Table of Contents

Introduction······················································································································ 1
Chapter : Maize in Zambia ·························································································· 3
1. Production of Maize································································································ 3
1-1 Overview········································································································ 3
1-2 Production and Yields···················································································· 4
1-3 Cropping System, Cultivation Method and Use·········································· 6
1-4 Breeding and Production Limiting Factors ·················································· 9
1-5 Production Issues························································································· 11
2. Marketing and Processing of Maize·····································································12
2-1 Comparison with Other Staple Crops·························································12
2-2 Processing Industry······················································································15
2-3 Marketing of Products and Inputs·······························································18
2-4 Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Production and Consumption···················23

Chapter : Maize in Malawi ························································································25

1. Production of Maize······························································································25
1-1 Overview······································································································25
1-2 Production and Yields··················································································27
1-3 Cropping System, Cultivation Method and Use········································31
1-4 Breeding and Production Limiting Factors ················································35
1-5 Future Outlook·····························································································40
2. Marketing and Processing of Maize·····································································42
2-1 Comparison with Other Staple Crops·························································42
2-2 Processing Industry······················································································43
2-3 Marketing of Products and Inputs·······························································45
2-4 Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Production and Consumption···················48

Conclusion·················································································································51
 Introduction

This report presents the findings of a research on Zambia and Malawi

conducted as part of the “Subsistence Crop Study,” a basic information-gathering
project to support developing countries.
Even as the economy continues to globalise, self-sufficiency in food,
particularly in major crops, is still considered by many countries as one of the top
priorities in maintaining their independence. They have taken various measures
to raise the ratio of self-sufficiency in light of their specific conditions. In many
African countries, where no industry other than agriculture has developed to a
considerable extent, improving self-sufficiency in staple crops may be vital for
the stability of the state, or as the basis for sustainable development of economic
activities. A wide range of crops have served as staple food in the continent,
depending on the geographic, climatic and historic background of each country.
In Southeast Africa, maize cultivation has spread to wide areas since around the
16th century, when the crop was introduced from Latin America via Spain, thus
providing a crucial food source for most of the population in this sub-region. This
also applies to Zambia and Malawi, the two countries covered by this report,
where self-sufficiency in maize is maintained at substantial levels – 73% and
96%, respectively.
This report focuses on maize as an established staple crop in the two countries.
It first outlines aspects related to production including breeding/cultivation
methods and cropping system, as well as other aspects such as use, processing
and distribution, followed by the identification of current issues and possible
future direction. Readers should bear in mind the following characteristics of
maize for better and comprehensive understanding.

(1) Political crop

Being a primary calorie source for the population, maize production has
traditionally been subject to various subsidy programmes for seeds and fertilizer,
as well as to political manoeuvring. Its future direction should therefore be
considered in conjunction with political developments.

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(2) Unstable production
Maize cultivation is mostly rain-fed, which necessarily leads to substantial
fluctuation in production from one year to the next. Any unfavourable weather
condition such as drought creates the need to import the crop. In this sense, a high
self-sufficiency ratio recorded at a year with good weather does not provide
protection against the impact of diplomatic relations or international market
prices.

(3) Energy crop

Maize prices are soaring in the international market as attention has been
focused on the crop in recent years as a raw material for ethanol production.
Since this use conflicts with its traditional use as food, countries with a fragile
food production base, such as the two countries in question, may have to bear the
brunt of such developments. Even the introduction of any energy crop that is not
used as food, such as Jatropha curcas, may work against food production, if
maize fields are turned into plantations for the new crop, effectively reducing the
maize growing area.

Through the research and the preparation of the present report, we have found
that the sustainable development of the production/distribution system for maize
is a major challenge both countries are now facing. The current monoculture
system solely dependent on maize needs to be reviewed in terms of risk
management and sustainability. Producers are also required to adopt a more
diversified cropping system by integrating other crops. It is hoped that the efforts
in this direction, currently observed in government agencies concerned, will bring
concrete benefits in the near future.

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 Chapter II: Maize in Zambia

1. Production of Maize
1-1 Overview

Maize (Zea mays L.) originates from Latin America. Its cultivation is
considered to have started by 3000 BC at the latest. In 1492, maize caught the eye
of Christopher Columbus, who reached Cuba on his voyage to discover
Americas. The crop that he brought back to Spain spread immediately around the
Mediterranean rim, before it was introduced to West and East Africa probably in
the 16th century. At that time, the Zambian staple crops were sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor (L.) Moench) and millet (Eleusine coracana Gartner), as an African
original product, but gradually replaced by maize. In 1964, when the country
gained its independence, maize already accounted for over 60% of the planting
area of major crops. Particularly in the 1970s, the planting area and production
volume of maize increased rapidly as the government introduced chemical
fertilizer subsidy programmes and raised the producer price in 1970. However,
the production volume plummeted due to droughts in 1979 and 1980, and has not
recovered ever since despite the diffusion of hybrids. Meanwhile, the production
of sorghum and millet, which had been the mainstay of diet in Zambia for
millenniums, declined during the 1970s by two thirds and nine tenths,
respectively. The diffusion of hybrids has not helped increase the unit yield of
maize: it stands at 1.8t/ha, a level comparable to that of traditional varieties. This
may be because many of the subsistence farmers cannot afford new hybrid
varieties and use recycled seeds of hybrids, instead. The low unit yield may also
be explained by chemical fertilizer prices, which are too high to allow sufficient
fertilizer application. Zambia reportedly needs 1.2 million tonnes of maize to
ensure self-sufficiency. This volume has not been attained in many of the years,
thus forcing the country to depend on imports. Incidentally, most of the maize
grown in Zambia is of flint varieties, with white varieties overwhelmingly
preferred over yellow ones. Given that the two types of varieties have identical
nutritional values, the preference may be the result of misinformation by the
former colonial power, or have much to do with the spiritual culture of the local

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population, just as the Japanese prefer white rice.

1-2 Production and Yields

1) Production and unit yield

According to FAO, 695 million tonnes of maize was produced worldwide in
2006, of which Africa accounted for 46 million tonnes. South Africa is the leader
among the 50 maize-producing African countries, representing 15% of the total
production in the continent. Zambia is ranked 13th with 0.865 million tonnes. In
the 1960s, the country produced only 0.57-0.77 million tonnes with a planting
area of 0.75-0.87 million hectares, which translates into a unit yield of less than
1t/ha (Figure II-1-1). In the 1970s, it produced 0.57-1.64 million tonnes of maize
on a planting area of 0.90-1.10 million hectares, with unit yield reaching 2t/ha in
some years (Figure II-1-2). The introduction of chemical fertilizer subsidy
programmes and the raising of the producer price by the government in 1970
may have had substantial impact on maize production. In addition to the effect of
chemical fertilizer, it should be noted that the introduction of improved strains
helped double the unit yield. Maize production stagnated in the 1980s mainly due
to downscaling of fertilizer subsidy programmes, although the producer price
was raised successively. The slump continued throughout the 1990s, and maize
planting area has stayed on a par at around 0.50 million hectares. Production has
rarely exceeded 1 million tonnes, only twice in the last 10 years. It is true that the
levelling off of planting area is a major factor behind the stagnant production.
However, we should be concerned that the unit yield has not increased from
1.8t/ha despite the introduction of hybrids. The low yield may be attributed to the
use of recycled seeds without fertilizer application as chemical fertilizer and new
varieties are both unaffordable for farmers. Reintroduction of traditional varieties
should be considered in order to better avert the risk posed by drought and other
adversities. A hybrid that only produces a unit yield of 1.8/ha has no difference
from traditional varieties, which require smaller inputs and more resistant to the
vagaries of weather.

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 (ha) t
1,200,000 2,000,000

1,000,000
1,600,000

800,000
1,200,000
600,000
800,000
400,000

400,000
200,000

0 0
19 1
63

19 5
19 7
19 9
19 1
19 3
19 5
19 7
19 9
19 1
19 3
19 5
87

19 9
19 1
19 3
19 5
19 7
20 9
20 1
03
05
6

6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8

8
9
9
9
9
9
0
19

19

19

20
Planting栽培面積(ha)
area (ha) 生産量(t)
Production (t)
Plantingarea(ha)

Figure II-1-1 Planting area and production of maize in Zambia

Source: Compiled by the author from FAOSTAT.

3000

2500
Unit yield (kg/ha)

2000
単収(kg/ha)

1500

1000

500

0
1961
1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006

Year 栽培年
of cultivation

Figure II-1-2 Unit yield of maize in Zambia

Source: Compiled by the author from FAOSTAT.

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2) Maize production in various parts of Zambia
Among the nine Zambian provinces, the Eastern province is the largest maize
producer, followed by the Southern and Central provinces. The Luapula, Lusaka,
North-western and Western provinces only register small amounts of production
(Table II-1-1). Taking transport cost into consideration, production may correlate
with accessibility to the capital. Unit yield stands at 1.5-2.0t/ha each year in most
of the provinces, but often does not reach 1.0t/ha in the Western province.
Apparently, the province is not suited for rain-fed cultivation of maize due to the
smallest rainfall in the country. The 1990 agricultural census indicates that
379,784 farming households – 73% of the total – plant maize, 97% of which are
smallholders with 1-9ha of land. Smallholders account for 69% of the maize
planting area and 61% of total production. 52% of the smallholders plant maize
on less than 1ha of land. The stagnant production and yield may be explained by
the fact that smallholders cannot afford chemical fertilizer and new hybrid
varieties and use recycled seeds instead with small inputs.

Table II-1-1 Production of major crops by province (2002-2003)

Crop Central Copperbelt Eastern Luapula Lusaka Northern North-Western Southern Western Total
Maize 19.2 8.2 32.2 1.9 2.4 7.8 4.7 19.5 4.1 100
Sorghum 22.3 14.1 5.9 2.6 0.1 10.4 17.9 10.3 16.4 100
Millet 6.3 0.2 2.2 6.0 0.1 55.7 0.9 12.0 16.5 100
Rice 0.7 0.2 48.9 3.2 0.0 32.6 0.2 0.0 14.1 100
Source: Compiled by the author from Agricultural and Pastoral Production 2004.

1-3 Cropping System, Cultivation Methods and Use

1) Cropping system
Zambia has clear rainy and dry seasons (Figure II-1-3). Vegetables are
cultivated in the dry season, from May to October, while maize and other cereals
are grown in the rainy season, from November to April. Although rain-fed
cultivation prevails for maize, it is also grown in the dry season where irrigation
facilities are available. Maize is typically grown in permanent fields. The Bemba,
a farming population living in the miombo (sparse) woodland in the north of
Zambia have been practicing shifting cultivation known as citemene. According

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to this farming method, farmers collect branches from trees in an area that is five
times as large as the area to be cultivated before planting the crop. These branches
are burned on the prospective field to produce the ash that supplies necessary
inorganic nutrients for crop cultivation. They do not apply chemical fertilizer. The
land developed by citemene is usually cultivated for three consecutive years. In
the first year, millet, the staple crop for the population, is grown along with
cassava. Following the cultivation of groundnuts in the second year, millet is
replanted in the third and final year. As the yield declines, the farmers will
abandon the field to move elsewhere in the following year. The growth of the
trees whose branches were removed will recover in 15 to 20 years. Although the
traditional citemene practice observed this cycle, population growth and the
introduction of cash crops including maize have increased pressure on land,
leading to the curtailment of the interval.

