CHEMICAL REACTIONS

& EQUATIONS
Handwritten Notes

Made with
by

Gaurav Suthar
Chemical reaction:

The process in which new substances with new properties are

formed from one or more substances is called Chemical Reaction.

Examples -

- Rusting of Iron

- Burning of wood

- Formation of Curd

- Respiration etc.

Following observations help to determine whether a chemical

reaction has taken place:

1) Change in state

2) Change in colour

3) Evolution of a gas

4) Change in temperature

Reactant: The substances which take part in chemical reaction.

Product: The substances which are formed in a chemical reaction.

Chemical Equation:

- Symbolic representation of a chemical reaction is said to be

Chemical equation.

- It involves uses of symbol of elements or chemical formula of

reactant and product with mention of physical state.
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 - The necessary conditions such as temperature, pressure or any
catalyst should be written on arrow between reactant and
products.

- Example :
Magnesium is burnt into air to form magnesium oxide can be
represented as

Mg + O2 →MgO

Important Note

Physical state of the reactant and products are mentioned to make

chemical reaction more informative.

Example we use (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for solid and (aq) for
aqueous. Thus is good for chemical reactions and equations notes

Balancing Chemical Equation:

Chemical reactions and equations notes also include the mean to

balance the equations by several methods. They are:

Law of Conservation of Mass -

- Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical

reaction. Thus remains conserved.

- So number of elements involved in product side will be same as

reactant side.

H2 + O2 → H2O

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 - In this Chemical equation number of H atoms in reactant side
is 2 and that of product side is also 2. Number of O atoms in
reactant side is 2 but that of product side is 1.

- To balance this equation, we have to use hit and trial method.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

- Now the number of atoms in reactant side is equal to that of

product side.
Thus, balanced.

Types of Chemical Reactions

There are several types of chemical reaction based on different

factors -

Based on Chemical Change:

There are total 8 types of Chemical reactions -

1) Combination Reaction – The reaction in which two or more

substances combine to form a new single substance.

C + O2 → CO2

2) Decomposition reaction – The reaction in which a single

substance decomposes to give two or more substances.

Nacl → Na + Cl

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 Decomposition reactions can be of three types -

i) Thermal Decomposition - When a decomposition reaction is

carried out by heating.

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

ii) Electrolytic Decomposition - When decomposition is carried

out by passing electricity.

2H2O + electric current → 2H2 + O2

iii) Photolytic Decomposition - When decomposition is carried

out in presence of sunlight.

2AgCl + sunlight → 2Ag (s) + Cl2

3) Displacement Reaction – The chemical Reaction in which an

element displaces another element from its solution.

Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu

4) Double Displacement Reaction – The reaction in which two

different atoms or group of atoms are mutually exchanged.

Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

5) Precipitation reaction - The reaction which involves formation

of precipitate (insoluble substance) is known as precipitation
reaction.

Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → 2KNO3 + PbI2

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 6) Oxidation reaction - The reaction in which substance gains
oxygen or loses hydrogen is called as oxidation reaction.

2Cu + O2 + Heat → 2CuO

7) Reduction reaction - The reaction in which substance gains

hydrogen or loses oxygen is called as reduction reaction.

C + 2H2 → CH4

8) Oxidation - Reduction reaction (Redox reaction) - The reaction

in which one reactant gets oxidized and the other reactant
gets reduced is called as oxidation-reduction reaction or redox
reaction. In this reaction, simultaneous oxidation and reduction
reactions take place.

ZnO + C → Zn + CO
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

Classification of chemical reactions based on energy

change:

The classification of reactions is the prime part of chemical

reactions and equations notes:

Exothermic Reactions -

Reaction in which heat is released along with formation of

products.

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

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 Endothermic reactions -

The reactions which require energy in the form of heat, light or

electricity to break reactants are called endothermic reactions.

2Pb(NO3)2 + Heat → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

Effects of Oxidation in Daily Life -

1) Corrosion (जंग लगना) -

When a metal is exposed to substances such as moisture, acid etc.

for some time, a layer of hydrated oxide is formed which weakens
the metal and hence metal is said to be corrode

Rusting of iron, black coating on silver and green coating on copper

are examples of corrosion.

Corrosion can be prevented by galvanization, electroplating or

painting.

Corrosion of Iron Corrosion of Copper

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 2) Rancidity (िकसी फ्रूट या स�ी का सड़ जाना) -

The oxidation of fats and oils when exposed to air is known as

rancidity. It leads to bad smell and bad taste of food.

Methods to Prevent Rancidity

- By adding antioxidants
- Keeping food in airtight containers
- Replacing air by nitrogen
- Refrigeration

CONGRATS BUDDY!!! YOU DID IT.

PROUD OF YOU… BRING IN THAT HUG.

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 Acids

- Acids have sour taste.

- They turn blue litmus to red.

- They give positive hydrogen (H+) ions in water solution.

Strong Acids – HCl (Hydrochloric Acid), H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid),

HNO3 (Nitric Acid)

Weak Acids – CH3COOH(Acetic acid), Oxalic Acid, Lactic Acid

Concentrated Acids – More amount of acid + Less amount of

water

Dilute Acids - More amount of water + Less amount of Acid

Litmus turns Red in Sulphuric Acid and Lemon/Orange

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 Chemical properties of acids:

1. Reaction of acid with base:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Acid and base together react to produce salt and water. This
reaction is called Neutralization reaction.

Examples -
KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O

2. Reaction of acid with metal:

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Examples -
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

3. Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids:

Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Examples -
CuO + HCl → CuCl2 + H2O

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 4. Reaction of acid with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen
carbonates:

Acid + Metal carbonate /Metal hydrogen Carbonate → Salt +

CO2 + H2O

When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate (MCO3) or metal

hydrogen carbonate (MHCO3), it gives the corresponding salt,
carbon dioxide (CO2) gas and water.

Examples -

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O+ CO2

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

5. Conduction of electricity:

Acidic solutions in water conduct electricity because they

produce hydronium ions. Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but
they exist after combining with water molecules. Thus
hydrogen ions must always be shown as H+(aq) or hydronium ion
(H3O+). i.e. H+ + H2O → H3O+.

Strength of Acid

We can test the strength of Acid by using a scale called the

pH scale.

pH value of acids is always less than 7

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 Bases

- Bases are bitter in taste and soapy in touch.

- They turn red litmus to blue.

- They give negative (OH-) ions in water solution.

Strong Bases - NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide), KOH (Potassium

hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (Calcium hydroxide)

Weak Bases - NH4OH

Alkalis - These are bases which are soluble in water.

Litmus turns Blue in Sodium Hydroxide and Soap/ Colgate

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 Chemical properties of Bases:

1. Reaction of Base with Metal:

Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Examples –

2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2

Only Some Metals react with Base

2. Base in water:

Bases generate hydroxide (OH–) ions in water.

Water soluble bases are called alkalis.

Examples -

Mg(OH)2 + H2O → Mg+2 + 3OH-

3. Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base:

Non-Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Examples –
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O

From this reaction, it is clear that Non-metallic oxides are

acidic in nature.

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 4. Conduction of electricity:

Bases in water also conduct electricity as the acids do. As

bases also dissociate into hydroxide ions in water thus
conducts electricity. The process of dissolving a base in
water is a highly exothermic one.

Strength of Base

pH value of Base is always less than 7

More the value of pH is stronger the Base will be.

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 pH Scale:

- A Scale to measure the strength of an Acid or a Base.

- The pH scale is marked with numbers 0 to 14, The pH varies from

0 (very acidic) to 7(neutral) and 14 (very alkaline).

- Higher the pH value then it will be Basic

- Lower the pH value then it will be Acidic.

pH < 7 Acidic

pH = 7 Neutral

pH > 7 Basic

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 Importance of pH in everyday life:

1) Self Defence by Animals & Plants –

When insects like honeybee, Ant etc. bite, they inject an acid
into the skin, that causes pain and irritation. If a mild base
like Baking Soda is applied on affected area, it gives relief.

2) pH of the Soil –

Every Plant requires a specific pH range for healthy growth.

It is also suitable for selecting the Fertilizer for a particular
crop by knowing pH of the Soil.

3) pH of our Digestive System –

HCl is present in our stomach which helps in digestion of food.

As during digestion, the stomach produces too much acid, it
causes pain and irritation. To correct the disturbed pH range,
Milk of Magnesia (a mild base) is used as a medicine, also
called Antacid as it reduces the effect of Acid (or Acidity).

4) pH Change leads to Tooth Decay –

When our mouth has pH less than 5.5 then our tooth decay
starts. After eating, some food particles and sugar left in the
mouth and with the help of its bacteria present in our mouth
releases acid. Thus cause tooth decay. The best way to
prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating food.
To prevent tooth decay, toothpastes (basic) are used which
neutralize the excess acid.

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 Salts

- When an acid reacts with a base then it neutralizes to form salt

and water. This reaction is called neutralization reaction.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

- The salt we eat is Sodium Chloride. It is formed by the

combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution.

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

- Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with pH valve less
than 7. Salts of strong base and weak acid are basic in nature
with pH valve more than 7.

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 Types of Salts:

1. Rock salt (स�धा नमक)

Salt when present in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is

rock salt. When seas of bygone ages dried up, beds of rock salt
were formed in the form of large brown crystals.
(Brown due to impurities present in it).

(काला नमक/ चाट मसाले वाला नमक)

2. Common salt

Salt whose chemical composition is mainly NaCl is common salt.

(Tata Salt - दे श का नमक 😜😜)

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 Chlor-Alkali Process

When we pass electricity through an aqueous solution of

sodium chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium
hydroxide.

2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2

- After this process chlorine gas will be present at Anode, and

Hydrogen gas at Cathode.

- Sodium Hydroxide solution is formed near Cathode.

Bleaching Powder (Calcium Oxychloride, CaOCl2)

Preparation:

Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O

(Slaked lime) (Bleaching
Powder)

Uses of Bleaching Powder:

- To bleach cotton and linen in the textile industry.

- Many chemical industries use it as an oxidizing agent.

- To make drinking water free of germs by disinfecting it.

- Used for making Chloroform.

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 Baking Soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate, NaHCO3)

Preparation:

When common salt is treated with Ammonia in the presence of

water and carbon dioxide then baking soda (NaHCO3) is
formed.

NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3

(Ammonia) (Ammonium (Sodium hydrogen
chloride) carbonate)

Uses of Baking Soda:

- It is used for making baking powder (baking soda + mild edible

acid).

- Baking soda is also used in making antacids.

- Used in Soda-acid fire extinguishers.

Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O)

Preparation:

When we heat baking soda (NaHCO3) it forms sodium

carbonate (Na2CO3). When it combines with the excess of
water than washing soda is obtained.

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 2NaHCO3 + Heat → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
(Baking Soda) (Sodium Carbonate)

Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3∙10H2O

(Sodium Carbonate) (Washing Soda)

Uses of Washing Soda:

- Washing soda is used in making Glass, Paper and Soap.

- Used in making borax and many other sodium compounds.

- Used in washing Clothes

- Used for removing permanent hardness of water.

Plaster of Paris (CaSO4.½ H2O)

Preparation:

When we heat gypsum at 373K, it loses water molecules and

becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4 . ½ H2O). This is
Plaster of Paris.

CaSO4 . 2H2O → CaSO4 . ½ H2O + 1½ H2O

(Gypsum) (P.O.P)

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 It is a white powder but on mixing with water, it changes to
hard solid mass i.e gypsum again.

