engagement with Fundamental Questions:
 Philosophy addresses fundamental questions about truth, justice, value, and knowledge. These questions are
essential for understanding the world and our place in it. By grappling with these issues, we gain a deeper
appreciation of the complexities of life and the human condition. This engagement with fundamental questions
also helps us develop a coherent worldview and a sense of purpose.

Philosophical Terrain:
Philosophy’s sphere of interest is vast, encompassing funda mental beliefs drawn from many places.
Philosophical ques tions can arise anywhere. Part of the reason for this is that ordinary beliefs that seem to have
no connection with phi losophy can become philosophical in short order.
We can divide philosophy’s subject matter into four main divisions, each of which is a branch of inquiry in its
own right with many subcategories. Here’s a brief rundown of these divisions and a sampling of the kinds of
questions that each asks.
 Metaphysics is the study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the
universe and the things in it. Though it must take into account the findings of science, metaphysics generally
focuses on basic questions that science cannot address. Questions of interest: Does the world consist only of
matter, or is it made up of other basic things, such as ideas or minds? Is there a spiritual, ideal realm that
exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the body? How are mind and body related?
Do people have immortal souls? Do humans have free will, or are our actions determined by forces beyond
our control? Can actions be both free and determined? Does God exist? How can both a good God and evil
exist simultaneously? What is the nature of causality? Can an effect ever precede its cause? What is the
nature of time? Is time travel possible?
 Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Questions of interest: What is knowledge? What is truth? Is
knowledge possible—can we ever know anything? Does knowledge require certainty? What are the sources
of knowledge? Is experience a source of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain
knowledge of the empirical world through reason alone? If we have knowledge, how much do we have?
When are we justified in saying that we know something? Do we have good reasons to believe that the
world exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds constitute reality?
 Axiology is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value. The study of moral value is
known as ethics. Ethics involves inquiries into the nature of moral judgments, virtues, values, obligations,
and theories. Questions of interest: What makes an action right (or wrong)? What things are intrinsically
good? What is the good life? What gives life meaning? What makes someone good (or bad)? What moral
principles should guide our actions and choices? Which is the best moral theory? Is killing ever morally
permissible? If so, why? Are moral standards objective or subjective? Is an action right merely because a
culture endorses it? Does morality depend on God? What makes a society just?
 Logic is the study of correct reasoning. Questions of interest: What are the rules for drawing correct
inferences? What are the nature and structure of deductive arguments? How can propositional or predicate
logic be used to evaluate arguments? Upon what logical principles does reasoning depend? Does logic
describe how the world is—or just how our minds work? Can conclusions reached through inductive logic
be rationally justified?

The Socratic Method:

The Socratic Method is a question and answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to
uncover the truth.
We know very little about Socrates’s life. He spent all his days in Athens except for a term of military service in
which he soldiered in the Peloponnesian War. He was married and had three sons. He spent much of his time
roaming the streets of Athens, speaking with anyone who would listen. His habit was to ask people seemingly
simple questions about their views on virtue, religion, justice, or the good, challenging them to think critically
about their basic assumptions. This sort of question and answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically
scrutinized to uncover the truth has become known as the Socratic Method. Socrates engaged in a particular
method of questioning, sometimes known as the Socratic Method that was characterized by his asking questions
of others rather than explaining his own beliefs. Socrates is typically hesitant to offer his own ideas about the
topic under discussion. Instead, he asks the people he is questioning to supply the subject matter for their
discussion. Usually when Socrates used it in conversations, or dialogues, with his fellow Athenians, their views
would be exposed as false or confused. The main point of the exercise for Socrates, however, was not to win
arguments but to get closer to the truth. He thought people who pursued this noble aim as he did should not be
embarrassed by being shown to be wrong; they should be delighted to be weaned from a false opinion.
Nevertheless, the Socratic conversations often ended in the humiliation of eminent Athenians. They were
enraged by Socrates, while many youths gravitated to him. Eventually Socrates was arrested and charged with
disrespecting the gods and corrupting the youth of the city.
Socrates uses his famous question and answer approach to prove that Thrasymachus’s definition of justice is
wrong. In particular, he applies a common form of argument called reductio ad absurdum (Reductio ad
absurdum is an argument form in which a set of statements to be proved false is assumed, and absurd or false
statements are deduced from the set as a whole, showing that the original statement must be false). The basic
idea behind it is if you assume that a set of statements is true, and yet you can deduce a false or absurd
statement from it, then the original set of statements as a whole must be false. So, in the preceding dialogue,
Socrates says in effect, let’s assume that Thrasymachus is right that justice is whatever is in the interest of the
powerful, and that people are just if they obey the laws made by the powerful. It is clear, however, that the
powerful sometimes make mistakes and demand obedience to laws that are not in their best interest. So if
Thrasymachus’s definition of justice is correct, then it is right for people to do what is in the interest of the
powerful, and it is also right to do what is not in the interest of the powerful? His idea of justice then leads to a
logical contradiction and is therefore false.