250 30

200 25
Rainfall (mm)

20
降水量(mm)

150 Temperature (ºC)

気温(℃)
15
100
10
50 5

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
月
(Month)

Figure II-1-3 Monthly rainfall and temperature in Zambian capital Lusaka

Since around 1986, another practice known as “farm” (semi-permanent field)

cultivation has expanded rapidly. This practice has been used for growing maize
hybrids as cash crop on semi-permanent fields created by removing the roots of

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 trees, with the application of chemical fertilizer. Many of the Bemba villages
have actively introduced the farm cultivation method in parallel with the citemene
practice, resulting in the formation of a stable farming system, cultivating
citemene (shifting fields) for subsistence crops and farms (semi-permanent fields)
for cash crops. However, the adoption of policies such as the liberalisation of
maize producer price and the withdrawal of fertilizer subsidy programmes has
raised serious concern for the Bemba people, living far north of the capital.

2) Cultivation methods
Seeds are sown by mid-December for rain-fed cultivation during the rainy
season. It is recommended to sow 20-30kg/ha of seeds with an inter-row space of
75-100cm, inter-stock space of 15-30cm and seeding rate of 4-5 stocks/m2. Bud
emergence is the best when seeds are sown at the depth of 5cm, or 3-4cm in hard
soil. As regards hybrid varieties, it is recommended to apply 300-400kg/ha of
D-compound (N:P:K=[Link]) for basal dressing and 250-300kg/ha of urea for
top dressing. Fertilizer application has little effect on traditional varieties.
Sufficient weeding is required for the first six to eight weeks of growing.
Maize streak virus is the primary threat to maize, sometimes causing
substantial drop in yields. In order to avoid this risk, farmers in rainy areas should
use resistant varieties and refrain from late sowing. Other threats include diseases
such as cob rot, leaf blight and rust, as well as cabbage moth and other pests.
Damages by fall armyworm have also been reported in recent years.

3) Use
Zambian maize is mostly used as food, although it is also used for brewing
and animal consumption. As a staple crop, most of the maize is milled and then
boiled in hot water until it thickens like dough for eating. This staple food, known
as nsima in Zambia, is very similar in its preparation to what is called tô in
Burkina Faso and ugali in Kenya and Tanzania, both serving as staple food. The
white flint varieties are definitely preferred over the yellow ones, which are rarely
marketed.

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1-4 Breeding and Production Limiting Factors

1) Breeding
Agricultural experiment and research in Zambia dates back to 1922, when it
was still under colonial rule. The activities initially focused on cash crops grown
by European settlers including maize, cotton and tobacco. Comprehensive
experiment and research started in 1953, when the predecessor of the present
Zambia Agricultural Research Institute (ZARI) was established. The structural
adjustment program implemented in the 1990s explored the possibility of
involving the private sector in experiment and research projects, traditionally run
by the government. This effort culminated in the creation of a new research
organization as agricultural research trust, in addition to the existing national
agricultural research institute. Some of the experiment and research activities,
including improvement in crop varieties, are now conducted by private
companies including seed providers. Some research activities are also conducted
by government agencies other than the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
including the National Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research Institute
(NISIR) established in the Ministry of Science, Technology and Vocational
Training. Furthermore, the School of Agricultural Sciences of the University of
Zambia (UNZA) conducts its own research activities. Thus, five entities are
currently involved in agricultural experiment and research activities in Zambia,
namely (1) the Agricultural Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, (2) a parastatal agricultural trust, (3) NISIR, (4) UNZA School of
Agricultural Sciences and (5) the private sector. Recently, private companies such
as Zamseed, Seedco, MRI Seed and Pannar have been involved in maize
breeding, as well as the technical service division of Zambia Agricultural
Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture. The institute’s objectives for
maize breeding include the development of varieties resistant to non-biological
stresses such as aridity, low nitrogen and low pH, as well as to biological stresses
including grey leaf spot, leaf blight and stored products pests. UNZA addresses
bio-fortification issues related to Zn, Fe and vitamin A within the framework of
the QPM (quality protein maize) Challenge Programme implemented in
cooperation with the Nippon Foundation. As noted above, the Zambian people

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overwhelmingly prefer white varieties of maize. Since no natural linkage has
been identified between vitamin A content and grain colour, it is possible to
develop a white variety with greater vitamin A content. Under the
government-sponsored Fertilizer Support Programme (FSP), Zamseed now
markets 11 hybrids and six open pollinated varieties, and enjoys a 30-50%
market share. Hybrids account for some 75% of its sales. According to the timing
of breeding, hybrids are categorized into the early-, medium- and late-maturing
groups, which are given series numbers of 400, 600 and 700, respectively. For
farmers’ convenience, they are also classified according to adaptability to the
three agricultural ecosystems found in Zambia. Zamseed conducts independent
variety breeding activities in its 1,000 ha experimental farm on the outskirts of
Lusaka. This farm was transferred to Zamseed from ZARI, which suffered a
major outflow of researchers as its variety breeding research came to a standstill
following its privatization in 1995, thus affecting the conservation of genetic
resources. The company currently manages all those assets along with the genetic
resources of CIMMYT. MRI, another private company, has developed the very
first hybrid variety (MM752) in Zambia. The company has a 30-32% market
share within the governmental Fertilizer Support Programme (FSP). The
potential yield of recently developed varieties in Zambia amounts to 4-5t/ha for
open pollinated varieties including Pool 16, MMV400 and MMV600, and
4-10t/ha for hybrids.

2) Production limiting factors

The primary factors limiting production seem to be the scale of farming
households and extensive agriculture. A considerable yield (4.5t/ha) would be
expected if appropriate fertilizer application and watering were ensured along
with weeding and pest/disease control. As it is, however, 97% of the maize
growers are smallholder households, often headed by a woman. With only five or
six workers available per household, maize farming may be characterised as
subsistence agriculture. It is also a rain-fed, extensive agricultural practice, only
using hoe and other simple implements. The potential yield cannot be achieved
as the use of chemical fertilizer and improved seeds are substantially limited. At
the same time, the attractiveness of maize as cash crop is now fading. Maize

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production suffers further constraints as growers are switching to cotton and other
more easily cashable crops.

1-5 Production Issues

Maize accounted for some 60% of the crop growing area in the 1970s and
1980s. This ratio has fallen below 30% since the 1990s, largely because
commercial farmers have shifted from maize to exportable crops with higher
added values such as cotton, soya and sunflower. The loss of maize’s
attractiveness as cash crop is ominous in the face of continued dependence of the
Zambian population on maize as staple crop. The hybrid varieties introduced to
increase production has not lived up to expectations, as their yields stand on a par
with those of indigenous varieties. Given that maize requires a substantial amount
of water for growth, some of the current planting areas are not deemed suitable
for maize production. Cultivating the crop in such areas is not considered to be a
wise choice. Reintroduction of indigenous varieties of sorghum and millet is a
possible option if Zambia is to ensure stable production of staple crops for food
security purposes. Until maize was introduced to Africa four centuries ago,
people must have been fed with the traditional cultivation technique developed
over thousands of years for sorghum and millet, which used to serve as staple
crops. Indeed, millet is still grown in the north of the country, where maize
cultivation is disadvantageous in economic terms. Millet and sorghum are grown
in wide areas in the west, where the unit yield of maize is the lowest due to
insufficient rainfall (Table II-1-2). Thus, the promotion of maize monoculture, led
by the former colonial power and the government after the independence, is far
from being a success. Bearing in mind the principle of “right crop for right land,”
any improvement of the living standard of Zambian farmers should start with the
re-evaluation of traditional crops suited for the local agricultural environment to
raise self-sufficiency in food, followed by the identification and introduction of
viable cash crops.

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 Table II-1-2 Production of major crops by province (2003-2004)
(in tonnes)
Crop Central Copperbelt Eastern Luapula Lusaka Northern North-Western Southern Western Total

Maize 207,865 84,855 298,087 18,879 33,148 76,960 40,742 239,796 56,344 1,056,676
Sorghum 4,139 2,860 1,801 927 239 1,568 4,631 7,246 6,908 30,319
Millet 2,078 72 745 2,004 40 18,493 295 3,984 5,478 33,189
Rice 232 109 5,150 693 8 5,520 143 0 5,334 17,189
Source: Compiled by the author from Agricultural Production 2006.

2. Marketing and Processing of Maize

2-1 Comparison with Other Staple Crops

Maize is the most important staple crop in Zambia. Its planting area and
production volume* is far greater than those of other crops (Table II-2-1).
Smallholders account for 79% of maize production in the country. Other staple
crops include cassava, sweet potato, sorghum and millet. Cassava is cooked
directly, or floured before cooking as with maize, sorghum and millet.

Table II-2-1 Planting area and production of major food crops

(2006/07 cropping season)
Crop Growing area (ha) Production (t)
Maize 872,812 1,366,158
Of which: Large farmers 54,446 287,089
Smallholders 818,366 1,079,069
Sorghum 31,596 12,773
Rice 20,067 18,317
Millet 56,817 21,707
Cassava (n.a.) 1,146,142
Irish potato 3,305 22,771
Sweet potato 29,476 75,664
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

Based on a nationwide survey conducted in 2004 (number of samples: 8000),

*
Zambia requires some 1.2 million tonnes of maize per annum to satisfy domestic demand.

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Zulu, Jayne and Beaver (2007) made some observations on the cropping pattern
and income sources of smallholders. First, household of approximately 80% has
produced the maize as a staple food; importance of this crop has outstanding In
terms of the number of growers, groundnuts (42%) and cassava (39%) is next in
line, followed by sweet potato (19%) and sorghum (10%) (Table II-2-2). Looking
at the composition of income (total of sales and on-farm consumption) for all
households by crop, cereals including maize have the largest share with 35%,
followed by roots and tubers with 18% (Table II-2-3). Thus, it has been found
that maize is the most important crop both in terms of the number of growers and
share in household income.
As compared with other staple crops (cassava, sweet potato, sorghum), maize
is more susceptible to drought, and its production may be hit substantially by bad
weather. Furthermore, inputs such as chemical fertilizer and improved seeds are
essential for realizing a high yield. Sufficient maize production is simply
impossible without those inputs. As the government liberalized the distribution of
products and inputs and scaled down subsidy programmes in the 1990s, the
prices of inputs rose, and the producer price of maize declined, in remote areas.
Thus, the farther a farmer lives from the capital, the less favourable is the
condition for producing and selling maize.

Table II-2-2 Crop production as percentage Table II-2-3 Production income shares in
of farming households (2003/2004) farming households (%, 2003/04)
Crop % of households producing Income source % of total income

Maize 79.9 Crop production 72.5

Groundnuts 42.1 (of which) Cereals 35.1
Cassava 38.8 Roots and tubers 17.7
Sweet potato 18.8 Beans and oilseeds 9.6
Mixed & ground 17.2 Non-food cash crops 5.5
Cotton 10.5 Fruits and vegetables 4.6
Sorghum 10.3 Other crops 0.1
Source: Zulu et al. (2007), p.7. Animal products 5.1
Off-farm activities 21.7
Note: Data include on-farm consumption as
evaluated at market prices.
Source: Zulu et al. (2007), p.5.