CaSO4 . ½ H2O + 1½ H2O → CaSO4 . 2H2O

(P.O.P) (Gypsum)

Uses of POP:

- Doctor uses as Plaster for supporting fractured bones.

- Making Toys and Sculpture (मू�तर्)

- Used for making Surfaces Smooth

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 Metals &
Non-Metals
Handwritten Notes

Gaurav Suthar
 METALS

Those elements which form positive ions by losing electrons are

called Metals.

Physical Properties of Metals -

1. Good Conductor of Heat and Electricity.

2. High melting and Boiling Point

3. Solid at room temperature except mercury (liquid)

4. Are Sonorous (means they produce a sound on striking)

5. Are Malleable, i.e., they can be hammered into thin sheets.

6. Are Ductile (means they can be used to make wires)

Gold is the most ductile metal means wires of gold can be

made easily because gold is very soft for bending.

But we can’t use Wires of Gold in our Home (क्यं�ू क Gold

इतना महँगा है क� परू ा घर ह� �बक जाएगा �)

Copper
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 Chemical properties of Metals -

1. Reaction of Metals with Oxygen -

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide

Examples -
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

2Cu + O2 → 2CuO

Different metals react in different ways with O2

i) Metals like Potassium and Sodium react so strongly with

Oxygen that they catch fire if kept in open. So they are kept
in Kerosene oil to avoid accidental fires.

Sodium stored in Kerosene Magnesium covered with Oxide layer

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 ii) At room temperature, surfaces of metals such as Magnesium,
Aluminium, Zinc etc. are covered with a thin layer of oxide, to
prevent further oxidation.

iii) Silver and Gold do not react with oxygen even at high
temperatures.

Amphoteric Oxides - Metals oxides which react with both acids

as well as bases to produce salts and water are called Amphoteric
Oxides.

Examples -
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2O

Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O

2. Reaction of Metals with Water -

Metal + Water → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen

Metal Oxide + Water → Metal Hydroxide

i) For Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) - Reaction is violent

even with cold water and so exothermic that hydrogen
immediately catches fire.

Examples -

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 + Heat

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 2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2 + Heat

ii) For Calcium (Ca) - Reaction is less violent for hydrogen to

catch fire.

Examples -

Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

iii) For Aluminium (Al) and Iron (Fe) - These do not form
hydroxide as their oxides are not soluble. They do not
react with hot water but with steam.

Examples -

2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2

3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2

3. Reaction of Metals with Acids -

Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Examples -
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2

Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

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 Some metals like Silver, Gold and copper do not react with
acid.

4. Reaction of Metals with Solutions of other Metal Salts -

Metal A + Salt Solution B → Salt Solution A + Metal B

Only more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal

from compound.

Examples -
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu

Cu + FeSO4 → No Reaction
(Because Cu is less reactive than Fe)

No Reaction

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 Reactivity Series

Reactivity Series is a list of metals arranged in order of their

decreasing activities

K Most Reactive Metal

Na

Ca

Mg
More reactive
than Hydrogen Al

Zn

Fe

Pb
Hydrogen H

Cu

Hg
Less reactive
than Hydrogen Ag

Au Least Reactive Metal

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 NON - METALS

Those elements which form negative ions by gaining electrons are

called Non-Metals.

Physical Properties of Non - Metals -

1. Are solids or gases except Bromine (liquid)

2. Low melting and Boiling Point

3. Bad conductor of Heat and Electricity (except Graphite)

4. Are Non - Sonorous (don’t produce a sound on striking)

5. Are Non – Malleable (brittle), means they will break when

hammered or stretched

6. Are Non – Ductile.

Chemical properties of Non - Metals -

1. Reaction of Non-Metal with Water -

Non-Metal + Water → No Reaction

2. Reaction of Non-Metals with Acids -

Non-Metal + Acid → No Reaction

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 3. Reaction of Non-Metals with Oxygen -

Non-Metal + Oxygen → Non-Metal Oxide

Examples -
C + O2 → CO2

4. Reaction of Non-Metals with Metal -

Non-Metal + Metal → Salt/ Metal Oxide

Examples -
Na + Cl → NaCl

Ionic - Compounds

The compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal

to a non-metal are called Ionic Compounds.

Properties of Ionic Compounds -

1. They are Solid and Hard

2. High Melting and Boiling Point

3. Soluble in Water and insoluble in Petrol, Kerosene

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 4. Good Conductors of electricity in Aqueous Solution and
Molten state but do not conduct in Solid state.

Examples –

Formation of NaCl

Na → Na+ + e- Cl + e- → Cl-
(2,8,1) (2,8) (2,8,7) (2,8,8)
stable octet

Na + Cl → Na Cl

(2,8) (2,8,8)
stable octet stable octet

Common Salt - (Tata Salt - दे श का नमक �)

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 Occurrence of Metals

Minerals - The elements or compounds which occur naturally in

the earth’s crust are called minerals.

Ores - Minerals that contain very high percentage of particular

metal and the metal can be profitably extracted from it, such
minerals are called ores.

K
Na
Not found in free state
Very Reactive Metals Ca
Extraction by electrolysis
Mg
Al

Zn
Fe Occur as sulphides, oxides,
Moderately Reactive carbonates
Pb
Cu Reduction by using carbon

Hg

Ag
Least Reactive Occur in free state
Au

Extraction of Metals from Ores

Step 1) Enrichment of Ores.

Step 2) Extraction of Metals.

Step 3) Refining of Metals.

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 Ore

Concentration of Ore

Metals with High Metals of Medium Metals with Low

reactivity reactivity reactivity

Electrolysis of Sulphide Ores

Molten Ore Carbonate Ores Sulphide Ores
ZnCO3 ZnS

Pure Metal Calcination Roasting Roasting

Oxides of Metal

Reduction to Metal Metal

Purification of Metal Refining

Carbonate Ores Sulphide Ores

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 Steps involved in Extraction of Metals from Ores

Some Important Terms

a) Gangue - Ores are usually contaminated with large amount of

impurities such as soil, sand etc. This is called gangue.

b) Roasting - The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by

heating strongly in the presence of excess air.

2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2

c) Calcination - The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by

heating strongly in limited air.

ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2

d) Reduction - Metal oxides are reduced to corresponding metals

by using reducing agent like carbon.

ZnO + C → Zn + CO

Refining of Metals

The most widely used method for refining impure metal is

electrolytic refining.

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 e- e-

Cathode Anode

Anode - Impure copper

Cathode - Strip of pure copper

Electrolyte - Solution of acidified copper sulphate

a) On passing the current through electrolyte, the impure metal

from anode dissolves into the electrolyte.

b) An equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is

deposited at cathode.

c) The insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the

anode and is called anode mud.

Corrosion

The surface of some metals such as iron is corroded when they

are exposed to moist air for a long period of time.

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 i) Silver becomes black when exposed to air as it reacts with
air to form a coating of silver sulphide.

ii) Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and gains
a green coat of copper carbonate.

iii) Iron when exposed to moist air acquires a coating of a

brown color called Rust.

Prevention of Corossion

The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing,

galvanizing, chrome plating, or make alloys.

Galvanization - It is a method of protecting steel and iron from

rusting by coating them with a thin layer of zinc.

Alloy - An alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals

or a metal and a non-metal.

Iron - Mixed with small amount of carbon becomes hard and

strong.

Steel - Iron + Nickel and Chromium

Brass - Copper + Zinc

Bronze - Copper + Tin

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 CARBON
& its compounds
Handwritten Notes

Gaurav Suthar
 Carbon

➢ Carbon is Non-Metal. Its symbol is C.

➢ All the living things, Plants and animals are made up of Carbon.

➢ Carbon always forms covalent bonds

➢ The atomic number of carbon is 6.

Element configuration
K L
C(6) 2 4

Covalent Bond

➢ A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are

shared between two atoms.

➢ It is mostly formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or

between nonmetallic atoms.

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 Examples of Covalent Bonding

1) Single Bond in Hydrogen (H2)

Hydrogen needs 1 more e- in outermost shell to complete octet.

H + H H H Or H- H

2) Double Bond in Oxygen (O2)

Oxygen needs 2 more e- in outermost shell to complete octet.

O + O O O Or O=O

3) Triple Bond in Nitrogen (N2)

Nitrogen needs 3 more e- in outermost shell to complete octet.

N + N N N Or N=N

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 4) Water (H2O)

Oxygen needs 2 e to complete its octet while Hydrogen needs 1

e, So Oxygen shares one-one electron from 2 hydrogens to
complete its octet.

H + O + H H O H

Or H-O-H

Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds

a) Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points as they

have weak intermolecular force.

b) They are generally poor conductor of electricity as electron are

shared between atoms therefore no charged particles are
formed.

How carbon attain Noble gas configuration?

Carbon is Tetravalent, it does not form ionic bond by either losing

four electrons (C4+) or by gaining four electrons (C4-). It is difficult

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 to hold four extra electron and would require large amount of
energy to remove four electrons. So, carbon can form bond by
sharing of its electrons with the electrons of other carbon atom or
with other element and attain noble gas configuration.

Versatile Nature of Carbon

The three characteristic properties of carbon element which lead

to the formation of large number of compounds.

1) Catenation -

The self-linking of atoms of an element to create chains

and rings by covalent bonds.

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 2) Tetravalency –

Carbon has 4 valence electrons. Carbon can bond with four

carbon atoms, monovalent atoms, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

3) Tendency to form Multiple Bonds –

Due to its small size carbon has a strong tendency to form

multiple bonds (double and triple bonds) by sharing more than
one electron pair with its own atoms or with the atoms like
oxygen, nitrogen etc.

Allotropes of Carbon

Allotropy is the property by which an element exists in more than

one form and each form has different Physical Properties but
similar Chemical Properties.

Diamond

➢ It is formed by bonding of each carbon atom is Covalently

bonded to four other forming Rigid 3-D Structure.

➢ It is the hardest thing on Earth.

➢ It is a bad conductor of electricity. This is because all the

valence electrons of each Carbon are involved in the Covalent
Bonding, and no unpaired electrons are left in the crystal.

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 ➢ It has very high melting point.

➢ It is used for making Jewellery and cutting Glasses

Kohinoor Structure of Diamond

Graphite

➢ It is formed by bonding of each carbon atom hexagonally (six-

member rings) in same plane.

➢ It is very soft and slippery because Layers can slide over one
another.

➢ It is a good conductor of electricity because in graphite every

carbon is bonded with three other carbon atoms. So last
electron in every carbon atom is free to move.

➢ It is used for making Pencil Leads, Engine Oils, Batteries and

Cells

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 Fullerene

➢ Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes.

➢ First one to be identified was C – 60, which has carbon atom

arranged in the shape of football.

➢ It has 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons.

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 Hydrocarbon

Compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbon.

Hydrocarbon

Saturated Unsaturated

Saturated -

Compounds of carbon which are linked only by single bonds between

the carbon atoms.

Types of saturated hydrocarbons -

Alkanes - The hydrocarbons in which all the carbon atoms are

linked by only single covalent bonds are called alkanes.

General formula - CnH2n+2

Example -

H H

H C C H

H H

Ethane (C2H6)
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 Unsaturated -

Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their

carbon atoms.

Types of Unsaturated hydrocarbons -

Alkenes – Those unsaturated hydrocarbons which have at least one

double bond along with single bonds are called alkenes.

General formula - CnH2n

Example -

H H

H C C H

Ethene (C2H4)

Alkynes - Those unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more

triple bonds along with the single bonds are called
alkynes.

General formula - CnH2n-2

Example -

H C C H

Ethyne (C2H2)

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 IUPAC Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons

Name of Hydrocarbon = Prefix + Suffix

Prefix – Based on Number of carbon atoms in the chain.

