Canada’s
Physical Base
Introduction
• Physical geography helps us understand the
regional nature of our world
• Physical geography presents a variety of
natural systems that demonstrate Canada’s
regional character
• Physical geography helps us understand the
differences among the four types of
economic regions that are found in the
core/periphery model
– Regions with a more favourable physical base
are more likely to develop into core regions
– Regions with less favourable physical
conditions are less likely to develop into core
regions
Physical Geography across Canada
• Physical geography (e.g., climate and landforms) varies
across Canada
• Physical geographers are concerned with all aspects of
the physical world
– Physiography, bodies of water, climate, soils, vegetation
• Regional geographers are interested in the interactive
two-way relationship between people and the physical
world:
– How physical geography varies and influences human
settlement
– The effect of human activities on the natural environment
Physical Geography across Canada
• Changes in nature might occur over long periods
of time but they might also occur quickly
– Climate warming has been occurring rapidly
• While some changes associated with climate change are
positive, the overwhelming majority of changes are negative
and threaten our planet
• By the end of the century, Canada is likely going
to be a much warmer place
– Some regions will benefit, others will suffer severe
consequences
The Nature of Landforms
• Three principal types of landforms:
1. Mountains
2. Plateaus
3. Lowlands
• These are actively shaped and reshaped by various
processes:
– Denudation: gradual wearing down of mountains by
erosion and weathering over millions of years
• Weathering: breaking down solid rock of ancient mountains into
smaller particles
• Erosion: transporting these smaller particles by means of air, ice
and water to lower locations where they are deposited
– Deposition: when layers of eroded material pile up
• The earth is a stable planet from a human perspective,
but a dynamic planet from a geological perspective
Physiographic Regions
• A physiographic region is a large area of the
earth’s crust that has three characteristics:
1. It extends over a large, contiguous area with
similar relief features
2. Its landform has been shaped by a common set
of geomorphic processes
3. It possesses a common geological structure and
history
Physiographic Regions
• Canada has seven physiographic
regions:
1. The Canadian Shield
2. The Cordillera
3. The Interior Plains
4. The Hudson Bay Lowlands
5. The Arctic Lands
6. The Appalachian Uplands
7. The Great Lakes–St Lawrence Lowlands
Physiographic Regions, cont’d
• Each region has a different
geological structure and its own
topography
– Different energy and mineral
resources have shaped regional
economies
– Glaciation shaped virtually all
Canadian topography
– Different challenges and
opportunities for human activity
exist in each of the regions
The Canadian Shield
• The largest physiographic region in Canada, extending
over nearly half of the country’s land mass
• Rock-like surface consists mainly of rugged, rolling
upland
• During last ice advance, surfaces were subjected to
glacial erosion and deposition
• Numerous landforms such as drumlins, eskers, and
glacial striations are characteristic of the region
• It contains wealth of varied mineral resources
The Cordillera
• A complex region of mountains,
plateaus, and valleys that occupies
over 16% of Canada and includes the
Rocky Mountains
• North–South alignment extends from
south British Columbia to Yukon;
west border is Pacific Ocean
• Formed by plate tectonics uplifting
sedimentary rocks into a series of
mountain ranges
• Geologically unstable with
earthquake and tsunami potential
The Interior Plains
• A vast and geologically stable sedimentary
plain that covers nearly 20% of Canada
• Most of the population lives in the southern
area
• Millions of years ago, the area of the Interior
Plains was occupied by a huge shallow inland
sea
– As sediments were deposited over time
into the sea, the weight of these
sediments created enough heat and
pressure to transform them into
sedimentary rock
• Beneath the surface, valuable deposits of oil
and gas (fossil fuels) are in structures known
as sedimentary basins
The Hudson Bay Lowlands
• Comprises approximately 3.5% of Canada
• It is the youngest physiographic region
• Consists of a thin cover of marine sediments
deposited by the Atlantic Ocean 10,000–12,000
years ago
• Lies mainly in northern Ontario but also stretches
to Manitoba and Quebec
• Muskeg, a type of peat, is dominant ground cover
• Very small human settlements
Arctic Lands
• Stretches over nearly 10% of Canada’s area
• Lies north of the Arctic Circle
• A complex composite of coastal plains, plateaus, and
mountains
• Three principal sub-regions:
– the Arctic Platform
– the Arctic Coastal Plain
– the Innuitian Mountain Complex
• Ground is permanently frozen to great depths
(permafrost)
• Climate is cold and dry
The Appalachian Uplands
• Represents only 2% of Canada’s land
mass
• Consists of the northern section of the
Appalachian Mountains
– Weathering and erosion have worn down
these mountains
– Highest elevations are in the Gaspé
peninsula
• The terrain is a mosaic of rounded
uplands and narrow river valleys (except
for Prince Edward Island)
• The nature of the region favoured early
European settlements
The Great Lakes–St Lawrence Lowlands
• The smallest physiographic region, comprising
less than 2% of the area of Canada
• Very important from an economic as well as
demographic perspective
• Favourable location makes the region home to
Canada’s main ecumene and manufacturing
core
– Landscape is flat to rolling
– Close to the United States
Geographic Location
• Because of Canada’s size,
latitude and longitude vary
enormously
• Latitude and longitude are
measured in degrees and
minutes
– Latitude indicates the distance
north or south of the equator
– Longitude indicates the distance
east or west of the prime
meridian
Climate
• Climate describes average weather conditions
for a specific place or region based on past
weather over a very long period of time
– Difference between climate and weather
• Canada has a cold environment
– Winter is a fact of life for Canadians and has
shaped our culture
Climate Change and Global Warming
• Climate change
– Increases in both temperature and precipitation
over past 50 years
• Increase in temperature is referred to as global
warming
• Some parts of Canada are going to be
benefiting from increased precipitation, other
are not
Climate Factors
• Canada’s climate is the product of four core
factors:
1. Solar energy
• Varies by latitude
2. Global circulation system
• Redistributes solar energy through winds, air masses, and
ocean currents
3. Marine and continental air masses
4. Continental effect
• Land masses heat up and cool more quickly than oceans
Climate Factors, cont’d
• Air masses
– Marine air masses and continental air masses
– Large sections of the atmosphere with similar
temperature and humidity characteristics
– Source regions
Types of Precipitation
• There are three types of
precipitation
– Convectional
– Frontal
– Orographic
• Rain shadow effect
Types of Precipitation, cont’d
• Climatic zone: an area of the earth’s surface
where similar weather conditions occur
• Canada has seven climatic zones
1. Pacific
2. Cordillera
3. Prairies
4. Great Lakes–St Lawrence
5. Atlantic
6. Subarctic
7. Arctic
FIGURE
2.5
Climatic
zones of
Canada
Each climatic
zone represents
average climatic
conditions in
that area.