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 Table II-2-4 presents the growth rates of planting area and production for
major food crops. While the growth for staple grains including maize was
minimal, considerable production growth was achieved for cassava and sweet
potato. This may be explained by the following factors: (1) the improvement of
productivity for roots and tubers thanks to the diffusion of improved varieties;
and (2) the shift of production from maize to cassava and other crops, particularly
in remote regions of northern Zambia, as a result of rising chemical fertilizer
prices due to the scaling-back of the subsidy program.
The Zambian government
has been focusing its attent
Table II-2-4 Growth rates of planting area and
production for selected crops(1991-2004) ion on the emergence of
cassava in recent years as
Crop Area Production
a supplementary crop to maize.*
Maize 0.2 0.6
Sorghum -0.3 0.4 The advantages of cassava
Millet 0 0.6 may be found in: greater
Cassava 1.6 3.3 resistance to drought as com
Sweet potato 4.6 6.6 pared with maize and adapt
Source: Janye et al. (2007), p.10. ability to poor soil conditions;
little requirement of inputs
including chemical fertilizer; high potential for processing (cassava flour,
chips, starch, etc.); the possibility of levelling on-farm consumption (avail
ability in necessary quantity at any time) as the harvest does not concentr
ate on a short period of time; the potential of cassava meal as additional
ingredient of the staple food (nsima),
which eliminates the necessity of changing the traditional diets. However,
cassava also has some disadvantages. For example, it requires a long period of
growth before harvest (9-24 months), causing a competition with other crops for
space where land is scarce. The bitter varieties require detoxification, which in
turn requires the knowledge of relevant techniques. Its quality deteriorates rapidly
after harvest. Also, cassava is more “bulky” than maize, causing more difficulties

*
According to interviews at the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and Zambia
Agricultural Research Institute.

- 14 -
in transport or processing.*
In light of their resistance to drought, sorghum and millet are also considered
as potential alternatives to maize. As with cassava, they have advantages over
maize in requiring less chemical fertilizer and lower costs for production.
However, they cannot be expected to replace maize as staple food because of
their inferiority in taste. They also have the disadvantage of longer growth
periods, except for improved varieties.

2-2 Processing Industry

In most cases, maize is floured and then boiled in hot water until it thickens
like dough for eating. This traditional staple dish, known as nsima or nshima, is
put on the table almost at every meal in Zambia and Malawi. Kenya and Uganda
also have a similar staple called ugali. For this reason, maize milling has been
performed in extensive areas of Southeast Africa using various techniques.
Maize meal, known as “mealie meal” in Zambia, is largely classified into the
first-grade breakfast meal and the second-grade roller meal. ** Both of those
maize meal products are processed in large plants and supplied to urban
consumers (Photo II-1). In rural areas, maize meal is mostly processed with small
milling machine known as hammer mills (Photo II-2). It is less expensive for
rural people to bring maize grains produced on-farm or purchased at the market
and have it milled by a hammer miller, than to purchase a commercially
produced product. This practice has spread rapidly nationwide since the
mid-1990s, when the government withdrew its price support programme for
maize meal, effectively raising its retail prices (Kodamaya, 2003).

*
It is for this reason that cassava flour is more expensive when it is processed in urban areas. As
of October 2007, the price of cassava flour at a supermarket in the capital Lusaka (12,450
kwacha = about $3.3 per 5 kg) was 36% higher than that of high-quality maize meal
(breakfast meal), which was 9,150 kwacha = about $2.4 per 5 kg.
**
As of October 2007, the price (per 10 kg) of breakfast meal at a supermarket in the capital
Lusaka stood at 16,450 kwacha (about $4.3), which was almost 40% higher than that of roller
meal (11,750 kwacha = about $3.1).

- 15 -
 Photo II-1 Maize meal in a Lusaka market Photo II-2 Hammer milling in a rural area

Zambia has 35 maize milling companies (as of 2007), which are involved in
a fierce competition. In addition, about 7,000 hammer mills are reportedly
registered in rural areas. In this highly competitive environment, no company has
a commanding market share in the milling industry. The share of the leading
company, National Milling Corporation Ltd. (NMC) is estimated to be only
22%*. The following is a brief outline of NMC.

Case study: National Milling Corporation Ltd. (NMC)

NMC (Photo II-3) is a 100%
subsidiary of a US company
Seaboard Corporation, and emp
loys some 1,000 workers. Its
predecessor, National Milling
Company, incorporated with South
African capital in 1993 following
the privatization of a state-run
company went into bankruptcy
after three years of operation. Photo II-3 National Milling Corporation

The present NMC was incorpor

*
These figures are based on an interview with the Managing Director of National Milling
Corporation Ltd. (October 2007). They are all estimates, for no official statistics is available on
market shares for maize meal.

- 16 -
ated through acquisition. Major products processed by NMC include maize
meal, flour and animal feed. The company’s sales totalled some $60 million
in 2006. NMC procures about 200,000t of maize per year, both from lar
ge-scale farms and smallholders. Purchases from smallholders are made at
its 62 storehouses nationwide, at the purchase price of the Food Reserve
Agency (FRA, see below), which is
38,000 kwacha per 50kg. The
purchase price for large farmers is
10% higher than for smallholders, in
consideration of the higher quality
of maize supplied. Although no
government regulation exists for the
prices of maize meal, political
pressure does exist for lowering the
Photo II-4 Roots of Rhynchosia venulosa used prices. The supply of cheap maize to
for maheyu production the market by the FRA also affects
business management, exerting
downward pressure on maize meal prices. Moreover, unpredictable intervention
of the government in external trade in agricultural products, such as export or
import ban, is a negative factor for NMC, which is involved in export to
neighbouring countries and the import of raw materials.
Other products processed from maize
include various beverages. For example,
the beverage made from crushed,
porridge-like maize known as maheyu or
munkoyo (see Photo 2 on the frontispiece
page) is not only produced at home in both
urban and rural areas for domestic
consumption but also sold in markets.
Extract from the roots of Rhynchosia
venulosa (Photo II-4), finger millet, sugar
and other ingredients may be added to the
Photo II-5 Chibuku

- 17 -
beverage to produce sourness and [Link] contains little alcohol if any
(Yoneya and Miyamoto, 1999, p. 84).
Maize is often used for brewing, too. Indeed, the consumption of maize for
brewing amounts to some 15,000 tonnes per year. Maize is used not only as an
ingredient of beer, but also as main ingredient of Chibuku (Photo II-5), a local
alcoholic beverage mostly consumed by the low-income and rural population.
This beverage, produced in large amounts in factories, is largely made from
maize, sorghum and lactic acid, and has an alcohol content of 6%. Chibuku is a
very popular drink in Malawi and Zimbabwe, as well as in Zambia.

2-3 Marketing of Products and Inputs

Until 1992, the prices and distribution of maize was tightly controlled by the
state. During this period, the purchase of maize from producers was monopolized
by Namboard (National Agricultural Marketing Board) and Provincial
Co-operative Unions. Buying posts were established in villages all over the
country. Maize thus collected was transported and sold in block to millers in
urban areas, for sale in the retail market after processing. The price at each stage
of the distribution process (producer price, selling price to millers, and retail price
of maize meal) was fixed by the government. Those prices were applicable
nationwide and did not change throughout the year. The government at that time
focused its policy on ensuring sufficient production of maize as staple crop
through the provision of incentives and supplying it at low prices to urban
consumers in particular. Thus, the government set a high producer price as an
incentive to maize farmers, while maintaining the retail price at a low level to
help consumers procure their staple food. As a result, the producer price exceeded
the retail price, effectively forcing the government to provide subsidy to bridge
the gap. This placed a permanent financial burden on the government
(Kodamaya, 2003).
Since 1993, the governmental intervention in the distribution and prices of
maize, as described above, has been reduced in a bid to promote liberalization.
Concrete measures included the winding up of Namboard and the deregulation of
producer and retail prices (abolition of subsidy), as well as the liberalization of

- 18 -
chemical fertilizer distribution and the withdrawal of related subsidy programmes.
The abolition of subsidy programmes for chemical fertilizer meant to the farmers
an increase in its prices. The abolition of maize purchasing by Namboard and
privatization of maize distribution, as well as the abolition of the nationally
applicable fixed buying price, signalled to the farmers that they were no longer
able to sell their products at a fixed price by bringing them to the consolidating
stations designated by the government, and that they had to negotiate directly
with merchants on the selling price, instead. Producers in remote areas had to
face even higher fertilizer prices to cover the additional transport cost. What is
worse, they were obliged to sell maize at a lower price, for the purchasing
merchants would subtract the extra transport cost from the purchasing price. Thus,
the farther a farmer lives from a major consuming area, the more
disadvantageous becomes the commercial production of maize. Indeed, many
farmers have ceased production of maize since the introduction of liberalization
measures, particularly in the northern part of Zambia, where maize production
had spread rapidly under the governmental price support scheme (Shimada, 2007,
pp. 111-2).
The government has partially reintroduced subsidies for chemical fertilizer.
These subsidies are provided through the Fertilizer Support Programme in the
form of selling chemical fertilizer at a discount through agricultural cooperatives.
The resumption of a subsidy programme is driven by the fact that small farmers
can hardly afford to utilize chemical fertilizer due to recent hikes in its prices
(Table II-2-5). From 2003 through 2006, the government distributed 45,000
tonnes of chemical fertilizer each year at a 50% subsidy under the programme*
(Jayne et al. 2007, p. iv). Although the programme was scaled down in 2007, the
subsidy rate was raised to 60%, which means that chemical fertilizer is now
available at 40% of the market prices. Only cooperative members may purchase
chemical fertilizer at the subsidized prices, but the cooperative participation rate is
not high. It is not certain that the provision of subsidies for chemical fertilizer
through agricultural cooperatives has benefited the poor, for participation in a

*
It is estimated that 50,000 to 60,000 tonnes of chemical fertilizer is purchased in the private
commercial market, and that 28% of small farmers use chemical fertilizer for maize
production (Janye et al. 2007, p.17-19).

- 19 -
cooperative requires the payment of membership fees and there is no incentive to
join a cooperative for poor farmers who cannot afford fertilizer even at the
subsidized prices.*

Table II-2-5 Trend of chemical fertilizer prices in Lusaka

(US$/t)
Fertilizer 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Urea 285 295 285 315 385 455 490
D-Compound
290 295 295 315 390 400 490
(NPK:10-20-10)
Source: Golden Valley Agricultural Research Trust.

Figure II-2-1 presents maize distribution channels in recent years. The buyers of
maize from producers may be classified into large private buyers and small
merchants. Many of the large private buyers have been engaged in maize
transport since the era of governmental intervention in distribution on behalf of
Namboard or cooperative unions. Large buyers purchase maize from producers
or pickup service operators mainly for sale to millers. Small merchants, on the
other hand, are newcomers after liberalization. Various types of small merchants
are in operation: in some cases, producers act as small merchants by selling their
products directly to consumers in the local market, while in others, pickup service
operators play the role of such merchants by buying products from farmers for
direct sale to retailers (Kodamaya, 2003).
Examining the trend of maize prices in the post-liberalization period from
1994 through 2005, Jayne et al. (2007, pp.12-13) reports that real maize meal
prices declined by 40% during this period, while real wholesale maize prices
almost remained on a par. They attribute this downward trend in maize marketing
margins at the distribution stage to the shift from the de facto oligopoly by a few

*
The cooperatives sell inputs in packages, each containing eight bags of chemical fertilizer (50
kg per bag) and 20 kg of improved seeds, effectively precluding any purchase below this
threshold, which corresponds to the requirement for growing maize on a hectare of land. As of
October 2007, the (subsidized) price of inputs per package stood roughly at 327,000 kwacha
($83.5) at Chongwe on the outskirts of Lusaka (the price of a package containing the cheapest
seed, based on data published in AMIC Bi-Monthly Market Information Bulletin, Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, 1-15 October 2007).