No. of Carbons Present Prefix

1 Meth

2 Eth

3 Prop

4 But

5 Pent

6 Hex

7 Hept

8 Oct

9 Non

10 Dec

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 Suffix – Based on type of Bond

For Single Bond - (Alkane → ane)

For Double Bond - (Alkene → ene)

For Triple Bond - (Alkyne → yne)

For Example -

CH3 CH2 CH3 Propane

CH3 CH2 CH2 Propene

CH3 C CH Propyne

Carbon Compounds on the Basis of structure

1) Straight (unbranched) chain

H H H

H C C C H

H H H

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 2) Branched chain

H H H

H C C C H

H H

H C H

3) Cyclic Chain

H H

H C C H

H C C H

H H

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 Functional Groups

- An atom or group of atom that makes a carbon compound reactive

and decides its chemical property is called a functional group.

Functional Group Family Suffix

OH Alcohol ol

O
Aldehyde al
C H

O
Ketones one
C

O
Carboxylic Acid oic acid
C OH

Halogen chloro, bromo

ClClor Br
(Chlorine, Bromine) (Prefix)

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 Steps of Nomenclature

Prefix + Root Word + Suffix

Step 1) - Identify the number of carbon atoms in compounds. It

will give us Root Word (like Meth, Eth, Prop, etc).

Step 2) - Identify the type of bond (single, double, triple) between

carbon atoms. It will give us Suffix (like -ane, -ene, -yne).

Step 3) - Identify the Functional group. It will give us Suffix (like

-one, -ol, -al) or Prefix (like Chloro, Bromo).

Homologous Series

- A series of carbon Compound in which same functional Group and

differ by CH2 are known as Homologous Series.

Example –
Alcohols – CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, C4H9OH

Some Properties -

➢ All members are represented by same General Formula

➢ 2 adjacent members differ by -CH2 group.

➢ 2 adjacent members differ by molecular mass of 14u.

➢ All shows similar chemical properties. (but not physical)

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 Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

1) Combustion -

- A chemical reaction in which heat and light are given out is

called combustion.

i) Combustion of Carbon -

C + O2 CO2 + Heat + Light

ii) Combustion of Hydrocarbon -

CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat + Light

iii) Combustion of Alcohol -

CH3CH2OH + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat + Light

2) Oxidation –

- Alcohols can be converted to carboxylic acid in the presence

of oxidizing agent Alkaline KMnO4 (potassium permanganate)
or K2Cr2O7 Acidified potassium dichromate.

Alkaline KMnO4
CH3–CH2–OH CH3COOH
Acidified K2Cr2O7
(ethanol)

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 Catalyst

A substance that makes a chemical reaction happen faster,

without being used up in the reaction.

Examples - Nickel(Ni), Palladium(Pd), Potassium permanganate

(KMnO4), Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

3) Addition Reaction -

- Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of

catalyst such as palladium or Nickel to give saturated
hydrocarbons

Ni or Pd
CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3
H2
(ethene) (ethane)

Above reaction is also known as Hydrogenation reaction.

Uses of Hydrogenation Reaction -

➢ Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee using this

process.

➢ Animal fats generally contain saturated fatly acid which are

harmful for health.

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 4) Substitution Reaction -

- It is a single replacement chemical reaction during which one

functional group in chemical compounds is replaced by another
functional groups.

Example -

CH3OH + HBr CH3Br + H2O

Sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH)

Physical Properties of Ethanol -

➢ Colourless, Good smell and Burning taste.

➢ Ethanol is Liquid, soluble in water

➢ Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient

of Alcoholic drinks.

➢ Ethanol is a good solvent, so it is used in medicines such as

tincture iodine, cough syrups and many tonics.

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 Chemical Properties of Ethanol -

1) Reaction with Sodium -

2CH3–CH2–OH + 2Na 2CH3CH2ONa + H2

(sodium
ethoxide)

This reaction is used as a test for ethanol by evolution of H2

gas (Burn with pop sound).

2) Dehydration –

Hot concentrated
CH3–CH2–OH CH2 CH2 + H2O
H2SO4
(ethanol)

Hot concentrated H2SO4 act as Dehydrating Agent

Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH)

Physical Properties of Ethanoic acid -

➢ Ethanoic acid is also known as Acetic Acid.

➢ Melting point of pure ethanoic Acid is 290 K.

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 ➢ Solution of Acetic Acid in water is called Vinegar and is used as
preservative in pickles

➢ Ethanoic Acid is weak acid.

Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acids -

1) Esterification Reaction –

Reaction of Acid and Alcohol gives Ester.

Acid
CH3-COOH + CH3–CH2–OH CH3-COOCH2CH3 + H2O
(Ethanoic Acid) (Ethanol) (ethyl acetate ester)

- Esters are sweet smelling substances

- Used in Making Perfumes and as Flavouring Agents.

Saponification Reaction

This reaction is used in for making Soap.

Ester + Base → Alcohol + Soap

Example –

NaOH
CH3–COOCH2CH3 CH3CH2OH + CH3COONa
(Ester) (Ethanol) (Soap)

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 2) Reaction with base (Neutralisation Reaction) –

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

3) Reaction with Carbonates -

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

4) Reaction with Hydrogen carbonates -

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Distinguish between Ethanol & Ethanoic acid

We can distinguish experimentally between alcohol and
Carboxylic acid by reacting them with sodium Carbonate, turning
lime water milky. Alcohols do not react to give lime water milky

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 Soaps and Detergents

Soap -

- Soap is sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acid.

Example –
C17H35COONa+

- Soaps are effective only in soft water.

Soap molecule has –

a) Ionic (hydrophilic part)

b) Long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic part)

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 Example of Soaps -

Cleansing Action of Soap

1) When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely

orient themselves to form spherical shape micelles.

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 2) The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules
attracts the dirt or oil part of the fabric, while the polar
hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to
water molecules.

3) The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to

carry the oil or dirt particles and detach them from the
fibres of the fabric.

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 Detergents -

- Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salt of long chain of

carboxylic acid.

- Detergents are effective in both hard and soft water.

Example of Detergents -

Hard Water

- Hard water means, water having a very high amount of

minerals like Calcium and Magnesium

- When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions

of hard water react with soap forming insoluble product called
Scum. This scum create difficulty in cleansing action.

- By use of detergent, insoluble scum is not formed with hard

water and cloths get cleaned effectively. So, Detergents can
only be used in Hard Water but not Soap.

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Human Body: Digestive System
The main functions of the digestive system are mechanical and chemical digestion,
and absorption. Digestion is the process in which the body breaks food down into
smaller molecules so that nutrients can be easily absorbed. The entire digestion
process can take anywhere from 24 to 50 hours.

Mouth/Esophagus
us Peristalsis
Digestion begins in the mouth
m
through the mechanical and
chemical breakdown of food.
Smooth muscle tissue inn muscle
Mouth contraction
the esophagus squeezess
the food down toward theh
he
stomach in a process called
peristalsis. Esophagus

Stomach
Mechanical and chemical
digestion continues in the
stomach. Smooth muscle tissue
in the stomach wall squeezes
and churns the material, while muscle
enzymes and chemicals are contraction
added to help further break
down the food.

Stomach structure
The internal structure of the
stomach has ridges and folds
called rugae. This increases the Rugae
surface area within the stomach
and allows it to expand to hold
more food. Stomach Large Intestine
The large intestine, about 5
feet long, is responsible for
Intestines Duodenum eliminating waste matter.
The small intestine and large
intestine (colon) combined
average 25 feet long. Villi

Small Intestine Jejunum

The majority of absorption
takes place in the small
intestine, which is about 20
feet long. The small
intestine has 3
sections: duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.

Finger-like extensions called Appendix

villi and microvilli increase Microvilli
the surface area of the small Ileum
intestine, allowing maximum
absorption of nutrients and Rectum
water.

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Human Body: Respiratory System
The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange—the inhalation of oxygen
(O2) and the exhalation of carbon dioxide (CO2). The lungs, conducting airways,
and the diaphragm are key structures of the system.
Lungs and Diaphragm Trachea
Human lungs are sponge-like organs Right Lung Left Lung
found in the thoracic (chest) cavity. (3 lobes) (2 lobes)
The right lung has 3 lobes and is larger
than the bilobed left lung, as the heart
occupies more space on the left side.

The diaphragm is a domed, sheet-like

muscle that separates the thoracic and
abdominal cavities.

Breathing
During inhalation, the diaphragm
contracts, and air is pulled through
the conducting airways into the lungs.
During exhalation, the diaphragm
relaxes, and air is pushed from the
lungs.

Diaphragm
02 02
Inhalation
Trachea
Right Bronchus Left Bronchus
02 02

Bronchi, Bronchioles,
and Alveoli
Air enters the lungs from the trachea
Diaphragm through the right and left bronchus.
These branching airways lead to
Bronchioles
bronchioles and end in microscopic
air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are
the sites of gas exchange between
the cardiovascular and respiratory
C02 systems.
Exhalation

C02 C02 Bronchioles

Capillary Alveoli
Network
Diaphragm
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Human Body: Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system circulates blood through the body. The heart pumps
blood through blood vessels—arteries, capillaries, and veins. As blood flows
through these vessels, it delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells while removing
carbon dioxide and waste products from them.

The human heart

The human heart is a muscular pump about the The heart consists of cardiac muscle,
size of a human fist. It has 4 chambers—2 a striated and involuntary muscle.
atria and 2 ventricles. It has 4 heart valves. Two Individual cardiac muscle cells
are located between the chambers and 2 exit (cardiomyocytes) are connected by
the heart, preventing the backflow of blood. intercalated discs that coordinate
synchronized muscle contraction.

cardiac muscle

pulmonary Blood composition

artery The human body contains about 5
liters of blood. Blood consists of red
pulmonary
right vein blood cells, white blood cells,
atrium left platelets, and plasma.
atrium
Arteries carry oxygenated
blood away from the heart
left to arterioles and then to
ventricle capillaries. Capillary walls
are thin—only a single
cell thick—allowing O2 and
nutrients to enter tissues while
right ventricle waste products are removed. Blood
then travels through venules and
into larger veins that carry it back
CO2 O2 to the heart.

capillary bed
pulmonary
loop artery vein

capillaries

vein artery

arteriole venule

The 2 circulation loops

Pulmonary
The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-deficient blood to the lungs where it
lung lung releases CO2 and becomes oxygenated. This blood then returns to the heart.
Pathway: right atrium A right ventricle A lungs A left atrium
heart
right atrium left atrium Systemic
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to body tissues where it delivers
right ventricle left ventricle O2 and picks up CO2 and other waste products. This deoxygenated blood then travels
systemic loop back to the heart where it begins the
pulmonary loop.
Pathway: left atrium A left ventricle A body A
body right atrium
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 Human Body: Urinary System
The urinary system filters extra water and waste products from the blood to help
maintain proper fluid balance inside the body. An elaborate system of tubes and
tubules intertwines with arteries and veins within the kidneys to allow for maximum
excretion of waste products, such as various salts and proteins. The ureters
carry this waste to the bladder, where it is stored until excretion.