Canada’s most
extensive
climatic zone,
the Subarctic, is
associated with
the boreal forest
and podzolic
soils.
Extreme Weather Events
• Are a part of climate and tend to have
powerful impacts on humans
• Potential increase in extreme weather events
associated with rising temperatures
• Often occur with little warning
• Often have a cultural impact by providing a
common threat and creating a common bond
among people
Permafrost
• Permanently frozen ground with temperatures at
or below zero for at least two years
• Found in over two-thirds of Canada’s land mass
• Undergoing a retreat due to global warming
• Four types:
1. Alpine
2. Continuous
3. Discontinuous
4. Sporadic
Permafrost, cont’d
FIGURE 2.9
Permafrost
zones
Canada’s cold
environment is best
demonstrated by
permafrost.
Permanently frozen
ground extends
over two-thirds of
the country. The
melting of
permafrost reflects
the impact of global
warming.
Sea and Lake Ice
• A measure of the impact of climate change
• Thickest ice in north found in the permanent Arctic
ice pack
• Seasonal melting follows a temporal pattern
• Variable in volume from year to year
Major Drainage Basins
• A drainage basin is land that slopes towards the
sea separated by topographic ridges
• Four major drainage basins in Canada:
1. The Atlantic Basin
2. The Hudson Bay Basin
3. The Arctic Basin
4. The Pacific Basin
• The geographic extent of these drainage basins
is fixed, while the volume of water flowing
through them varies and is expected to increase
as a result of global warming
Major Drainage Basins, cont’d
FIGURE 2.10
Drainage basins of
Canada
The four divides
determine Canada’s
drainage basins. They are
the Continental or Great
Divide, the Northern
Divide, the Arctic Divide,
and the St Lawrence
Divide. The Hudson Bay
Basin lies between three
divides—the Continental
Divide, the Arctic Divide,
and the Northern Divide—
and is by far the largest of
the five basins in Canada.
It also serves as a
boundary between
southern Alberta and
British Columbia, and
The Atlantic Basin
• The third largest drainage area
• It has the second greatest streamflow
• High precipitation and varied elevations are
good for developing hydroelectric power
stations
– The largest hydroelectric development is located
at Churchill Falls in Labrador
The Hudson Bay Basin
• Largest drainage basin in Canada
• Precipitation varies greatly across this basin
• Topography of Canadian Shield is ideal for
developing hydroelectric power with most of
Canada’s hydroelectric power generated here
– Largest installations are on La Grande Rivière in
Quebec and on the Nelson River in Manitoba
The Arctic Basin
• Canada’s second-largest drainage
basin, dominated by the Mackenzie
River
• Has the longest coastline
• Has a limited streamflow due to low
precipitation
• Has few hydroelectric projects due to
long distance to markets
– The only exception is the hydroelectric
development on the Peace River
The Pacific Basin
• The smallest basin
• Has the third-highest
volume of water draining
into the sea
• Site of one of Canada’s
largest single hydroelectric
projects
Canada and Pollution
• Humans are the most active and dangerous
agents of environmental change
• All human activities affect the environment
• Waste affects Canada’s regions
– Governing waste involves all three levels of
government
Mining and Pollution
• Before environmental regulations were in
place, mining left behind toxic wastes
• Tailing ponds are an economic solution to
toxic waste disposal, but they still threaten the
environment. Two examples are:
– Alberta’s tailing ponds
– Mount Polley tailing pond
The Alberta Oil Sands
• Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions peaked in
2007 and the Alberta oil sands are a major
contributor
• Extraction of bitumen is a risk to the local
environment and to global warming
• In the period from 2000 to 2018, greenhouse gas
emissions from oil and gas production increased
by 23 percent
– Companies are under pressure to reduce their carbon
footprint
Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas
Emissions
• Most air pollution is from industrial emissions
and automobile exhaust
• Coal-burning plants and oil sands production
account for most industrial pollution
• In 2017, the top three provinces by industrial
emissions were Alberta, Ontario, and Quebec
Summary
• Spatial variation is critical in understanding
Canada’s regional character
• Physiography and climate influence human
development
• Physical and human worlds are connected, with
some regions having more favourable
characteristics to accommodate human
settlement and economic development
• Climate change is going to present a number of
challenges not only for Canada, but the world