- 20 -
maize-processing firms in the pre-liberalization period to a more competitive
market structure in milling and retail after liberalization, and conclude that the
liberalization of distribution has brought benefits to consumers.

Figure II-2-1 Maize distribution channels in Zambia

Source: Interviews.

Following the liberalization of maize prices and distribution, the government

created the Food Reserve Agency (FRA) in 1995. The FRA was given the
mandate to stockpile a certain amount of food including maize in preparation for
food shortage in the country and to release the stockpiled food to the market once
such shortage occurs. In practice, however, the FRA also influences the prices
and distribution of maize by buying and selling a certain percentage of gross
domestic maize production at fixed prices. The purchasing activity is focused on
small farmers in disadvantaged areas, where private merchants and companies do
not operate due to the poor land transport infrastructure. The FRA purchases
maize on 700 sites nationwide at a uniform price,* which is higher than the
market price. Under this scheme, the FRA bought 386,000 tons (27% of gross
production) and 396,000 tons (29%) of maize in 2006 and 2007, respectively.∗∗
In a sense, the Zambian government reconciles liberalization and intervention, by
*
The buying price for 2007 is 38,000 kwacha (about $10) per 50kg.
∗∗
The purchase volumes were obtained in an interview with the Executive Director of the FRA
on 17 October 2007. Production data are based on the statistics made available by the Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperative. Cooperatives are responsible for purchasing maize at the
buying posts. Transport from the buying posts is contracted out to private companies.

- 21 -
basically leaving maize distribution in the hands of the private sector, while
buying the crop through the FRA in disadvantaged areas. The purchasing activity
by the FRA has the function of ensuring outlets for small maize farmers living in
geographically handicapped areas. At the same time, however, some criticize this
function on the grounds that it distorts market, affecting the business of private
distributors and processors. Table II-2-6 shows the balance of maize supply and
demand.
The government also regulates the export and import of maize. Export
volume is determined once domestic maize production has been measured for the
year (20,000 tons for 2007). Only licensed companies may export maize. A
license system is also adopted for import. A 15% duty is charged on imported
maize. Although the import duty is intended to protect domestic producers, some
argues that it works against maize-buying farmers and urban dwellers by raising
retail prices (Zulu, Jayne and Beaver, 2007). Also, the FRA may directly
intervene in export or import. In recent years, the FRA has imported 150,000
tonnes of maize in 2001, 42,000 tonnes in 2002 and 49,000 tonnes in 2005. In
2006, however, it exported 230,000 tonnes of maize following a good harvest.

Table II-2-6 Forecast of maize supply-demand balance

(t, marketing year 2007/08)
Stockpile carried over 433,031
Supply Production 1,366,158
Gross supply 1,799,188
Home consumption 1,132,880
FRA stockpile 250,000
Animal feed 65,000
Brewing 15,000
Demand Seeds 18,000
Loss 68,308
Gross demand 1,549,188
Surplus 250,000
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
Note: A marketing year runs from May to April.

- 22 -
2-4 Socio-cultural Dimensions of Production and Consumption

Government officials, researchers and private businessmen state that maize is

not a simple staple crop, but a political crop in Zambia. This statement underlines
the overwhelming importance of maize as staple food as compared with other
crops: the failure of a policy regarding maize production or distribution may
result in the downfall of policymakers, and this prospect gives the government a
compelling reason for intervening in the market of this crop. Indeed, rising maize
meal prices have caused civil unrests in Zambian cities.
Maize production is also crucial for small farmers in rural areas to secure
subsistence food and obtain cash income by selling their crops. There are
remarkable differences between rural households in maize production,
self-sufficiency and sales. A sample survey conducted by Zulu et al. (2007)
indicates that only 20% of rural households sell maize after satisfying their own
needs. At the other end of the spectrum, 35% of them purchase maize to cover
the deficit of their production. By income bracket, high-income rural households
are generally sellers of maize, while low-income households are buyers of maize.
Based on those facts, Zulu et al. (2007, p. v) conclude that the government’s
policies designed to raise the producer price of maize (including purchase above
market prices and import duty) benefit wealthy farmers, to the detriment of the
poor.

References

1) Central statistical office, 2006. Agricultural production. Post harvest data

2003/2004 for small and medium scale farmers.

2) Central statistical office, 2004. Agricultural and pastoral production.

Structural type and post harvest data 2002/2003 for small and medium scale
farmers.

3) [Link]

4) Kakeya, Makoto, 1996. “Yakihata Noko Shakai no Genzai (Contemporary

Shifting Cultivation Society).” Tanaka, J., Kakaya, M., Ichikawa, M., and

- 23 -
 Ota, I., eds. Zoku Shizen Shakai no Jinruigaku (Anthropology in Natural
Society), pp.243-269. Academia Shuppankai, Kyoto.

5) Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2000. “Zambia: Genjo Bunseki

Shiryo Hen (Zambia: Compendium of Data for Analysis of Current
Situation).” Report of the Study Group on Assistance to Southern Africa, vol.
4, appendix.

6) Association for International Cooperation for Agriculture and Forestry, 1986.

Zambia no Nogyo (Agriculture in Zambia).

7) Association for International Cooperation for Agriculture and Forestry, 1996.

Africa Chiiki Jizokuteki Nogyo Kaihatsu Jigyo Keikaku Sakutei Chosa Dai 1
Ji Hokokusho (First Report of the Survey for Project Planning on
Sustainable Agricultural Development in Africa): Tanzania, Zambia.

8) Jayne, T. S., Govereh, J., Chilonda, P., Mason, N., Chapoto, A. and Haantuba,
H., 2007. “Trends in Agricultural and Rural Development Indicators in
Zambia,” Working Paper No.24, Food Security Research Project, Lusaka.

9) Kodamaya, Shiro, 2003. “Zambia ni okeru Jiyuka Go no Tomorokoshi

Ryutsu to Kakaku (Post-Liberalization Maize Distribution and Prices in
Zambia).” Takane, Tsutomu, ed. Africa to Asia no Nosanbutsu Ryutsu
(Distribution of Agricultural Products in Africa and Asia), pp.87-126.
Institute of Developing Economies, Tokyo.

10) Shimada, Shuhei, 2007. Gendai Africa Noson (Rural Transition in Modern
Africa). Kokon Shoin, Tokyo.

11) Yoneya, T. and Miyamoto, T., 1999. “Traditional Alcoholic Beverages in

Africa.” University of Shizuoka Junior College Research Bulletin, 13 (1),
pp.71-87.

12) Zulu, B., Janye, T. S., and Beaver, M., 2007. “Smallholder Household Maize
Production and Marketing Behavior in Zambia and Its Implications for
Policy,” Working Paper No.22, Food Security Research Project, Lusaka.

- 24 -
 Chapter III: Maize in Malawi

1. Production of Maize
1-1 Overview

As noted in Chapter II, it is said that maize (Zea mays L.), which originates
from Latin America, was discovered by Columbus in 1492 on his voyage to find
Americas and brought back to Europe. Reportedly, maize spread throughout
Europe in only three or four decades due to its high yield. Those varieties of
maize which spread via Europe are called Caribbean flint-type (i.e. flint varieties
introduced in the old times from the Caribbean), and can be distinguished fairly
clearly from the American dent-type (i.e. dent varieties introduced directly from
America in modern times) in morphological factors such as plant form and grain
texture.
Maize is said to have been introduced in East Africa in the 16th century, which
means that it reached Malawi in matter of decades. As with Zambia, staple crops
in Malawi at that time were sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and millet
(Eleusine coracana Gartner), both indigenous to Africa, but it is considered that
demand for maize increased progressively afterwards. Ever since, the production
of sorghum and millet, the traditional subsistence crops which had supported the
diet of Malawians for thousands of years, has experienced a steep decline. They
now account for less than 10% of total planted area. In contrast, maize, as
subsistence crop, has become for Malawi what rice is for Asia, taking up over
60% of the planted area.
Most traditional maize varieties in Malawi belong with Caribbean flint-type,
but many of them have been mixed with introduced varieties. Thus, most of the
varieties grown at present belong with flint-dent-type, i.e. crossbreds of traditional
flint varieties and dent varieties. Pure flint-type can hardly be observed. Crossings
with dent varieties introduced in modern times seem to be the primary reason.
Incidentally, most of the traditional varieties in Japan belong with Caribbean
flint-type. No crossing has occurred with dent varieties. Japanese maize is also
different from Malawian maize for its wider variation in hull colour and grain
texture, and includes popcorn and waxy varieties.

- 25 -
 After its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964, Malawi
experienced a dictatorship well into the 1990s. This period was characterized by
policies in favour of large farmers, which mainly produced commercial crops
such as tobacco, tea and sugar. Those crops accounted for as much as 80% of
total exports. As staple crop, maize was placed under distribution and price
control by the government, which also regulated the distribution of chemical
fertilizer and improved seeds. Since the 1980s, when liberalization policies were
introduced, private seed providers have entered the market to supply hybrids (F1).
Frequent droughts since 1990 have seriously destabilized maize production,
often failing to meet the minimum requirement of 2 million tonnes to satisfy the
needs of the population. The famine caused every two or three years by this
shortfall is currently the most pressing problem for staple crop production in
Malawi. The unit yields of hybrids are higher than those of traditional varieties,
but so is the cost to be incurred. For this reason, production area registers only a
temporary increase when chemical fertilizer and improved seeds are provided
free of charge. The input of fertilizer to compensate for the loss of soil fertility is
an essential practice in agriculture, which is lacking in Malawi. The current
practice of continued cultivation of maize, a heavyweight depriver of soil fertility,
without fertilizer application, is not only unsustainable but also one of the factors
behind the dehydration stress that is destabilizing yields.
The traditional species are late-maturing varieties planted during the rainy
season (November-April). Many of the introduced species are early- or
medium-maturing varieties, which are higher in yield but lower in biomass. The
growth period of the latter is quite long, whereas the temperature in Malawi is
considerably high, sometimes exceeding 37ºC in the rainy season. Although
mainstream maize varieties in the modern world are mostly sensitive to
temperature, traditional varieties in Malawi have a different
environment-responsiveness, and thus represent invaluable genetic resources in
stabilizing maize production (as staple crop and fuel source) under high
temperatures. Nonetheless, the awareness of such genetic resources’ values is
lacking among researchers and government officials.
As in Zambia, most of the maize grown in Malawi is of flint-type varieties.
Flint-type varieties are preferred because: they (1) have good keeping quality and

- 26 -
hold off fungi; (2) do not crack in pre-processing (hulling) for wet milling, giving
high process yields; and (3) taste better. Like Zambians, Malawians prefer white
varieties, finding some important significance in the colour. Folkloric spiritual
culture may have something to do with it, just as the Japanese prefer white rice.
Milled white maize is mixed with boiling water until it thickens like dough to
make a traditional specialty called nsima. This staple dish can be prepared
quickly and is highly nutritious when made from whole grain meal. Individual
Malawians have their own favourite taste and colour.
Although nutritional disorder due to vitamin A deficiency is very common,
people do not eat yellow varieties because they are considered as feed. Red,
purple or yellow coloured traditional varieties are not used as staple food but as
raw material for alcoholic beverages after germination and drying. The traditional
mindset of finding values in white-coloured grains also applies to sorghum. Thus,
white sorghum varieties are largely preferred over others. Small amounts of
yellow and white popcorn varieties are also cultivated in the country.