Normal daily urine output range: Inferior vena cava Abdominal aorta
(main vein to heart) (main artery from heart)
800 mL 2200 mL
carries filtered blood carries blood from heart to
from kidneys to body kidneys
BOROSILICATE BOROSILICATE BOROSILICATE BOROSILICATE
GLASS GLASS GLASS GLASS
1000 mL 1000 mL 1000 mL 1000 mL

1000 1000 1000 1000

900 900 900 900

800 800 800 800

700 700 700 700

600 600 600 600

500 500 500 500

400 400 400 400

300 300 300 300

200 200 200 200

100 100 100 100

1000 mL graduated cylinders

Urinary System
Ureters are long, thin tubes that carry
urine from the kidneys (where it is
produced) to the bladder.
Right Left
The bladder is a muscular sac that kidney kidney
stores urine.
Ureter Ureter
The urethra is a narrow tube connected
to the bladder that removes urine from
the body.

Kidneys
The kidneys are found in the upper
abdomen on each side of the spine. These
Glomerulus
fist-size organs filter waste products out
A glomerulus is a small, round
of the bloodstream and produce urine. Bladder pocket within the kidneys that uses
Nephrons concentration gradients to remove
Nephrons contain a network of tubes, veins, nitrogenous waste and salts from the
and arteries that intertwine to exchange blood vessels that pass through it.
salts, wastes, and fluids to remove them Urethra
from the bloodstream.
Afferent arteriole

Kidney Nephron Glomerulus

Efferent
arteriole
Renal artery

unfiltered
blood from
the heart
filtered blood
Renal vein waste Glomerulus Distal
capsule tubule
products
Ureter (urine)
Collecting Nephron
waste products duct loop
(urine) to the bladder
to ureter
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C ONTROL AND
OORDINATION
Handwritten Notes

Gaurav Suthar
 Control and Coordination

All the living organisms respond and react to changes in the

environment around them.

Examples - Withdrawal of hand on touching hot object.

Stimuli
The changes in the environment to which the organisms
respond is called stimuli such as light, heat, cold, sound, smell,
touch etc.

Plants and animals both respond to stimuli but in different

manner.

Control And Coordination in ANIMALS

It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main

systems.

a) Nervous System
b) Endocrine System

Nervous System

The nervous system is made of Brain, Spinal Cord and a huge

network of Nerves.

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 Functions of Nervous System –

i) To receive information from environment.

ii) Controls all voluntary muscular activities. Example- running

and writing.

iii) Enables us to remember, think and reason.

iv) Regulates involuntary activities such as breathing and

beating of the heart

Receptors

- These are specialized tips of some nerve cells that detect the
information from the environment.

- These receptors are located in our sense organs.

a) Ear :
• Used in Hearing
• Help in making Balance of Body

b) Eyes :
• Photoreceptors
• Used in Seeing

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 c) Skin :
• Thermoreceptors
• Used in feeling temperature like Hot or Cold
• Touch

d) Nose :
• Olfactory receptors
• Used in Smelling

e) Tongue :
• Gustatory receptors
• Used in Tasting (Sweet or Salty)

Neuron

Structural and Functional unit of nervous system.

Parts of Neuron:

1) Dendrites -

It receives information.

2) Cell Body -

The received information by dendrites is now traveled as an

electrical impulse by Cell Body.

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 3) Axon -

It is the longest fibre on the cell of body is called Axon. It

transmits electrical impulse from cell body to dendrite of next
neuron.

Synapse

It is the gap between the nerve ending of one neuron and

dendrite of other neuron.

In this electrical signal is converted into chemical signal.

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 Reflex Action

Reflex action is quick, sudden and immediate response of the

body to a stimulus.

Examples - When you smell your favorite dish, your mouth waters.

Reflex Arc -

The pathway through which nerve impulses pass during reflex

action is called Reflex Arc.

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 Response:

Responses are of three main types –

1. Voluntary

- Controlled by Fore Brain.

- Eg. Talking, Writing.

2. Involuntary

- Controlled by mid and back brain.

- Eg. Heartbeat, Vomiting, Breathing

3. Reflex Action

- Controlled by Spinal cord.

- Eg. When you touch a hot object, you withdraw your hand
from it immediately.

Need of Reflex Actions

In some situations such as touching a hot object, pinching etc.
We need to act quickly, otherwise our body would be harmed.

Here response is generated from spinal cord instead of brain.

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 Human Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Brain Spinal Cord Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves

arise from Brain arise from
Spinal Cord

HUMAN BRAIN

Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body.

It has three major parts -

1) Fore (Front) – Brain

2) Mid (Middle) – Brain
3) Hind (Back) – Brain

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

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 1) Fore (Front) Brain

It is the most complex part of the brain. It consists of

Cerebrum.

Functions –
i) Thinking part of the brain
ii) Control the voluntary actions
iii) Store Information (Memory)

2) Mid (Middle) Brain

It connects the Fore (Front) – Brain with Hind (Back) – Brain

Functions –
i) Controls Involuntary actions
ii) This part of brain helps in changing Size of Pupil in our
Eyes
iii) Controls Reflex movements of Head, Neck

3) Hind (Back) Brain

It has three parts -

i) Cerebellum -
Controls posture and balance. Precision of voluntary actions
Eg. Picking Pen.

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 ii) Medulla -
Controls involuntary actions e.g. blood pressure, Vomiting

iii) Pons -
This also controls Involuntary actions but of different types
like Breathing

Protection of Brain and Spinal Cord

a) Brain - Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts

as shock absorber and is enclosed in cranium (skull or brain
box)

b) Spinal Cord - Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column.

Coordination between Nervous and Tissue

Sensory Nerve Central Nervous

Sense Organ
System

- Information received
Motor Nerve

& processed
- Stimulus
- Decision made
- Response Generated

Muscle Shorten Muscles

- Response

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 Limitations of Electric communication/ Nervous System:

- Electric impulse will reach only to those cells that are

connected by nervous tissue.

- After generation and transmission of an electrical impulse, the

cell takes some time to reset its mechanism before
transmitting another impulse. So cells cannot continually create
and transmit impulse.

- Plants do not have any nervous system.

COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Movements in Plants

Independent of Growth Dependent on Growth

1) Independent of growth

- Immediate response to stimulus

- Plants use electrical-chemical means to convey information

from cell to cell.

- For movement to happen, cells change their shape by

changing the amount of water in them, resulting in swelling
or shrinking of cells.

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 - Example, Drooping (प�� का मुरझाना) of leaves of “Touch me
not/ छुई मुई का पौधा) pant on touching it.

2) Dependent on growth

- These movements are tropic movements that is directional

movements in response to stimulus.

i) Hydrotropism - Movement towards water.

Water

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 ii) Phototropism - Movement towards light.

iii) Geotropism - Movement towards/away from gravity.

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 iv) Chemotropism - Growth of pollen tube towards ovule.

v) Thigmotropism - The part of tendril away from the object

grows more rapidly as compared to the part near the
object. This causes circulating of tendril around the
object.

Tendril

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 Plant Hormones

Are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth,

development and responses to the environment.
Main Plant hormones are –

a) Auxin:

- Synthesized at shoot tip

- Helps the cells to grow longer
- Involved in phototropism

b) Gibberellin:

- Helps in growth of the stem

c) Cytokinin:

- Promotes cell division

- Present in greater concentration in fruits and seeds

d) Abscisic Acid:

- Stops Growth
- Cause wilting of leaves (प�� का मुरझाना)
- Stress hormone (दे ख लो पोध� को भी Stress होता है �)

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 Hormones in Animals

Hormones - Hormones are the chemical substances which

coordinate the activities of living organisms and also their growth.

Endocrine glands - These glands secrete their product (Hormone)

into the blood.

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 Endocrine Hormones
Location Functions
Gland Produced

Pituitary Gland Under the Brain Growth hormone Helps in increasing Height

Controls general metabolism and

Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine
growth in the body.

Prepares the body for emergency

Adrenal Gland Above kidneys Adrenalin
situations

Pancreas Near stomach Insulin Controls blood sugar level

Sperm production, development of

Testis (Boys) In Scrotum Testosterone secondary sexual characters
during puberty in Boys

Egg production, development of

Ovary (Girls) Near Uterus Estrogen secondary sexual characters
during puberty in Girls

Iodised salt is necessary because iodine mineral is essential part

of thyroxine hormone secreted by thyroid gland. Thyroxine
regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. So, we
must consume iodised salt which is necessary for proper working
of thyroid gland. Its deficiency causes a disease called Goiter
(Swollen Neck).

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 DIABETES

Disease in which blood sugar level increase.

Cause - Due to the deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by

pancreas that is responsible to control blood sugar levels.

Treatment - Injections of insulin hormone.

Feedback Mechanism

The excess or deficiency of hormones has harmful effects on our

body. Feedback mechanism makes sure that hormones should be
secreted in precise quantity and at right time.

Example - Feedback mechanism to control the sugar level in blood is

as follows:

Sugar Level in the blood rises

Detected by cells of Pancreas

Feedback sent
Switch off

Synthesis of Insulin

Blood Sugar level falls

Stop secreting more insulin

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REPRODUCTION
Handwritten Notes

Made with
by
GAURAV SUTHAR
The production of new organism form the already existing
organism of the same species is known as Reproduction.

- The process of reproduction ensures continuity of life on earth.

- Reproduction is essential for the survival of a species on this

earth.

- The production of a new organism from a single parent without

the involvement of sex cells (or gametes) is called asexual
reproduction.

- The production of a new organism from two parents by making

use of their Sex cells (or gametes) is called Sexual
reproduction.

Ques - Differentiate between Asexual Reproduction and Sexual

Reproduction.

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- In this process of fission, a unicellular organism splits or
divides into two or more new organism.

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- The breaking up of the body of a simple organism into two or
more pieces on maturing, each of which subsequently grows to
form a complete new organism, is called fragmentation.

- Example – Spirogyra

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 +

Fig. Fragmentation in Spirogyra Real photo of Fragmentation in

Spirogyra

The process of getting back a full organism from its body parts is
called Regeneration.

Example - Hydra and Planaria

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 Real photo of Planaria

- In budding, a small part of the body of the parent organism

grows out as a 'bud' which then detaches and becomes a new
organism.

- Example - Hydra

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 Real photo of budding in Hydra

− The parent plant produces hundred of microscopic reproductive

units called 'spores'. When the spore case of the plant bursts,
then the spores spread into air. When these air-borne spores
land on food (or soil) under favourable conditions (like damp
and warm conditions), they germinate and produce new plants.

− Example - Rhizopus

Real photo of Spore Formation in Rhizopus

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− In Vegetative propagation, new plants are obtained from the
parts of old plants (like Stem, roots and leaves) without the
help of any Reproductive organs.

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Subscribe to my YT channel - [Link]
− Sexual Reproduction involves the fusion of gametes or sex cells
resulting in the formation of zygote

− Due to the fusion of gametes, the chances of variations are

very high during sexual reproduction

Ques - What is the advantage of Sexual reproduction?

Ans – Sexual reproduction results in genetic variation which

ultimately leads to evolution of new species.

The Sex Organs (or reproductive organs) of a plant are in its

flowers.

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 • It is the male reproductive part of the flower.

• It is composed of two parts - Anther and Filament.

• Stamen produces pollen grains that are yellow in colour.

• It is the female reproductive part of the flower.

• It is composed of three parts - Ovary, Style and Stigma.

• Ovary : The swollen bottom part

• Style : Middle elongated part

• Stigma : Terminal sticky part

• The green, leaf-like parts of the flower are called

Sepals.

• Its function is to protect the flower in its initial stages.

• The colourful parts of a flower are called Petals.

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 • Its function of petals is to attract insects for
pollination and to protect the reproductive organs.

Real photo of parts of Flower

• Contains either Stamens or Pistil

• Example - Papaya, Watermelon

• Contains both Stamens and Pistil

• Example - Hibiscus, Mustard

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 The transfer of pollen grains from anther of a stamen to the
stigma of a carpel is called pollination.