1-2 Production and Yields

1) Production and unit yield

According to the crop statistics published by the Department of Crops,
Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, maize production in Malawi
amounted to 3,445,000 tonnes in 2007. The domestic production has fluctuated
widely from one year to the next over the recent 16 years, with the average
standing somewhere between 1 million and 2.5 million tonnes (Figure III-1-1).
Any production below 1.5 million tonnes indicates a famine, which occurs every
two or three years. In the 1990s, maize planting area and production stood at
1.2-1.3 million hectares and 1.2-1.8 million tonnes, respectively, which translated
into a yield of 1-1.5t/ha. Although planting area has increased from 1.4 to 1.6
million hectares and the yield has improved slightly to 1-1.8t/ha since 2000, it still
trails far behind the world average of 4.2t/ha (Figure III-1-2). This is largely
because the Malawian agriculture lacks a “soil fertility replenishment” system to
compensate for the loss of fertility after cultivation. Many farmers do not apply
fertilizer as they can afford neither fertilizer nor new varieties.

- 27 -
 Domestic production (103t)

Year
Figure III-1-1 Trend of domestic maize production
Sources: FAOSTAT; and Department of Crops, Ministry of Agriculture and Food
Security, “Crop Statistics 2007.”
Yield (t/ha)

Year
Figure III-1-2 Trend of maize yield per unit area in Malawi
Source: FAO, 2004.

- 28 -
2) Cultivated varieties
The maize varieties cultivated in Malawi may be classified into three types:
traditional, hybrid and composite. The composite type includes varieties
generated by natural crossings between traditional varieties, on the one hand, and
commercially available hybrid and synthetic varieties developed by modern
breeding methods, on the other. They are also known as OPVs (open pollinated
varieties). OPVs are mostly provided by CIMMYT and controlled by the
government. Traditional varieties are dominant in Malawi, and enjoy the lion’s
share in the total maize planting area (Figure III-1-3). Most of them are extremely
late varieties grown in the hot rainy season.

Figure III-1-3 Trend of planting area by type of variety

Source: Malawi Maize Sector Stakeholders Workshop Report, 2004.

This may be partly because the extremely late-maturing traditional varieties,

containing large biomass, are important not only as staple food but also as fuel
source. Another reason may be that farmers who live in areas where fertilizer is
not available have opted for varieties that grow at a slower pace for a longer
period of time, as maize will not grow very fast under such condition anyway.

- 29 -
Since strong lodging resistance is not required under the stormless climatic
environment in Malawi, the selection of such extremely late-maturing varieties is
considered to be reasonable. The rate maturation of those varieties despite the
temperature exceeding 37ºC in low-lying areas in October and November may
be explained by their photo sensitivity that reduces growth speed under long-day
conditions. The growth period of some extremely late-maturing traditional
varieties even extends to six or seven months (180-210 days).
Hybrids, on the other hand, have considerable seed yields but are only
planted when the government introduces a support scheme, because of the high
seed prices and the requirement of fertilizer. They show considerable productivity
even in the dry season, provided that water and fertilizer are available. They are
actually grown during the dry season in some irrigated areas.
Composites have been increasing in number in recent years, and the
government has been working towards their diffusion. A significant difference
exists among the three types of maize in terms of yield potential. The seed yield
of hybrids per unit land area is more than twice that of traditional varieties (Figure
III-1-4). They also show a relatively high productivity without fertilizer
application. The character of composites is located in the middle of the spectrum.
In Malawi, farmers in remote areas grow more traditional varieties while farmers
living near the capital cultivate composite varieties more often (Table III-1-1). It
is very common that farmers in the same village plant (1) hybrids, (2) composites
and (3) traditional varieties at the same time. Seeds are renewed every year for
hybrids and every two or three years for composite varieties. Seeds for traditional
varieties are renewed by individual farmers. The varieties have no proper names.
The grain texture of dent varieties has spread among traditional varieties and
composites, making it difficult to tell the exact variety from the shape of seed.
Apparently, crossings between traditional and introduced varieties have
progressed over the years, as farmers do not separate varieties in planting maize.

- 30 -
 Figure III-1-4 Comparison of yields between maize varieties
Source: Data obtained in Mzuzu ADD over eight years from 1993 to 2001.

The governmental agency (ADMARC) has controlled the maize market by

setting a uniform price after mixing hybrid, composite and traditional varieties
bought from smallholders. However, few traditional varieties are marketed
because most of them are consumed on-farm.

Table III-1-1 Maize cultivation in Malawi by type of variety

(2006)

Outskirts of Lilongwe Rural area (Nepeu)

Traditional varieties 15% 62%
Composites* 70% 23%
Hybrids 15% 15%
*Seeds produced by mixing various traditional and introduced species.

1-3 Cropping System, Cultivation Methods and Use

1) Cropping system
There is a clear distinction between the rainy and dry seasons in Malawi.

- 31 -
Maize is grown in the rainy season, which runs from November to April. It is also
cultivated during the dry season where irrigation facilities are available.
Vegetables are also planted on highlands in the dry season. In general, maize is
planted on permanently cultivated land after burning bushes or fields towards the
end of the dry season. The ash generated by the burn provides necessary soil
fertility for continuous cropping. Beans such as black-eyed peas and soya are
cultivated in some cases as intercrops. Since few crops, if any, are planted in the
dry season, those fields are generally used for single maize cropping per year. The
development of this cropping system may be explained by the transition from
shifting to sedentary agriculture caused by demographic pressure. However, this
transition has not been accompanied by a matching increase in the stock of
farming assets, such as livestock, farm implements and fertilizer, resulting in an
unsustainable cropping system with no means of maintaining and increasing the
soil fertility of permanent fields.

2) Cultivation method
Rain-fed maize cultivation begins with intentional burn in October towards the
end of the dry season (Photo III-1-1), followed by manual ploughing. Maize
seeds are sown in November and December. The purpose of this practice is: (1)
to incinerate organic matters for termite control; (2) to remove obstacles to
ploughing; and (3) to utilize ash thus generated as fertilizer. However, little effect
has been confirmed as regards the last item, i.e. fertilizer generation. Fertilizer
application has not been generalized: chemical fertilizer has only been used when
government support was available. Some farmers make compost from organic
matters (Table III-1-2). Japanese bokashi (Semi-fermented organic fertilizer) is
also known, but it is only used for vegetable garden near residences and
unavailable in sufficient volumes for maize cultivation. Malawian farmers
practice a unique composting technique called chimoto, which is designed to
avoid the discontinuation of the fermenting process due to excessive aridity. It is
also known as improved Chinese method (Photo III-1-2). Thus, many of the
composting techniques were apparently introduced from Asia, attesting to the
relative inexperience of Malawian farmers in working with permanent fields.

- 32 -
Photo III-1-1 Intentional burn in a Malawian Photo III-1-2 Chimoto, traditional composting
maize field (Dezda, September 2007). Seen method in Malawi (Dezda, September 2007).
on the near side is a termite mound. The
Compost materials are coated with pugged soil
practice is primarily intended to incinerate the
organic matters lest termites should feed on to retain moisture.
them.

Table III-1-2 Composting methods in Malawian fields

Method Description
Also known as improved Chinese method. Cover weed and other
Chimoto compost materials with pugged soil into a dome-like shape. Create a
space beneath the materials using wood, for example. Bore a hole at the
top of the dome to insert a stick to observe the temperature and
humidity. Add water as necessary to facilitate fermentation (see Photo
III-1-2).
Make an enclosure and pile up the materials in layers. The practice
Chinese method originates from Taiwan and is traditionally known as “coffin” method in
(Changu) Japan.

Pit method Composting in a pit.

A low-temperature, short-term semi-fermentation method introduced
Bokashi
from Japan

Hoes are the only farm implements used for maize cultivation. Hilling comes
after the intentional burn at the end of the dry season. The furrow is about 80-100
cm wide. The top part of the hill is trimmed off and put onto weed or ash to make
a new hill. This work is mostly done by women. According to the traditional

- 33 -
practice, 10-20 kg of seeds are sown per hectare with an inter-row and inter-stock
spaces of some 90 cm each. The seeding rate is low, at 1-2 stocks/m2, and a stock
contains one or two plants. No thinning-out or weeding is practiced in most of the
cases. Chemical fertilizer is not applied to traditional varieties with no top
dressing. Other crops such as black-eyed peas, haricots, soya and chickpeas are
often planted alongside maize after germination to serve as the source of
nitrogen.
Harvesting is made by handpicking. During the dry season, harvested maize
is stored in a silo made of a woven basket that measures 2-4 m in diameter and
some 3 m in height (Photo III-1-3). It is during this period that maize may be
damaged by maize weevils or fungi. Traditional flint varieties, which are more
resistant than the hybrids of dent varieties bred by modern techniques, are
preferred by Malawian farmers because of their better postharvest performance.

Photo III-1-3 Maize basket silo in Malawi Photo III-1-4 Dried sprouted maize serves as
a raw material for alcoholic beverages and
soft drinks (public market in Lilongwe).

3) Use
Malawian maize is mostly used as food, although it is also used for brewing
and animal consumption. As in Zambia, maize is milled and then boiled in hot
water until it thickens like dough to prepare the staple dish.
This staple dish is called nsima in Chichewa, a Malawian language.
Good-tasting nsima can be made in only about 20 minutes with the same simple
recipe as that used in Zambia. White flint varieties are so overwhelmingly

- 34 -
preferred in making nsima that the yellow varieties are almost excluded from the
staple market. White varieties are preferred because they: (1) are better qualified
as staple food in terms of colour and aroma; (2) taste better; and (3) have a higher
milling process yield. Nsima is classified into two types according to the milling
method used (Table III-1-3): mgaiwa excels in nutrition and taste but is inferior in
colour, while ufa has a better colour and lower nutrition. Ufa is further divided
into two subtypes according to the milling method: dry milling or wet milling.
The latter technique was introduced in modern times from Europe. Coloured
maize varieties are marketed after germination and drying as a raw material for
soft drinks and alcoholic beverages (Photo III-1-4).

1-4 Breeding and Production Limiting Factors

1) Production limiting factors

The most significant environmental factors limiting maize production are: (1)
the water stress induced by droughts; and (2) the lack of nutrients in soil. The
Crop Department of the Malawian government recognizes three production
limiting factors: (1) bad weather, (2) soil fertility and (3) improved varieties. Only
1.3 million tonnes of maize was supplied in 2004/2005, however, falling short of
the national needs of 2 million tonnes. Against this backdrop, maize has now
become a political crop on which depends the food security of the whole country.
National policy measures have been taken to address those constraints. They
include: (1) development and propagation of drought-resistant varieties; (2)
composting of livestock manure by local PMEs or farmers; (3) development of
postharvest facilities for exports using metal silos; and (4) diffusion of cultivation
methods suited for improved varieties. The government introduced fertilizer and
seed support schemes since 1998. A support programme for fertilizer and seed
supply has been also implemented since 2004, financed by the EU.
Hybrid varieties tend to be highly resistant to droughts, and are expected to
produce a high yield (6 t/ha) with appropriate fertilizer application and watering,
as well as weeding and pest/disease control. However, the costs of seeds and
fertilizer application are prohibitive for smallholders. The traditional cultivation
method keeps the distance of 90 cm between stocks, enabling nitrogen fixation

- 35 -
 Table III-1-3 Major uses of maize as food in Malawi
Item Process Suited varieties Description
Mill whole grains of Good taste; nutritious; slightly
Mgaiwa White flint
maize without sifting. yellowish.
Good quality; fine and smooth
Mill grains after
Ufa (ground meal) Whit flint texture; white but low in
removing bran.
nutrition.
Nsima
Wet milling; smooth and white
Mill and then dry
but low in nutrition. Flint
grains soaked in water
Ufa (white flour) White fling varieties do not crack and are
for three days (mphale)
better in quality than dent
after hulling.
varieties.