- Pollination can be of two types:

• The pollen grains from the anther of a

flower are transferred to the Stigma of the same
flower (or another flower of the same plant)

• The pollen grains from the anther of

a flower on one plant are transferred to the Stigma of a
flower of another similar plant.

Fertilization occurs when the male gamete present in the pollen

grain joins with the female gamete (or egg) present in ovule.

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 Easy Diagram of Ovary

Both Diagrams are of same thing but

Left Diagram is of NCERT book
And the Right Diagram is easy to understand

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 Complete process of Reproduction in Flower
Just in one Diagram

• After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form

an embryo within the ovule.

• The ovule develops a tough coat and is converted into Seed.

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 • The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a form of Fruit.

• The Seed contains the future plant which develops into a

Seedling.

• The radicle grows to form the root.

• Plumule grows upward to form the shoot.

• Cotyledon contains stored food that helps radicle and

plumule to grow.

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 • The age at which the Sex hormone and gametes begin to be
produces and the Boy and Girl become sexually mature is
called Puberty.

• In males, after Puberty, testes starts producing sperms and

the Male sex hormone called Testosterone.

• In females, after puberty, ovaries starts producing Ova (or

eggs) and Female sex hormone, Estrogen.

• Male and female also starts developing secondary sexual

characters.

Secondary Sexual characters in Male :

a. Hair grow in Armpits, Pubic regions, Chest and

Face
b. Body becomes muscular.
c. The voice deepens.
d. Chest and Shoulders broaden.

Secondary Sexual characters in Female :

a. Hair grow in Armpits and Pubic regions.

b. Mammary glands develop and enlarge.
c. Hips broaden.
d. Fallopian tube, uterus and Vagina enlarge.
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• The male reproductive system consists of portions which
perform two major functions-

- Produce sperms – Testes

- Deliver sperms to the site of fertilization - All the rest

(Vas deferens, Seminal Vesicle, Prostrate)

− It is primary reproductive organ in male.

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 − It is located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum
because sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature.

Functions of Testes –

• Formation of Sperms.
• Secretion of testosterone.

− Vas deferens delivers sperms from testes to urethra.

− Both of these gland add fluid secretions to the sperms

which makes the transport of sperms easier and provides
nutrition.

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 − Forms a common passage for both Sperms and Urine.

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Human Body: Reproductive System
The male and female reproductive systems are controlled by hormones produced
by the pituitary gland in the brain, and the reproductive organs themselves.
Brain The Reproductive Organs
These organs make, mature, and store gametes, or sex cells, in
the human body. The male gametes are called sperm and female
gametes are called ova or egg cells. Each gamete contributes
half of an offspring’s DNA, providing genetic variation through
hypothalamus
sexual reproduction.

Male reproductive system

Pituitary gland Sperm is made in the seminiferous tubules and stored in the
spinal
cord epididymis. It travels through the vas deferens, where it mixes
with seminal fluids and passes through the urethra.

infundibulum
ureters
anterior posterior
pituitary pituitary
vas deferens
epididymis
Pituitary Gland bladder
head
The pituitary gland secretes hormones
that control the reproductive organs.
It signals the production of sex prostate
hormones and controls ovulation
and the menstrual cycle in women.
urethra
penis

testis
epididymis
body
seminiferous tubules epididymis tail

Female reproductive system

Immature eggs are found in the ovaries where they mature and are Developing
released into the fallopian tubes. An egg travels down the tube to Ovarian Follicle
the uterus, where it either implants and develops into an embryo or
is shed with the lining of the uterus at the end of a menstrual cycle.

fallopian tubes

ovary ovary
mature
uterus egg

vagina

© 2017 Carolina Biological Supply Company

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 − It is the primary reproductive organ in female. It performs
two major functions

• Production of - Egg/ Ovum.

• Secretion of Estrogen and Progesterone

− One egg is produced every month by ovaries.

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 − It is the primary reproductive organ in female. It performs
two major functions

− It acts as a site of fertilization.

− The Oviducts unite into an elastic - bag like structure

known as the uterus.

− Uterus opens into the vagina through cervix.

− It receives sperms from male partner, serves as a Birth

Canal.

− Uterus is connected to vagina through a narrow opening

called Cervix.

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 - The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual
intercourse.

- They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may
encounter egg.

- The fertilized egg (zygote) starts diving to form a ball of

cells or embryo.

- The embryo is implanted in the lining of the uterus where

they continue to grow and develop organs to become foetus.

- The embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the
help of a special tissue called Placenta.

- The development of the child inside the mother's body takes

approximately nine months (Gestation period). The child is born
as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscle in the
uterus.

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 - Every month, Ovary releases one egg and uterus prepares
itself to receive the fertilised egg by developing thick,
spongy lining.

- If fertilisation doesn't take place, egg along with the uterus

lining breaks down and comes out through vagina as blood
and mucus.

- This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as

Mensuration.

- It lasts for about 2-8 days.

- Diseases which are spread by sexual contact with an infected

person are called Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD).

- Common STD are:

• Gonorrhoea

• Syphills Caused by Bacteria

• AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) Caused by

Virus

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− The prevention of pregnancy in Women is called Contraception.

Condoms

Advantage : It helps in the prevention of STD

Oral pills

Disadvantage : It changes hormonal balance which can

cause side effects.

Copper -T

Disadvantage : Can cause irritation of uterus.

Vasectomy Tubectomy

Blocking of Vas deferens in male Blocking of fallopian tube in females.

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- Surgical methods are safe in the long run but surgery itself can
cause infections if not performed properly.

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 HEREDITY

Introduction

- All living organisms give rise to new individuals (offspring) by a

process of reproduction.
- The offspring produced as a result is similar to their parent but not
identical i.e. they also show some differences.
- The mechanism of transmission of character is called Heredity or
Inheritance while the differences seen among individuals is called
variations

Accumulation of Variation during Reproduction

Variation

- The differences in the characters (or traits) among the parents and
their offspring, the offspring or the individuals of same specs is
called as variation.

- Some amount of variation is produced during asexual reproduction

while the number of successful variations are maximized by the
process of Sexual Reproduction.

Importance of Variation

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- Depending on the nature of variation, different individuals of a
species can have different advantages. E.g; Bacteria that can
withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave.

- Main advantage of variation to a species is that it increases the

chances of its survival in a changing environment.

Heredity

- The transmission of characters from parents to offspring is

called heredity.

Traits

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 Rule of Inheritance of Traits -

Gregor Mendel

- Considered as the "Father of Genetics".

- He was the first Scientist to make a

systematic study of patterns of inheritance.

- He used pea plants Pisum sativum for his

experiments.

Tall Short Round Yellow Green

Wrinkled Seed Color
Plant Height

Important Terms

Factor/Gene - It is a segment of DNA that determines a particular

character. Genes are represented by letters. A capital letter shows that
the gene is dominant, and a small one that it is recessive.

Alleles - Alternate forms of a gene. E.g, Pea plant height - Tall(T) & Short
(t) Allele

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 Dominant Allele - A dominant allele expresses itself in the presence or
absence of recessive allele. Example - Allele for tallness (T).
Recessive Allele - A recessive allele is able to express itself only in the
absence of a dominant allele. Example – Allele for shortness (t)

Genotype – It is the genetic composition of an individual. Example TT, Tt

or tt

Phenotype – It is the characteristic which is visible in an organism.

Example Tall or Short plant height.

Homozygous – An individual having identical alleles. Example TT or tt

Heterozygous – An individual having contrasting alleles. Example Tt

Monohybrid Cross

- In monohybrid cross, we consider one pair of contrasting trait.

1. Mendel selected true breeding tall pea plant (TT) and crossed
it with Short (tt) plant.

2. The plants formed as a result of the cross represented first

filial or F1 generation.

3. All the F1 plants obtained were tall.

4. Mendel self-pollinated the F1 plants (selfing) and observed that

plants in the F2 generation were 75% tall and 25% Short i.e.
phenotypic ratio 3:1
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 Parental Generation Tall X Short

TT tt

Gametes T T t t

F1 Generation Tt Tt Tt Tt

Phenotype – All tall Genotype - Tt

Selfing F1 Tall X Tall

Generation Tt Tt

Gametes T t T t

F2 Generation

Phenotypic Ratio - 3 Tall : 1 Short Genotypic Ratio - 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt

3:1 [Link]

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 Dihybrid Cross

- In Dihybrid cross, We consider two pairs of contrasting traits.

(Seed shape and Seed Colour)

Experiment

1) Mendel crossed pea plants bearing Round & Yellow seeds (Rryy)
with wrinkled green (rryy).

2) He obtained F1 generation with all pea plants having Round and

Yellow seeds (RrYy).

3) On Selfing F1 offspring, Mendel obtained 4 different types of

progeny in F2 generation: Round & Yellow, Round and Green,
Wrinkled & green and Wrinkled green in the ratio [Link]

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 Parental Generation Round & Yellow X Wrinkled & Green

RRYY rryy

Gametes RY Ry ry ry

F1 Generation
Phenotype –

Round & Yellow

Selfing F1 RrYy X RrYy

Generation

Gametes RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry

F2 Generation RY Ry rY ry

Round & Yellow 9

RY
Round & Green 3

Wrinkled & Yellow 3

Ry Wrinkled & Green 1

rY Phenotype Ratio-
[Link]

ry

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 Mendel's Laws

Law of Dominance -

Mendel's Law of dominance states that in a heterozygote, one

trait will conceal the presence of another trait.

E.g. Tall (TT) X Short (tt)

Tall (Tt)

Law of Segregation -

When an organism makes gametes, each gamete receives just one

gene copy, which is randomly. This is known as the law of
Segregation.

E.g. - Tall (Tt)

Gamete T t

Law of Independent Assortment -

Mendel's law of independent assortment that the alleles of two

more (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes
independently of one another.

E.g. - In a dihybrid cross, the shape of seed doesn't depend on

the colour of seed.

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 How do traits get expressed?

- Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the

cell.

- A part of DNA that provides information for one particular

protein is called a gene for that protein.

- Example
Height of a plant depends upon growth hormone which in turn is
controlled by the gene. If the gene is efficient and more growth
hormone is s ecreted, the plant will grow tall. If the gene gets
altered and less hormone is secreted, then the plant will remain
short. Thus, genes control characteristics or traits.

Sex Determination

- The process by which sex of a new born individual is determined is

called Sex Determination.

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 Factors determination Sex Determination

Non - Genetically Genetically

- Environmental cues : In - In humans, genes inherited

turtles, Alligators, Crocodile, from parents decide the sex
temperature at which of the offspring.
fertilized eggs are kept
determines sex.

- In Snails, individuals can

change sex.

Sex determination in humans

- In humans, sex of the child depends on the

father or we can say, the male gamete that
fuses with the female gamete.

- Humans possess 23 pairs of chromosomes

out of which one pair comprises the sex
chromosomes.
(XX in females - perfect pair)
(XY in males - Mis-matched pair)

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- At the time of fertilization, the egg cell
fuses with sperm resulting in the formation
of Zygote.

- During fertilization,

i) If the egg cell carrying X chromosome

fuses with sperm carrying X
chromosome, the offspring would be a
girl.
ii) If the egg cell carrying X chromosome
fuses w ith sperm carrying Y
chromosome, the offspring would be a
boy.

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 Handwritten Notes

Made with
by

Gaurav Suthar
 LIGHT

- It is a form of energy that enables us to see.