Crude locally-brewed
Ferment for several
Chibuku beverage with low alcohol
days.
content.

Distilled alcoholic
Local gin with high alcohol
Khachaso beverage (ferment for
content.
seven days).

Soft drink (ferment for Beverage for women; drunk

Chindonguwa
several days). when it is hot.

Soft drink (ferment

sprouted dried grains Traditional coloured Sweet non-alcoholic beer for
Thobwa
of coloured varieties varieties children to drink anytime.
for a short period).

Whole-grain cake
(bake bread adding
Chikondamoyo Yellow bread.
baking powder and
sugar).

Boil to make sweet Marketed in the dry season

Green corn Sweet varieties
corn, a staple dish. when prices are high.

Heat and pop,

Mbuluuli sometimes with Popcorn varieties Small yellow or white grains.
groundnuts.

- 36 -
through inter cropping with beans. This inter cropping is impossible when the
space is 75 cm or shorter. Adoption of single-cropping to raise seed production
per unit land area (pure community with a plant density of 30,000 stocks/ha)
would reduce the space between stocks, effectively precluding beans cultivation
and thus necessitating fertilizer application to preserve soil fertility. The viability
of production would then be at stake.
Other production limiting factors include pests and diseases (Table III-1-4).
The major diseases are maize streak virus (a Geminiviridae virus) and grey leaf
spot (caused by fungi such as Cercospora zeae-maydis), which may result in a
significant yield loss. Other diseases include rust caused by Puccinia sorghi and
southern leaf blight caused by Bipolaris maydis. In response, agricultural research
stations and private seed providers have been working towards the development
of resistant varieties.
The most harmful pests are Chilo partellus and other stalk borers. Asiatic
witchweed (Striga asiatica), a parasitic plant in the Scrophulariaceae family, is
also a major factor limiting maize production. Although termites do not eat maize
in growth, they will proliferate by feeding on plant residue. It is for this reason
that permanent fields are burnt intentionally, effectively taking away organic
matters that may serve as fertilizer. Thus, termite may be considered as an indirect
pest.
Table III-1-4 Ecological Constraints on Maize Production in Malawi
Constraint Affected area
Drought Low elevation area
Striga asiatica Lowlands and middle elevation area
Southern leaf blight (Bipolaris maydis) Middle elevation area
Rust (Puccinia sorghi) Middle elevation area
Maize streak virus (Meminiviridae family) Low elevation area
Chilo partellus and other stalk borers Middle elevation area
Maize weevil Lowlands and middle elevation area
Lack of nutrients in soil Lowlands to middle elevation area
Source: Gununga, R., Chitedze Agricultural Research Station (2004).

- 37 -
 Moreover, highly acidic soil limits production in some areas. At Mzuzu in the
Mzimba district, for example, the soil is strongly acidic and plants are put under
substantial aluminium stress. Even aluminium-resistant hybrids such as DK8051
produce only about 30% of their potential yields (Nhlane, W. G., 2004).

2) Breeding
Breeding activities in Malawi are conducted by national laboratories and
private seed providers. There is no active breeding programme directly involving
farmers. The objectives of maize breeding concern (1) resistance to aridity stress,
(2) yields under poor nutritional conditions, (3) resistance to acidity, (4) resistance
to pests and diseases and (5) quality, among others.
Malawi has an agricultural research station in Chitedze, on the outskirts of
Lilongwe, which conduct breeding activities with the support of CIMMYT in an
area of 430 ha. The gene bank attached to the research station has collected 87
varieties of maize, in addition to 43 strains of millets and sorghum. However, the
collection of local varieties has been insufficient so far. Most of the collected
varieties are white flint types. The breeding activities are focused on hybrids,
which are more resistant to drought and produce higher yields under poor
nutritional conditions.
The research station does not develop any original inbred line, using strains
introduced from CIMMYT as mother plants for hybridization after testing.
Although traditional local varieties are known to have strong resistance to
diseases, they are not used as mother plants largely due to their late maturation.
Relative maturation objectives are 75 days for extremely early-maturing varieties,
90 days for early-maturing varieties and 120-150 days for medium- and
late-maturing varieties. Promising hybrids have been developed recently,
including CZP4, CZP5 and CZP8. CZP4 is a double-cross variety, while CZP5 is
a triple-cross hybrid.
OPVs (open pollinated varieties) have also been introduced from CIMMYT
after being tested for cultivation adaptability testing. Commonly used OPVs
include ZDM421, ZDM521, ZDM621 and ZM623. Similar to the selected
varieties and selected strains in Japan (Inoue, 1991), OPVs are developed by
mixing high-performing individuals or strains to produce seeds. Apparently,

- 38 -
OPVs are created from selected traditional and introduced varieties in Africa and
other regions.
Other quality composites (OPVs) such as masika and sundwe have been
extended through a Chinese maize project for yield improvement.
SEED-CO (SC), the largest private seed provider in the country located in
Lilongwe, was established in 1941 and is currently based in Zimbabwe. The
hybrids marketed by the company account for 56% of the agricultural seeds
supplied to the domestic market. Maize is its primary source of profit. The
company provides a wide range of maize hybrid seeds in terms of maturation
(Table III-1-5), as well as medium-maturing OPVs.
SC uses inbred lines supplied by international organizations including
CIMMYT as well as its proprietary lines as parent strains of hybrids. Hybrids
whose parents are strains developed by SC or international organizations are
tested for adaptability in its productivity testing farms located all over the country
before marketing. Triple-cross or single-cross method is used for seed production.
Triple-cross varieties take disparate shapes when cultivated on farm, showing a
difference of some 50 cm in ear height. At present, SC627, a middle-maturing,
high-yielding variety, is relatively well accepted for cultivation in the rainy
season.
Table III-1-5 Major varieties marketed by SEED-CO in Malawi
RM:
Yield Seed production
Variety relative Main features Remarks
(t/ha) method
maturation
90-110 For cultivation in dry season
SC403 3-6 MSV, drought-resistance Semi-flint
(early) with irrigation
90-100
SC407 3-7 GLS, MSV (F×D)×F For cultivation on highlands
(early)
115
SC513 (early to 6-10 GLS, drought-resistance (D×D)×F
middle)
125-135
SC627 7-10 GLS, MSV (D×F)×F High-yielding variety
(middle)
130-150
SC709 11 GLS D×D
(extremely late)
130-150 Single-cross using
SC715 11 GLS, MSV
(extremely late) synthetic varieties
130-150
SC717 13 GLS Triple-cross, semi-flint Long-eared
(extremely late)
Note: F = flint varieties, D = dent varieties, MSV = resistance to maize streak virus
(Geminiviridae virus), GLS = resistance to grey leaf spot (caused by Cercospora zeae-maydis
and other fungi).

- 39 -
 Table III-1-6 Major DEKALB varieties marketed in Malawi
RM:
Variety Yield (t/ha) Main features
relative maturation
110-115
DK8021 6-8 Strong GLS, high yield
(early)
DK8031 Same as above
115-130
DK8033 8-9 Two-eared, adaptable to wide areas, high yield
(middle)
130-135
DK8051 Slightly higher yield than MH18 Semi-flint variety, high milling suitability
(middle)
140-145
DK8071 9-11 Strong GLS, large-grain flint variety
(extremely late)
DKC80-73 Same as above
Note: GLS = resistance to grey leaf spot (caused by Cercospora zeae-maydis and other fungi).

Also marketed in Malawi are DK varieties imported from Monsanto South

Africa. “DK” is the identification code given to hybrids developed by DEKALB
(US). They include white semi-flint and flint varieties with excellent qualities
(Table III-1-6). Their market has been expanding in recent years.

1-5 Future Outlooks

Government policies have been guided by the national strategy of attaining

self-sufficiency by single-cropping of maize. This subsection considers the
prospect of this production strategy from the viewpoints of: (1) sustainability and
stability of maize production; (2) satisfaction of nutritional needs of the
population; and (3) commercial values of products.
Maize production requires a substantial amount of water and is susceptible to
drought. Varieties developed by modern breeding techniques are highly sensitive
to the temperature. Their growth tends therefore to be unstable because it will be
restrained in a warmer climate. Lack of balanced fertilizer application destabilizes
the composition of nutrients and reduces the productivity of soil. For example,
fertilizer application heavily dependent on urea will deprive specific minerals of
the soil. Upland single-cropping of maize cannot achieve sustainable or stable
agricultural production. This problem will not be solved simply by introducing
high-yielding hybrids.
Nyctalopia caused by vitamin A deficiency and anemia due to iron deficiency
is widely observed among the Malawian population (Table III-1-7). The suffering

- 40 -
is directly related to the diet biased in favour of white maize. Eating yellow maize
varieties would be effective in addressing this problem because they contain
carotenoid, a precursor to vitamin A. Planting traditional varieties of sorghum and
millet, which are highly resistant to water stress and sufficient contents of human
nutrients is an option for alleviating environmental and health impacts.
Finally, white sorghum has a considerable potential as a commercial crop. It
does not contain any pigment including carotenoid, and hence is valuable as
animal feed to prevent colour development in fat. Millets include finger, common
and foxtail millets is also valuable in terms of nutrition and function because it is
rich in iron, zinc and vitamins. Nonetheless, finger millet is rarely traded in the
world market, as attested by its high unit price in Japan. Thus, indigenous coarse
cereals in Malawi have strong resistance to drought and valuable functions as
food. Reintroducing those crops would help stabilize staple cereal production and
increase income.

Table III-1-7 Vitamin and mineral deficiencies in Malawi*

Category Vitamin A Iron/anemia
Children under five 60% 80%
Children under three - 60%
Women 57% 27%
Men and school children 38% 17%
* 2001 National Micronutrient Survey (MOHP, 2003).

Future prospects of Malawian maize should also be considered in terms of its

value as a genetic resource. Traditional varieties in Malawi have strong photo
sensitivity, with growth periods of up to seven months even in the hot rainy
season. Some of them are said to inherit disease-resistant genes. In this light, they
may be useful as breeding materials for stabilizing yields in the warming
environment. Caribbean flint varieties are also valuable as mother plants for
hybridization, as they are expected to be suitable for crossing with American dent
varieties and remotely related varieties introduced from Americas. These genetic
resources should be preserved for future development of high-yielding varieties.
In the final analysis, it may be concluded that traditional Malawian maize

- 41 -
varieties constitute promising genetic resources, which will contribute to the
development of excellent inbred lines.

2. Marketing and Processing of Maize

2-1 Comparison with Other Staple Crops

Malawi needs to produce 2.2 million tonnes of maize per year if it is to attain
self-sufficiency in staple food. This requirement was met in cropping years
2005/2006* and 2006/2007 thanks to good rainfalls. From a longer-term
perspective, however, a high volatility is be observed in domestic production due
to bad weather and other constraints as described above (Figure III-1-1). Recent
trend indicates that maize production plummeted in 2000/2001, 2001/2002and
2004/2005 cropping seasons, resulting in serious food shortages.
Other staple crops produced in Malawi include rice, sorghum, millet, cassava,
sweet potato and Irish potato. Table III-2-1 presents the production and growing
area for each of the crops in recent years. The data point to an overwhelming
share of maize in planted area, as the growing area of rice, sorghum, millet,
cassava, sweet potato and Irish potato combined does not even reach 1/3 of that
of maize. The fact attests to the predominance of maize among staple crops.

Table III-2-1 Production and planting area of staple crops in Malawi (2000-2007)
Production (t)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Maize 2,501,311 1,713,064 1,556,975 1,983,440 1,733,125 1,225,234 2,471,125 3,444,655
Rice 71,633 93,150 92,097 88,184 49,722 41,270 82,757 113,166
Sorghum 36,799 36,606 39,155 45,438 40,905 18,175 51,130 63,898
Millet 19,508 20,414 20,900 24,615 17,349 15,970 26,597 32,251
Cassava 2,794,617 3,352,401 1,540,183 1,735,065 2,559,319 2,197,640 2,544,535 3,285,127
Sweet potato 1,918,489 2,586,878 1,061,411 1,535,137 1,784,749 1,081,463 1,494,112 2,307,354
Irish potato 160,264 323,306 324,904 399,376 420,590 404,420 521,843 594,003
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security.

*
A cropping year runs from October to September.

- 42 -
Planting area ha
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Maize 1,507,088 1,506,528 1,488,449 1,568,975 1,537,651 1,513,929 1,600,506 1,686,442
Rice 43,542 50,146 56,029 54,407 42,568 49,154 53,631 57,371
Sorghum 55,030 54,098 54,404 59,627 63,459 68,419 68,931 74,131
Millet 34,257 34,169 34,234 38,758 37,368 41,192 40,081 44,878
Cassava 183,486 202,338 102,929 112,071 156,645 153,687 151,623 174,932
Sweet potato 167,118 192,457 87,675 115,679 149,478 128,982 118,577 150,592
Irish potato 14,312 22,794 25,789 30,398 33,053 35,439 39,109 40,202
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security.

Rice is produced mainly in northern Malawi to be consumed in urban areas

and along the coast of Lake Malawi, or exported via northern border to Tanzania.
Cassava is mostly produced and consumed along the coast of Lake Malawi. By
virtue of its stronger drought-resistance, cassava draws attention of the
government and aid agencies as alternative staple crop in times of bad maize
harvest. As described in the previous chapter on Zambia, cassava takes longer
time before harvest and hence competes with maize in land use. The issue is all
the more serious in Malawian villages because of the already substantial
population pressure on land. Sorghum and millet are just as drought-resistant as
cassava, but their production is far below that of maize. Often cropped along with
maize, they are also used as alternative crops when maize cropping fails due to
insufficient rainfall.

2-2 Processing Industry

Maize meal used by urban consumers for preparing nsima is processed and
marketed by milling factories. Commercial maize meal is classified into three
types - super cream of maize, cream of maize and whole maize meal – in
accordance with its quality and milling method (i.e. hulled or unhulled). The first
two types of maize meal are white-coloured, being hulled before milling. The
former is better than the latter in quality. The third type is off-white whole grain
meal. Maize thus processed by milling factories is estimated to account for some
10% of total domestic maize production (RATES Centre, 2003). Many
consumers buy maize grains and have them processed into meal at
small milling stations.

- 43 -
 Milling in rural areas proceeds as
[Link], leave the ripened maize
in the field well into the dry season to
dehydrate the grains sufficiently
before harvesting (roughly from April
to July). Store maize thus harvested in
an outdoor silo without removing the
cob or hull (Photo III-2-1). Then, shed
grains in the necessary amount and Photo III-2-1 Outdoor storage of maize.
prepare nsima after milling. Any
maize harvested during the rainy season, however, is often stored indoors in
gunnysacks after shedding until the end of the dry season, instead of drying
outdoors. Shed grains are milled directly or after being hulled with mortar and
pestle (Photo III-2-2). Hulling the grains reduces the volume of output but
produces pure white meal to make good-looking and good-tasting nsima. Milling
the whole grains produces off-white meal, which is greater in volume and
nutritional value than the pure white meal. The hull removed in the milling
process is used as a raw material for animal feed and beverages (see the previous
chapter on Zambia).

Photo III-2-2 Maize grains are hulled by Photo III-2-3 A woman brewing the local
crushing. alcoholic beverage in a drum.

As in Zambia, beverages made from maize are classified into two types:
non-alcoholic and alcoholic. In particular, a cheap alcoholic beverage made
primarily from maize – which has the same brand name as in Zambia (Chibuku)

- 44 -
– is produced in factories in large volumes mainly for consumption by the
general public. In addition, Chibuku-like alcoholic beverages* are widely
produced from maize, millet or sorghum. Furthermore, a distilled beverage with a
higher alcoholic proof (kachaso) is often produced and sold in rural areas. In
most cases, the brewing and selling activities are undertaken by rural women, for
whom home-made beverages represent a crucial income source (Photo III-2-3).

2-3 Marketing of Products and Inputs

From the independence to the mid-1990s, crops produced by smallholders

including maize were all bought by Agricultural Development and Marketing
Corporation (ADMARC) at fixed prices. In addition to purchasing crops,
ADMARC also served as exclusive supplier of chemical fertilizer for
smallholders at subsidized prices.
General economic deregulation measures taken since the 1980s, when the
structural adjustment programme was introduced, have been accompanied by the
liberalization of agricultural product distribution. Some of those reforms
introduced in the framework of structural adjustment concerned maize, the
predominant staple crop. In the first place, maize distribution was liberalized
progressively so that private operators may directly purchase harvested maize.
Private buyers were allowed in 1987 to engage in the distribution of agricultural
products under a license system. In 1988, 15% (125) of the ADMARC branches
that had been buying maize from farmers throughout the country were closed,
followed by further progressive cutbacks. The license system for the trading of
agricultural products was abolished in 1996, allowing private merchants further
latitude to deal in them. The prices of maize traded between private merchants
and companies were also liberalized in 2000.
Secondly, the markets of inputs required for maize production have been
transformed. Reform measures related to inputs include the abolition of subsidy
for improved seeds (1994), withdrawal of subsidy programmes for chemical
fertilizer (1995), downscaling of the function of ADMARC, which had
controlled the distribution of improved seeds and chemical fertilizer, and
*
These alcoholic beverages are known as masese, for example.

- 45 -
participation of private operators in input markets. Those reforms led to steep
increases in chemical fertilizer and seed prices.
The third reform concerns the credit market for smallholders. Until the early
1990s, farmers were able to finance the purchase of seeds and chemical fertilizer
by securing low-interest loans from the SACA (Smallholder Agricultural Credit
Administration), a financing institution for smallholders run by the government.
Under this distribution and financing systems, farmers at that time obtained seeds
and chemical fertilizer from ADMARC on credit, and paid their prices plus
interest when selling harvested maize to the corporation. However, the SACA
went bankrupt in 1994 due to low credit repayment rate. MRFC (Malawi Rural
Financial Company), which replaced it as agricultural credit institution, provided
loans at market interest rates. Following this reform, many smallholders lost
access to the credit market, for informal agricultural credit is hardly available in
Malawi. As a result, farmers had to face a double challenge of rising seed and
fertilizer prices, on the one hand, and the loss of access to the agricultural credit
market, on the other.
As chemical fertilizer and improved seeds became elusive for smallholders,
the Malawian government launched in the late 1990s a Starter Pack Programme
to distribute large amounts of free inputs to smallholders. The pack distributed by
the programme from 1998 to 2004 contained improved maize seeds, chemical
fertilizer and bean seeds necessary for cultivating an area of about 0.1 ha. The
number of packs distributed in the first two years of the programme roughly
amounted to 2.8 million, which corresponds to the total number of smallholder
households in the country. This number was subsequently reduced to 1.5 million
in 2000 and 0.9 million in 2001, with the coverage limited to poor households. As
food shortage in Malawi became serious in early 2002, however, the distribution
was scaled up again to 2.7 million packs in 2002, followed by further distribution
of 1.7 million and 2.0 million sacks in 2003 and 2004, respectively. It is not
certain how much the implementation of the Starter Pack Programme has
contributed to the national food security. Even in the programme implementation
period, however, maize production fluctuated widely due to bad weather, thus
causing a serious food shortage every few years. The government wound up this
free input distribution programme in 2005, and replaced it with a Fertilizer

- 46 -
Subsidy Programme to distribute vouchers to poor farmers so that they may
purchase chemical fertilizer at subsidized prices. Using those vouchers,
smallholders may purchase chemical fertilizer and improved seeds at 30-50% of
the market prices.* Within the framework of this programme, the government
provided 137,000 tonnes of subsidized fertilizer through the SFFRFM
(Smallholder Farmers Fertilizer Revolving Fund) and ADMARC (Chinsinga,
2007). 37% of the Malawian households benefited from this voucher programme
(National Statistical Office 2007, p.67). The programme continued in 2006,
selling 176,000 tonnes of fertilizer to smallholders at a quarter of the market
prices (EIU Country Report July 2007). In 2007, further 170,000 tonnes of
fertilizer was supplied at one fifth of the market prices (FEWS NET, November
2007). However, some question if the vouchers have really been distributed to
poor smallholders.
Maize distribution channels are as shown in Figure III-2-1.

Figure III-2-1 Maize distribution channels in Malawi.

Note: ADMARC stands for Agricultural Development and Marketing Cooperation.
NFRA stands for the National Food Reserve Agency.
Source: RATES Centre (2003), etc.

*
A voucher may be used for purchasing a bag of urea and a bag of NPK ([Link]+4S) (950
kwacha each; a bag contains 50 kg of fertilizer). A tobacco producer may also purchase two bags
of D-compound and a bag of CAN (1,400 kwacha per bag).

- 47 -
 At present, ADMARC and private merchants/companies concurrently buy
maize from smallholders for sale. The purchase price by ADMARC for
marketing year 2007 was initially fixed at 17 kwacha (roughly $0.12) per
kilogramme but raised to 20 kwacha in September. The buying prices by private
operators (as of July 2007) ranged from 10 to 25 kwacha according to
geographical location (FEWSNET August 2007, November 2007).
In addition to the distribution activities by private operators and ADMARC,
the National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA) was established in 1999 to stockpile
a certain amount of maize in preparation for any food shortage in the country.
The NFRA buys maize from private operators or ADMARC for stockpiling and
exports any excess amount when sufficient supply is available in the domestic
market. When maize is in short supply, on the other hand, the NFRA ensures the
required level of stockpile by importing maize, and supplies some of those
imports to the domestic market as necessary.
In order to ensure Malawi’s food security, the government controls maize
export in accordance with the volume of production and the level of the stockpile.
For example, the government banned maize export in 2005, following a steep
decline in production due to bad weather, only to lift the ban progressively since
February 2007 in light of good harvests for two consecutive years. Indeed, maize
has been exported to Zimbabwe and Swaziland. However, it is only those
companies licensed by the government that may export maize. In contrast,
anyone may import maize without restriction and duty-free (except that import
tariffs of 10-30% are placed on maize meal).