- Light always travels in straight line.

- Light makes shadow. Without light Shadow is not possible.

- Light has the maximum speed in this world. Its value is 3x108 m/s.

Reflection

Coming back of light rays to the same medium when they fall on a
surface.

Laws of Reflection

1) Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

2) Incident ray, normal at the point of incidence are

reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

Normal

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 Types of Images

Real Image Virtual Image

1) Real images are inverted 1) Virtual images are Erect

(Straight)

2) A real image is formed by 2) A virtual image is formed

Convex lens and Concave by Plane Mirror and
Mirror Convex Mirror, Concave
Lens

3) These are formed on 3) These are not formed on

Screen Screen

4) These are formed due to 4) These are formed due to

actual intersection of rays imaginary intersection of
rays.

5) Example - 5) Example -

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 Types of Mirrors

1) Plane Mirror

- Object and Image are at equal distance from Plane Mirror.

- If object is real, then image will be virtual and vice versa.

- Size of image is equal to size of object.

Lateral Inversion – The right side of the object appears left

side of the image and vice-versa.

Uses - Looking Glass, Periscope, Kaleidoscope etc.

Looking Mirror Kaleidoscope

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 2) Spherical Mirror

- Whose reflecting surfaces are spherical.

a) Radius of Curvature (R) - Distance between Pole and the

Centre of Curvature.

b) Centre of Curvature (C) - Centre of that imaginary sphere

of which, mirror is part.

c) Pole (P) – It is the mid-point of its reflecting surface.

d) Principal Axis – Line joining Pole and Centre of Curvature.

e) Focus (F) – Point on principal axis where all the parallel

light rays actually meet or appear to meet after reflection.

f) Aperture – Effective diameter of the spherical mirror.

g) Focal Length (f) – Distance between Pole and the Focus.

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 Centre of Curvature
Focal Length =
2

Types of Spherical Mirrors -

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

RAY DIAGRAMS

Some Rules –

1) A ray parallel to principal axis, will pass through the Focus

after reflection.

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 2) A ray passing through principal focus of concave mirror will
emerge parallel to principal axis after reflection.

3) Ray passing through Center of Curvature of a Concave mirror

gets reflected back in same path.

4) The Incident and Reflected rays make equal angles with

Principal Axis.

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 CONCAVE MIRROR

1) Object placed at Infinity

Image
Position – At ‘F’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Very Small

2) Object placed behind Center of Curvature

Image
Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘C’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Small

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 3) Object placed at Centre of Curvature

Image
Position – At ‘C’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Same Size

4) Object placed between Focus and Centre of Curvature

Image
Position – Beyond ‘C’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Big Size

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 5) Object placed at Focus

Image
Position – At Infinity
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Very Big Size

6) Object placed between Focus and Pole

Image
Position – Behind Mirror
Nature – Virtual, Erect
Size –Big Size

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 Position of
Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
Object

At Infinity At the focus F Very Small Real and Inverted

Beyond C Between F and C Small Real and Inverted

At C At C Same Size Real and Inverted

Between C and F Beyond C Big Real and Inverted

At F At Infinity Very Big Real and Inverted

Between F and P Behind mirror Big Virtual and Erect

Uses of Concave Mirror –

1) Shaving mirror, torch, dentists, solar furnace

Dentists using Concave Mirror Solar Furnace

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 CONVEX MIRROR

1) Object placed at Infinity

Image
Position – At ‘F’
Nature – Virtual, Erect
Size – Very Small Size

2) Object placed between Infinity and Pole

Image
Position – Between ‘P’ and ‘F’
Nature – Virtual, Erect
Size – Small Size

There are only two possible positions for Object

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 Position of
Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
Object

At the focus F,
At Infinity Very Small Virtual and Erect
Behind the mirror

Between Infinity Between P and F,

Small Virtual and Erect
and Pole Behind the mirror

Uses of Convex Mirror -

1) Rear view mirrors in vehicles because they always give an

erect image and have wider field of view as they are
curved outward.

2) Big convex mirrors used in front of Schools, Buildings,

Shops.

Convex Mirror in front of School Car Mirror

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 Sign Convention

1) Object is placed to the left of mirror.

2) All distances parallel to principal axis are measured from pole

of the mirror.

3) Pole is origin.

4) Principal axis is x-axis.

- Object Distance = ‘u’ is always negative.

- Focal Length of concave mirror = Negative.

- Focal Length of convex mirror = Positive.

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 Mirror Formula

1 1 1
= +
f v u

f Focal length
v Image distance
u Object distance

Magnification

It is the ratio of the height of image to the height of object.

hi -v
m= =
ho u

hi height of Image
ho height of Object

If
m = - ve Image will be Real and Inverted
m = + ve Image will be Virtual and Erect(Straight)

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 REFRACTION

Change in path of a light ray as it passes from one medium to

another medium is called Refraction of Light.

1) When light ray goes 2) When light rays go from

from denser to rarer rarer to denser medium
medium it bends away it bends towards the
from normal. normal.

Cause of Refraction?
As we know speed of light is different in different media, i.e.
more in rarer medium and comparatively less in denser medium.
So, when light enters a denser medium, its speed reduces and it
bends towards the normal and when it enters rarer medium, its
speed increases and it bends away from the normal

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 Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab :-

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 i = Angle of incidence
r = Angle of Refraction
e = Angle of Emergence

 Angle of incidence = Angle of Emergence, ∠i = ∠e

 If the incident ray falls normally to the surface of glass

slab, then there is no bending of ray of light ; i.e. it goes
straight.

Laws of Refraction

1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence,
all lie in the same plane.

2) Snell’s Law - The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the

sine of angle of refraction is constant, for a light of given
color and for a given pair of media.

- It is expressed as :

sin i
= μ = constant [ “μ” is refractive index ]
sin r

Refractive Index

- The extent of change in direction that takes place in a given

pair of media is expressed in terms of refractive index.

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 - 1μ2represents refractive index of medium 2 with respect to
medium 1, when light is going from medium 1 to medium 2.

μ2 Sin i
1μ2 = =
μ1 Sin r

 The refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum is

called Absolute refractive index of medium.

For Glass/ Water pair –

aμg
wμg =
aμw

 If question is related to speed:

Speed of light in vaccum/air c

μ= =
Speed of light in Medium v

For e.g.,

velocity of light in air c

aμg = =
velocity of light in glass vg
.

or

velocity of light in air c

aμw = =
velocity of light in water vw

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 Spherical Lens

A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which both

surfaces are spherical, forms a lens.

Convex Lens Concave Lens

a) Centre of Curvature (C) – A lens has two spherical

surfaces. Each surface forms a part a part of a sphere. The
center of these spheres are called Centre of curvature. [
ऊपर C1 & C2 ] [ or 2F1 & 2F2 ]

b) Principal Axis – An imaginary straight line passing through

the two centers of curvature of a lens is called its Principal
Axis.

c) Optical Centre (O) – Central Point of a lens is called optical

center.

d) Aperture - Effective diameter of the circular outline of a

spherical lens is called its aperture.

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 e) Principal Focus (F) - The point where the rays parallel to
principal axis after refraction meet is called principal
focus. A lens has two principal foci.

f) Focal Length (f) - The distance of principal focus from

optical center.

Focal Point Focal Point

Focal Length Focal Length

RAY DIAGRAMS

Some Rules –

1) Rays which are parallel to principal axis, after refraction will

pass through principal focus in case of convex lens and will
appear to be coming from principal axis in case of concave
lens.

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 2) Ray passing through the focus will emerge parallel to
principal axis.

3) Ray directed to Optical Centre will emerge out undeviated.

CONVEX LENS

1) Object placed at Infinity

Image
Position – At ‘F’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Very Small

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 Burning Paper using Convex Lens िजनक� पास क� नज़र कमजोर है �सफर् उन्ह�ं के चश्मे से
होगा ये क्य��क उनके चश्मे म� ह� Convex Lens होता है

2) Object placed behind Center of Curvature

Image
Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘C’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Small

3) Object placed at Centre of Curvature

Image
Position – At ‘C’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Same Size

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 4) Object placed between Focus and Centre of Curvature

Image
Position – Beyond ‘C’
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Big Size

5) Object placed at Focus

Image
Position – At Infinity
Nature – Real, Inverted
Size – Very Big Size

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 6) Object placed between Focus and Pole

Image
Position – Behind Mirror
Nature – Virtual, Erect
Size –Big Size

Position of
Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
Object

At Infinity At F2 Very Small Real and Inverted

Beyond 2F1 Between 2F2 and F2 Small Real and Inverted

Between 2F1 and F1 Beyond 2F2 Big Real and Inverted

At F1 At Infinity Very Big Real and Inverted

At 2F1 At 2F2 Same Size Real and Inverted

On Same side of the

Between F1 and O Big Virtual and Erect
Object

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 Uses of Convex Lens –

1) Used for making Microscopes, Magnifying glasses

Microscopes Magnifying Glass

2) Used for making Specs and Cameras

Magnifying
िजनक� पास Glasses
क� नज़र कमजोर होती है Used
Used in
in making
making Camera
Camera Lens
Lens
उनक� चश्मा(Specs) म� Convex
Lens होता है

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 CONCAVE LENS

1) Object placed at Infinity

Image
Position – At ‘F’
Nature – Virtual, Erect
Size – Very Small Size

2) Object placed between Infinity and Pole

Image
Position – Between ‘P’ and ‘F’
Nature – Virtual, Erect
Size – Small Size

There are only two possible positions for Object

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 Position of
Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
Object

At Infinity At the focus (F1) Very Small Virtual and Erect

Between Infinity Between Focus (F1) and

Small Virtual and Erect
and Optical Center Optical Center (O)

Uses of Concave Lens -

1) Used for making Specs, Lasers, Cameras

िजनक� दरू क� नज़र कमजोर होती है Laser Light

उनक� चश्मा(Specs) म� Concave

Lens होता है

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 Sign Convention

1) Sign conventions are same like mirrors, now the measurements

are taken from Optical Center instead of Pole.

2) Focal Length of Convex Lens = Positive (+)

3) Focal Length of Concave Lens = Negative (-)

Lens Formula

1 1 1
= -
f v u

f Focal length
v Image distance
u Object distance

Magnification

hi v
m= =
ho u

hi height of Image
ho height of Object

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 If
m = - ve Image will be Real and Inverted
m = + ve Image will be Virtual and Erect(Straight)

POWER OF LENS (P)

Ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is called power (P)

of the lens.
1
P=
f
f Focal length in meter

- SI Unit D (called Dioptre = m-1)

- Power of Convex Lens is (+ve) because focal length of Convex

Lens is also +ve

- Power of Concave Lens is (-ve) because focal length of Concave

Lens is also -ve

- Power of a lens combination

P = P1 + P2 + P3

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 Human Eye &
The Colorful World
Handwritten Notes

Gaurav Suthar
 Human Eye

Sense organ that helps us to see.

- Located in eye sockets in skull.

- Diameter of Eye is 2.3 cm (Size of eye remains same throughout

our whole life)

VITREOUS HUMOUR

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 Parts of Human Eye

1) Cornea –

It is the outermost, transparent part. It provides most of the

refraction of light.

2) Lens –

It is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material. Provides the

focused real and inverted image of the object on the Retina.
This is convex lens that converges light at Retina.

3) Iris –

It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the

pupil.

4) Pupil –

It is the window of the eye. It is the central aperture in Iris.

It regulates and controls the amount of light entering the
eye.

5) Ciliary Muscles –

They hold the lens in position and help in modifying the

curvature of lens.

6) Retina –

It is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light

sensitive cells.

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 7) Optic Nerve –

It transmits visual information from retina to Brain.

8) Blind Spot –

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye.

9) Aqueous Humour –

Between the cornea and eye lens, there is a space filled with
transparent liquid is called the aqueous humour which helps
the refracted light to be focused on retina. It also provides
nutrition to eye.

10) Vitreous Humour –

Space between eye lens and retina is filled with a liquid called
Vitreous Humour.

Far Point of Eye –

Maximum distance to which eye can see clearly, is called far point
of eye.

- For a normal eye, it’s value is Infinity

Near Point of Eye –

Minimum distance at which an object can be seen most distinctly

without any strain is called the least distance of distinct vision.

- For a normal eye, it’s value is 25cm.

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  Range of Human Vision is from 25 cm to Infinity

Power of Accommodation

It is the ability of eye-lens to adjust its focal length.

- �कसी Object को clear दे खने के �लए और उस पर focus करने के �लए

Focal Length change करनी होती है

- अगर Object पास म� है तो Focal Length कम करनी होगी

- अगर Object दरू है तो Focal Length बढ़ानी होगी

- ये सब करने म� Ciliary Muscles help करती है

Case 1) To see far Objects

Ciliary Muscles - Relaxed

Eye Lens – Thin
Focal length - Increase

Case 2) To see near Objects

Ciliary Muscles - Contract

Eye Lens – Thick
Focal length - Decrease

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 HOW OUR EYES FOCUS?

Relaxed Muscle

Far Object

Thin Lens

Contracted Muscle

Near Object

Thick Lens

1) Myopia (Near Sightedness) दरू क� नज़र कमज़ोर होना

- A myopic person can see nearby objects clearly but cannot

see distant objects clearly.

- Image is formed in front of Retina.

Causes of Myopia

- Excessive curvature of eye lens

- Stretching of eye ball

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 Correction

It is done by using concave lens of appropriate power.

a) In a myopic eye, image of distant object is formed in front

of the retina (not on retina)

Myopic Eye

b) The far point (F) of a myopic eye is less than infinity.

Far Point of a Myopic Eye

c) The concave lens placed in front of eye forms a virtual

image of distant object at far point (F) of the myopic eye.

Correction of Myopic Eye

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 2) Hypermetropia (Far Sightedness) पास क� नज़र कमज़ोर
होना

- Affected person can see far objects clearly but can’t see
nearby objects clearly.

- The near point of eye moves away.

- Image is formed behind the retina.

Causes of Hypermetropia

- Focal length of eye lens becomes too long.

- Eye ball becomes too small.

Correction

It is done by using convex lens of appropriate power.

a) In a hypermetropic eye, image of distant object is formed

behind the retina (not on retina)

Hypermetropic Eye

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 b) The near point (N) of a hypermetropic eye is more than
25cm.

Near Point of Hypermetropic Eye

c) Correction of hypermetropia. The convex lens placed in

front of eye forms a real image of near object on Retina.

Correction of Hypermetropic Eye

3) Presbyopia (Old age Hypermetropia)

बुजुगर् लोग� क� पास क� नजर खराब हो जाती है , कुछ लोग� को अखबार

पढ़ने म� problem आती है बुढ़ापे म� आपने दे खा होगा अपने आस पास
(grandparents)

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 - It is a defect of vision due to which an old person can’t see
nearby objects clearly due to loss of power of
accommodation of eye.

- The near point of old person having presbyopia becomes

more that 25 cm.

Causes of Presbyopia

- Weakening of Ciliary Muscles.

- Decreasing flexibility of eye lens.

Correction

- It is done by using convex lens of appropriate power.

- Sometimes a person may suffer from both myopia and

hypermetropia. Such people require bifocal lens for
correction.

Advantage of eyes in front of the face

- It gives a wider field of view.

- It provides three-dimensional view.

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 Prism

It is a pyramidal piece of glass with two triangular bases and three

rectangular faces.

Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism –

- The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its 7 colors, when

it passes through a prism is called Dispersion.

- This band of seven colors VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,

Yellow, Orange, red) is called Spectrum

Ques) Why Dispersion Occurs?

Ans - Light rays of different colors, travel with the same speed in
vacuum and air but in any other medium, they travel with
different speeds and bend through different angles, which
leads to dispersion of light.

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 Recombination of White Light

- Reverse of dispersion is also possible

- Seven Colored lights of the spectrum can be recombined to give

back white light by placing two prisms, one upside down.

Total Internal Reflection

When light enters obliquely from a denser medium to a rarer

medium and the angle of incidence exceeds critical angle, the light
reflects in the denser medium. This is called Total Internal
Reflection.

Conditions necessary for Internal Reflection

i) Light should enter obliquely from a denser to a rarer medium.

ii) The angle of incidence should exceed critical angle, the light
reflects in the denser medium.

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 Critical Angle – The angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction is 90o

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 Rainbow

A natural spectrum appearing in sky after rain.

- Some Water droplets remain in air after Rain. These droplets

act as small prisms.

- Water droplets refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then

reflect internally and finally, reflect it again when it comes out
of raindrop.

- Rainbow is always in opposite side of Sun.

Refraction
Light

Reflection

Water
Drop

Observer

Rainbow Formation

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 Atmospheric Refraction

The refraction by different layers of atmosphere is called

Atmospheric Refraction.

Effects of Atmospheric Refraction –

1) Advanced Sunrise

- The sun appears about two minutes earlier than actual sunrise
and the sun remains visible for about two minutes after actual
sunset.

- When the sun is below horizon, the rays have to pass from
rarer to denser medium. So rays bend towards the normal. As a
result the sun appears higher than its actual position.

Perceived Position

True Position

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 2) An object placed behind the fire appears to flicker

- The air above hot surface becomes hot and rises. The space is
occupied by cool air. The refractive index of hot air is less
than that of cool air. So the physical condition of the medium
are not constant. Due to changing Refractive Index of medium,
the light appears to come from different directions. It results
in fluctuations in apparent position of object.

Flickering

3) Star seen higher than they actually are

- The refractive index of earth’s atmosphere in general

increases from top to bottom. So, the light coming from a star
near the horizon has to travel from rarer to denser medium
and it bends towards the normal. Due to which stars appears
higher.

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 Star seems higher

Actual position
of Star
Increasing Bending of
Refractive Index Star’s light due
to atmospheric
refraction

4) Twinkling of Stars

- Stars are very far from us, so they behave as point source of
light. Since the physical conditions of the earth’s atmosphere
are not constant the light from stars appears to come from
different directions. This results in fluctuation of apparent
position of star.

- The amount of light coming from stars also vary due to

changing Refractive Index of atmosphere.

- The stars appears bright when more light from star reaches
our eyes and the same star appears dull when less amount of
light reaches our eyes. This causes twinkling of Stars.

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 Ques) Why do planets not twinkle?
Ans - The planets are much closer to the earth and are considered
a collection of many point sized sources of light, the total
amount of light entering our eye from all the individual point
sized sources will average out to zero, thereby nullifying the
twinkling effect.

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 Scattering of Light

The reflection of light from an object in all directions is called

scattering of light.

- It depends on the size of particle (िजस Particle से टकराकर

Scatter हुई है Light)

i) Small size particles scatter blue color of light (Shorter

wavelength)

ii) Medium size particles scatter red color of light (Longer

wavelength)

iii) Large size particles scatter all the colors of light that’s why
it appears white

1
Scattering ∝
wavelength

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 Effects of Scattering of Light -

1) Tyndall Effect

- The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute

particles of smoke, tiny water droplets, dust in air which
becomes visible due to scattering of light.

Tyndall Effect

2) Color of Sky is Blue

- The upper layer of atmosphere contains very small particles of

water vapours and gases. These particles are more effective in
scattering of light of shorter wavelength mainly blue color, So
sky appears blue.

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 - If earth had no atmosphere than there would not have been
any scattering of light because at higher altitude there are no
particles that’s why sky of other planets is dark because there
is no atmosphere in planets like Mars.

- So sky appears dark to an Astronaut in space or to a passenger

of jet plane

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 3) Danger Signs are of Red Color

- Red is the least scattered color. It is least scattered by fog

and smoke can be seen in the same color over a long distance.
So, danger signs are made in red color.

4) Color of Sun at Sunrise and Sunset

- During sunset and sunrise, the sun is near horizon and

therefore the sunlight has to travel larger distance in
atmosphere. Due to this most of the blue light (shorter
wavelength) are scattered away by the particles. The light of
longer wavelength (red color) will reach our eye. This is why sun
appear red in color.

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 Charge:

There are two types of Charges

1) Positive Charge
2) Negative Charge

- Same charges repel each other and different charges

attract each other

- SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C)

- 1 Coulomb means 6.24 x 1018 electrons

- An electron has negative charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C

Electric Current:

- The rate of flow of charge is called Current

- Movement of Electrons makes Current

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 - In an electric circuit the direction of electric current is
taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of
electrons.

- Means if electrons are moving in Left then current is

moving in Right direction

- The unit of electric current is Ampere

Q
- I= where I = Current, Q = Charge and t = time
t

- 1 Ampere current may be defined as the flow of one

coulomb of charge per second.

- Current is measured by Ammeter and Ammeter is always

connected in Series.

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 Electric Circuit:

- Closed path of an electric current is called Electric

circuit.

- If the Circuit is broken anywhere the current stops

flowing.

- Electricity flows in the circuit from the Positive Terminal

of the cell to the negative terminal of the cell.

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 Electric Potential:

- The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive

charge from infinity to that point is called Electric
Potential.

- The unit of electric potential is Voltage.

- Positive Charge move from Higher Potential to Lower

Potential
Whereas Electrons moves from Lower to Higher
Potential.

Potential Difference:

Cell/ Battery की Power को Potential Difference बोलते है

जैसे TV Remote का cell कुछ दिनोों use करने के बाि ख़तम हो जाता है
मतलब उसका Potential Difference कम हो गया है , नए Cell/
Battery का Potential Difference ज्यािा होता है उसे use करने पर
Potential Difference कम होता जाता है time के साथ

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 - The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from one point to another point is called Potential
difference.

- Potential difference is created by cell or a Battery.

W
- V= where V = Potential Difference, W = Workdone,
Q
Charge = Q

- SI unit of Potential difference is

Volt (V)

- Potential difference is measured by Voltameter and

Voltmeter is always connected in Parallel.

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 Circuit Diagram:

- An electric circuit contains a cell (or a battery),

connecting wires, Plug key and electrical components.

SWITCH OFF SWITCH ON

- Symbols used in Circuit Diagram

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 Ohm’s Law:

- The current passing through a circuit is directly

proportional to the potential difference (Voltage)

- Potential Difference ∝ Electric Current

V ∝ I
V = IR
Here R is constant for the given conductor and is called
Resistance.

- Ohm’s Law is valid only when temperature is constant.

If temperature changes resistance also changes दजसकी
वजह से Ohm’s Law भी change हो जाता है

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 Resistance:

- Something that opposes the flow of current that is called

Resistance.

V
- R=
I

- The SI unit of Resistance is ohm (Ω)

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 - The electrical appliance which is used to oppose the
current is called Resistor.

- Variable resistance (Rheostat) is the component used to

increase or decrease current without changing the
Voltage.