2-4 Socio-cultural dimensions of production and consumption

Maize is a staple crop in Malawi, and nsima, made from maize meal, is an
essential dish for the population’s diet in both urban and rural areas. It is reported
that Malawi tops the world in per-capita consumption of maize (Smale 1995,
p.820). As attested by the typically Malawian expression "Maize is our life"
(Peters and Herrera 1994, p.314), the importance of maize is overwhelming in
the diet of the population.
The significance of maize in Malawi is also clearly shown by the fact that

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most of the small subsistence farmers produce maize. After conducting a survey
in six Malawian villages in 2004 and 2005, Takane (2007) reported that the 186
households covered by the survey planted maize without exception. A large-scale
sample survey conducted by the Malawian government (covering 11,280
households in 2004-2005) also found that 97% of the subsistence farming
households planted maize. No difference was observed among the households
according to their attributes (location, consumption level, gender of the
householder, etc.). Those data reveal that Malawi is a strongly maize-oriented
society, in terms of both consumption and production.

TableIII-2-2 Percentage of maize producers in total farming households (2005)

% of maize % of traditional % of composite % of hybrid
producers variety growers growers growers
Total 97.0 54.5 5.3 54.5
Headed by Man 97.0 51.6 5.6 56.5
Woman 96.8 63.6 4.1 47.9
Level 1 95.2 55.4 6.6 47.4
Consumption level 2 96.7 57.4 4.9 52.1
(see Note) 3 98.1 54.3 5.5 56.2
4 97.3 55.5 5.8 55.6
5 96.9 45.5 4.8 60.3
Region Northern 93.6 36.4 3.6 63.4
Central 97.1 54.9 5.4 51.6
Southern 97.9 59.9 5.7 54.0
Note: Classification of farming households on a scale of 1 to 5 according to the level of annual
consumption per capita.
Level 1 represents the poorest 20%, while Level 5 represents the richest 20%.
Source: Government of Malawi (2005), p.96.

References

1) CIMMYT, 2004. Malawi Maize Sector Stakeholders Workshop Report.

2) Seed-Co, 2007. Product Manual 2007/08.

3) National Statistic Office of Malawi, 2005. Malawi 2004 Demographic and

Health Survey. National Statistic Office Zamba, Malawi and ORC Macro
Calverton, Maryland USA.

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4) Inoue, Naoto, 1991. “Tomorokoshi Kokunai Ikushu no Rekishi to Seika to
Katsuyo (History, Result and Utilization of Domestic Maize Breeding).”
Jikyu Shiryo (Forage Crop), no. 16, pp. 8-18.
5) Takane, Tsutomu, 2007. “Malawi no Shono: Keizai Jiyuka to Africa Noson
(Smallholders in Malawi: Economic Liberalization and Rural Africa).”
Kenkyu Sosho (Research Series), no. 561. Institute of Developing
Economies.
6) Chinsinga, B., 2007. Reclaiming Policy Space? Malawi's 2005/2006 Fertilizer
Subsidy Programme, (Presentation at the World Development Report Politics
and Policy Processes Workshop, January 2007, at the Institute of Development
Studies, Sussex). [Link]
7) Economist Intelligence Unit, 2007. EIU Country Report Malawi July 2007.
London: Economist Intelligence Unit.
8) FEWSNET (various issues) "Malawi Food Security Update"
([Link]
9) Government of Malawi, 2005. Report of the Second Malawi Integrated
Household Survey 2004-2005, Volume I: Household Socio-Economic
Characteristics. Zomba: National Statistical Office.
10) National Statistical Office, 2007. Welfare Monitoring Survey 2006. Zomba:
National Statistical Office.
11) Peters, P. and M. G. Herrera, 1994. "Tobacco Cultivation, Food Production,
and Nutrition among Smallholders in Malawi." J. von Braun and E.
Kennedy, eds., Agricultural Commercialization, Economic Development,
and Nutrition. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1994.
12) RATES Centre, 2003. "Maize Market Assessment and Baseline Study for
Malawi." Nairobi: Centre for Regional Agricultural Trade Expansion
Support.
13) Smale, Melinda, 1995. “‘Maize if Life’: Malawi's Delayed Green
Revolution." World Development, 23(5), pp. 819-831.

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 Conclusion

The goal of the ongoing aid program is the improvement of livelihood of

people in Zambia and Malawi. Furthermore, it is hoped for that these countries
shall be developed to become equal partners’ vis-à-vis industrialized economies,
where no more aids are necessary. The staple diet in these countries is maize.
While the principal objective of the entire report is to contribute to the
improvement of productivity of maize, reporter devotes this section to describe
the aspect of the commodity looked at from the viewpoint of more effective
utilization of the product. There is no doubt that the cereal crops including maize
are important commodities as staple food. The relative importance of cereals
among staple foodstuff is higher particularly in areas that are menaced by
starvation. However, once the supply reaches the level sufficient to meet the
demand, the producers have to face the risks inherent in commodity markets. It is
true that the raise of productivity contributes to a certain extent to the solution of
starvation problem, and that there are still a large number of regions in the world
where this issue has a top priority. But once the production has reached a
certain level sufficiently high to solve starvation problem, it would be difficult to
raise the economic status of local people unless the products are utilized
effectively to enhance their income, since, as historically demonstrated, the
abundant harvest inevitably leads to falling prices.
Before taking up the subject, reporter wishes to briefly comment on the
recent rise of prices of cereals on world markets. From 1995 to 1996, the grain
market rose sharply as a result of the publicized food crisis. After the brief period
of rise, the grain prices resumed a phase of stagnation again that lasted until 2006.
In the fall of 2006, in spite of a bumper harvest in the USA, world top grain
producer, grain prices rose again due to the drought in Australia and the demand
of burgeoning market of biomass energy.
What should be noted of the trend is that the high price level has been
maintained since the fall of 2006 essentially by the factors on the demand side.
Traditionally, the grain prices have been determined principally by the supply
side factors. Apart from a certain exception, grain crops can be harvested only
once a year in each locality and moreover the harvest depends essentially on

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 Figure: The Chicago maize quotation

climatic factors. Because of the variation in climatic factors among different

growing regions, the fluctuation of production, therefore that of prices is adjusted
by the grain trade.

Multinational “grain majors” are in the position to promote internal as

well as external grain trade. As such, it can be said that they have been playing an
important role in regulating the equilibrium of supply and demand on a
worldwide scale by having established global distribution networks through
optimized allocation of resources. Most of cereals except for rice are not
consumed directly by humans. They have to undergo industrial processes before
taking the form of food ready for human consumption. The most familiar case is
that of wheat that is firstly milled to make flour before being prepared as bread or
noodles. Likewise marketed maize grains are transformed into formula feed or
starch for ultimate consumption. Grain crops grown under natural conditions are
influenced by environmental factors such as weather and soil properties not only

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in the volume of their production but also in their quality. In order to
commercialize them in international markets, they have to have qualities suitable
for industrial processes. For that purpose, it is needed to standardize the
parameters of product quality. To put it in more concrete terms, it is necessary to
quantify such properties as moisture content, impurities, damaged kernels, which
are outside the scope of the present subject and, therefore, reporter does not
elaborate on but presents simply as proposition for further examination.

Reporter wishes also to point out another issue of the steep rise of ocean
freight. With a view to achieving food security in terms of grain supply in a
particular country, a hypothetical solution might envisage a situation that by
acquiring a capacity to earn foreign exchange, the country would be able to
purchase required commodities from abroad, instead of increasing domestic
production. However, it should be noted that, due to the inflated ocean freight in
recent years, the grain supply dependent on the mode of a long haul from a
production country to a consuming one will entail substantially elevated total
costs of the commodity, and that, therefore, it would be a more practical solution
to adhere to the principle that a country should produce on its own soil what it
consumes.

In Zambia and Malawi, people consume maize of varieties with white

and hard kernels. However, these characteristics are not suited for the use as an
ingredient for preparing formula feed in Japan. Compared to yellow-kernelled
maize, white-kernelled maize has characters of a lower protein content and hard
grain consistency which cause fragmentation when it is processed by grinding or
forming flakes. On the other hand, white corn is characteristically preferred as
raw material of corn starch especially of that for adhesive. If these countries are
capable of supplying a sufficient quantity of exportable surplus grain on a
constant basis, they might have a certain market not only in Japan but also in
Europe. The qualifying term, “on a constant basis”, may be considered to state a
simple requirement, but in reality, it signifies a very strict condition, for the
position of a processing factory is not that which allows it to accept the surplus
only when such surplus is created, but that which necessitates it to have a

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constant influx of grain to keep on running its production lines, irrespective of
whether growers have surplus or not. As long as the producers maintain the
posture that they export the products only when they have the surplus, they
remain forever to be vulnerable to the abuse of buying power.
Regarding the subject grain of the present report, maize, the agriculture
dependent on a single commodity is an extremely risky undertaking in the
sub-Saharan Africa, including the two countries of our study, where unstable
climates, infertile soils and undeveloped production infrastructure constitute the
difficult production environment.

Since maize is a crop plant susceptible to drought, it would be needed to

reexamine the role of other small grain crops which are resistant to drought such
as sorghum and pearl millet. Regarding sorghum, in particular, it used to be
characteristically cultivated in the Corn Belt of the USA for the very reason that it
was resistant to drought, whenever the planting of major crops, maize and
soybean, was delayed and had to be abandoned due to unfavorable climatic
conditions. Incidentally, sorghum used to be given a secondary place vis-à-vis
maize with a lower market value and considered only as a bulking ingredient in
feedstuff. However, the sorghum production has decreased as a result of the
augmentation of the area planted to maize and soybean owing to the
improvement of varieties and cultural techniques of these crops. Consequently,
the price of sorghum that used to be relatively lower is presently higher than that
of maize. Moreover, since the harvest of sorghum is more reliable than maize
when maize has suffered from drought, it can function as the Savior whenever
the price of maize rises due to drought.

Generally speaking, in major maize growing areas, maize is planted as a

component in a rotational cropping system. One of the predominant components
in the system is soybean. In addition to the fact that maize and soybean share
preferences for the same climatic conditions, in agronomic terms, they hold a
complementary function to each other. While soybean is not suited to continuous
cropping, it can assimilate and add to the cropping system the nitrogen, fertilizer
element which maize needs in a great quantity. However, soybean has a character

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that it is more oriented for selling than for consumption as food to meet the need
of self sufficiency. Moreover, it is normally not taken directly as food. Therefore,
reporter would like to propose a more flexible approach in formulating the
cropping systems to be practiced in Zambia and Malawi, by incorporating other
leguminous crop species such as cowpea, common beans, etc., that are suited to
the taste of people there.

The agricultural system to be realized ultimately would be the one in

which a practicable cropping system will have been established by choosing
maize as the core commodity and incorporating sorghum and leguminous crops
as complementary components, in order to achieve the self-sufficiency of staple
food as well as to produce surplus for export to provide cash income. For that end,
it is needed not only to introduce techniques to raise the crop yield per unit area
but also to make efforts to enlighten and motivate the farming community for
higher production. The approach will also engender an effect to widen the scope
of choices of food for local inhabitants.

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