Factors affecting Resistance

1) Length of conductor –

अगर wire लम्बा होगा तो Resistance भी ज्यािा होगा

और अगर wire छोटा है तो Resistance भी कम होगा

Short Wire Low Resistance

Long Wire High Resistance

2) Area of Cross- Section –

अगर wire मोटा है तो Resistance कम होगा

और अगर wire पतला है तो Resistance ज्यािा होगा

Thick Wire Low Resistance

Thin Wire

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 3) Nature of Material -

ये Wire दकस चीज़ से बना है उसपर depend करता है

जैसे Silver, Copper का Resistance कम होता है और वहीों पर
Tungsten का Resistance ज्यािा होता है

Silver has the lowest resistance among all elements

COPPER
4) Temperature -

Temperature बढ़ने से Resistance भी बढ़ जाता है

Resistivity

- Electrical resistance of a conductor of unit cross-

sectional area and unit length is called Resistivity
L
R=ρ
A

- Here, ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called

the electrical resistivity.

- The SI unit of resistivity is Ωm

- Resistivity also increases if temperature increases.

- Insulators have high Resistance and Resistivity

- Conductors have low Resistance and Resistivity.

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 Combination of Resistors:

- There are two types of Combinations of Resistors.

1) Series Combination
2) Parallel Combination

Resistance in Series

- Same Current flows through the circuit means Same

current flows through each resistor.

- Voltage will be sum of all Voltages across each resistor.

- Ohm’s Law can be applied to this combination to find

Equivalent Resistance.

Equivalent Resistance (Rs) in series combination –

Rs = R 1 + R2 + R3

- Equivalent Resistance (Rs) is always greater than each

individual resistance in series combination.

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 Rs > R1
Rs > R2
Rs > R3

Resistance in Parallel

- Potential difference between the two points across

resistors are same.

- There will be different current flowing through each

resistor.

Equivalent Resistance (Rp) in series combination –

1 1 1 1
= + +
RP R1 R2 R3

- Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel combination

is always less than the individual resistances.

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 Rp < R1
Rp < R2
Rp < R3

Advantage of Parallel Combination –

- In parallel combination each appliance gets the full

voltage.

- If one appliance is switched on, others are not affected.

Heating Effect of Electric Current:

- When an electric current is passed through a conductor,

it generates heat due to the Resistance.

- Workdone = VQ

Power:

- The rate of consumption of energy in an electric circuit

is called Electric Power.

Workdone VQ Q
- Power = = =V = VI
time t t

- Heat = Power x time

= VI x t
= IR x I x t [Because V = IR]
= I2Rt

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 Joule’s law of heating:

Factors affecting Heat produced –

1) Current in Conductor –
Current के बढ़ने पर Heat भी बढ़े गी, जैसे Transformer के wires
में ज्यािा Current होता है इसदलए वो wire ज्यािा गमम होते हैं
Because Heat is directly proportional to the square of
current.
H ∝ I2

2) Resistance –
Resistance के बढ़ने पर गमी बढ़ती है , जैसे Bulb, Press (कपडे
इस्त्री करने वाला press) के wires में ज्यािा Resistance होता है
इदसलए वो जल्दी गमम हो जाते हैं
Because Heat is directly proportional to the Resistance.
H∝R

Electric Coil

3) Time –
अगर दकसी wire में ज्यािा िे र तक Current चलता रहे गा तो वो wire
गमम हो जाता है , जैसे काफी िे र तक Phone को चलाने से Phone भी
गमम हो जाता है (Specially PUBG खेलते वक्त 😜)
Because Heat is directly proportional to the Time.
H∝T

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 Electric Bulb:

- The filament of Bulb is made of Tungsten.

- Tungsten has very high melting point (3380o C)

- Bulb के अोंिर Nitrogen और Argon गैस भरी होती है जो Bulb के

wire को जलने नहीों िे ती

Electric Power:

- The rate at which electrical energy is consumed is called

Electric Power.
2
2 V
- P = VI = I R =
R

- The SI unit of Electric Power is Watt (W).

- On large scale we measure electricity or electric power

as Kilowatt (1000 Watt).

- Energy is counted in (P x t) so the unit we use to measure

energy consumption commercially in KWh.

1 kWh = 1000 watt × 1 hour = 1 unit = 1000 W × 3600 s

1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 watt second = 3.6 × 106 J

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 MAGNETIC EFFECTS

Magnet

A substance that attracts iron or iron like

substances.

Properties of Magnet

- Every magnet has two poles i.e. North and South.

- Like poles repel each other.

- Unlike poles attract each other.

- A freely suspended bar magnet aligns itself in nearly north-south

direction, with its north poles towards north direction.

Repel

Attract

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Magnetic Field

The area around a magnetic in which its magnetic force can be

experienced.

- Its SI unit is Tesla (T).

- Magnetic field has both magnitude and direction.

- Magnetic field can be described with help of a magnetic compass.

- The needle of a magnetic compass is a freely suspended bar

magnet.

Characteristics of Field Lines

- Field lines arise from North pole and end into South pole of the
magnet.

- Field lines are closed curves.

- Field lines are closer in stronger magnetic field.

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 - Field lines never intersect each other as for two lines to intersect,
there must be two north directions at a point, which is not
possible.

- Direction of field lines inside a magnet is from South to North.

- The relative strength of magnetic field shown by degree of

closeness of field lines.

Right Hand Thumb Rule

Imagine you are holding a current carrying straight conductor in your

right hand such that the thumb is pointing towards the direction of
current. Then the fingers wrapped around the conductor give the
direction of magnetic field.

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Magnetic Field due to Current Through a Straight Conductor

- It can be represented by concentric circles at every point on

conductor.

- Direction can be given by right hand thumb rule or compass.

- Circles are closer near the conductor.

- Magnetic field ∝ Strength of Current

1
- Magnetic field ∝
Distance from conductor

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Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop

- It can be represented by concentric circle at every point.

- Circles become larger and larger as we move away.

- Every point on wire carrying current would give rise to magnetic

field appearing as straight line at center of the loop.

- The direction of magnetic field inside the loop is same.

Factors affecting magnetic field of a circular current carrying

conductor

- Magnetic field ∝ Current passing through the conductor

1
- Magnetic field ∝
Distance from conductor
- Magnetic field ∝ Number of turns in the coil

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 Magnetic field is additive in nature means magnetic field of one loop
adds up to magnetic field of another loop. This is because the current
I each circular turn has same direction

Solenoid

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely

in a cylindrical form.

- Magnetic field of a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.

- Magnetic field is uniform inside the solenoid and represented by

parallel field lines.

- Direction of magnetic field

i) Outside the solenoid: North to South

ii) Inside the solenoid: South to North

- Solenoid can be used to magnetize a magnetic material like soft

iron.

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 Types of Magnets

Electromagnet Permanent Magnet

1) It is a temporary magnet, so it 1) Can’t be easily demagnetized.

can be easily demagnetized.

2) Strength can be varied. 2) Strength is fixed.

3) Generally strong magnet. 3) Generally weak magnet.

4) Poles can be reversed. 4) Poles can’t be reversed.

(matlab North pole ko South or
South pole ko North pole bna skte
h/ Poles ko reverse kiya ja skta h)

Force on a Current carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

- Andre Marie Ampere suggested that the magnet also exerts an

equal and opposite force on a current carrying conductor.

- The displacement in the conductor is the maximum when the

direction of current is at right angle to the direction of magnetic
field.

- Direction of force is reversed on reversing the direction of

current.

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Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Force

Magnetic Field

Current
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 Types of Current

Alternating Current Direct Current

1) The current which reverses 1) The current which doesn’t

its direction periodically. reverse its direction.

2) AC can be transmitted to long 2) DC can’t be transferred to

distance. long distances.

3) This can’t be stored in 3) DC can be stored in Batteries.

batteries.

4) The frequency of AC is never 4) Frequency is always Zero.

zero.

5) AC keep changing their 5) This only move in one

directions – backward and direction – that is forward.
forward.

6) Our TV, Fridge works through 6) Sources of DC are Cell,

Alternating Current Battery etc.
Our TV remote works on
Direct Current

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Domestic Electric Circuits
Earth Wire (Green)

- There are three kinds of wires used:

(i) Live Wire (positive) with red Neutral Wire (Black) Live Wire (Red)
insulation cover. (Black)

(ii) Neutral wire (negative) with

black insulation cover.

(iii) Earth wire with green

insulation cover. MAIN WIRE

The Potential difference between Live and Neutral wire in India is 220
Voltage.

Pole → Main supply → Fuse → Electricity meter → MCB → To separate

circuits

Electric Pole Electric Meter Main Switch

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Earth Wire:

Protects us from electric shock in case of leakage of current

especially in metallic body appliances. It provides a low resistance
path for current in case of leakage of current.

Short Circuit:

When live wire comes in direct contact with neutral wire

accidentally.

- Resistance of circuit becomes low.

- Can result in overloading.

Overloading

When current drawn is more than current carrying capacity of a

conductor, it results in overloading.

Causes of Overloading:

- Accidental hike in voltage supply.

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 - Use of more than one appliance in a single socket.

Safety devices:

- Electric fuse

- Earth wire

- MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) Fuse

NOTE

Topics like Electric Motor, Electro Magnetic Induction, Flemings

Right Hand Rule and Electric Generator are cut from the syllabus.

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CONGRATS BUDDY!!! YOU DID IT.
PROUD OF YOU… BRING IN THAT HUG.

Search “Gaurav Suthar” on YouTube for more Notes.

Love You 3000

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ENVIRONMENT
Handwritten Notes

Made with
by
- All biological (plants, animals, micro-organisms etc.) and physical (Soil,
Water, air, sunlight etc.) Surroundings around us create our environment.

- All interacting organisms in an area together with non- living constituents

of the environment form an ecosystem.

- It exists in nature without any human interference.

- Example - Pond, River, Forest

- Made by humans for their own interest

- Example - Aquarium, Garden

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- Organism which can prepare their own food from simple inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide and water by using sunlight energy in the
presence of chlorophyll.

- Ex. Green plants and certain blue-green algae

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- Those organism which consume food prepared by producers are called
Consumers.

- Micro-organism that break down the complex organic compounds

present in dead organism into simpler substances.

- Ex. Certain bacteria and Fungi

- The flow of nutrients and energy from one organism to another at

different trophic levels forms a food chain.

- Food chain represents a single unidirectional transfer of energy.

- Food chain starts with producer.

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- Several Interconnected food chains forms a food web.

- Single food chain doesn't naturally occur in an ecosystem.

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- The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food (or
energy) takes place are called trophic levels.

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- Only 10 percent of the energy entering a particular trophic level of
organisms is available for transfer to the next higher trophic level.

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- Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of a toxic chemical in the
tissue of a particular organism.

- It occurs in a single organism over lifetime.

- Biomagnification refers to the increase in concentration of harmful

chemical substances in the body of living organism at each trophic
levels of a food chain.

- It expands over different trophic levels.

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- Organisms at the higher trophic levels have higher concentration of such
chemicals.

- Eg. In the below case, man will have the highest amount of pesticides

- Ozone molecule is made up of 3 atoms of oxygen combined together

(O₃)

- Ozone layer protects the life on earth from harmful ultraviolet

radiations coming from sun.

- Ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer.

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- Ozone is formed high up in the atmosphere by the action of
ultraviolet radiation on oxygen gas.

- Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is one of the major chemicals that deplete

the ozone layer. CFC is found in coolant, fire extinguisher etc.

- In 1987, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) forged an

agreement among its member countries to freeze CFC production.

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 - These are Landfills, Incineration, Composting, Sewage
treatment, Recycling etc.

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 - Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

- Proper waste disposal methods should be followed.

- Use of clay made cups or paper cups over plastic cups.

- Cloth, Jute or paper cups should be used.

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