2020

A Level Biology Notes

20

R. Gwanzura
HOLY CROSS HIGH SCHOOL
1/1/2020
 A LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES
TERM TOPIC

FORM 5  Cell Structure and Function

TERM 1  Biological Molecules and Water

FORM 5  Cell and Nuclear Division

 Genetic Control
TERM 2  Gene Technology

FORM 5  Inherited Change and Evolution

 Energetics
TERM 3  Transport Systems

FORM 6  Nervous Control

 Sexual Reproduction
TERM 1  Ecology

FORM 6  Biodiversity
 Human Health and Disease
TERM 2

FORM 6  Revision

TERM 3

Father God let it not be to my praise; but that in everything glory and praise be given to you; and you
alone. Remember the learners who shall use these notes. I pray for their success; bless them according to
your riches in mercy and grace. In Jesus Christ’s name. AMEN.

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Table of Contents

FORM 5 TERM 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 8

TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS ................................................................................. 8
MICROMETRY ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Microscopy ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Distinguish between resolution and magnification...................................................................................... 9
Calculating magnification from a scale bar ................................................................................................. 9
Light microscope ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Common stains used in light microscopy.................................................................................................. 10
Electron microscope. ................................................................................................................................ 10
Comparison of a light microscope and an electron microscope ................................................................ 10
Microscope techniques ...................................................................................................................... 11
HOW TO DRAW IN A LEVEL BIOLOGY ........................................................................................ 12
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS .......................................................................................................... 24
Ultra-structure of a typical animal cell ...................................................................................................... 24
Nucleus ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
Endoplasmic reticulum ............................................................................................................................. 25
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum ......................................................................................................... 25
Ribosomes ................................................................................................................................................ 25
Mitochondria ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Golgi apparatus. ........................................................................................................................................ 27
Lysosomes. ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Vacuoles ................................................................................................................................................... 27
Centrioles .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Cilia and flagella ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Plant cells.................................................................................................................................................. 27
Vacuole ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
Chloroplast................................................................................................................................................ 28
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes............................................................................................................... 29
MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS ................................................... 32
TOPIC 2: Biological molecules and Water ............................................................................................... 50
Macromolecule ......................................................................................................................................... 50
Starch. ....................................................................................................................................................... 55

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Glycogen................................................................................................................................................... 55
Cellulose ................................................................................................................................................... 56
Fatty acids ................................................................................................................................................. 58
Steric acids ................................................................................................................................................ 58
Triglyceride .............................................................................................................................................. 58
Phospholipids............................................................................................................................................ 60
Glycolipid ................................................................................................................................................. 60
Structure of protein ................................................................................................................................... 65
Primary structure ...................................................................................................................................... 65
Secondary structure................................................................................................................................... 65
Keratin ...................................................................................................................................................... 66
Collagen.................................................................................................................................................... 67
Tertiary structure ...................................................................................................................................... 67
Quaternary structure ................................................................................................................................. 68
Key points ............................................................................................................................................. 69
Primary structure...................................................................................................................................... 69
Secondary Structure .................................................................................................................................. 69
Tertiary structure ...................................................................................................................................... 70
Quaternary Structure ................................................................................................................................ 70
Enzymes ................................................................................................................................................... 71
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES ................................................................................................................. 71
Factor affecting the rate of enzyme reaction ............................................................................................. 72
Enzyme Co- factor ............................................................................................................................ 78
Water molecules ................................................................................................................................... 79
FORM 5 TERM 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 83
TOPIC 3: Cell and Nuclear division ......................................................................................................... 83
Chromosomes ................................................................................................................................... 83
Meiosis ..................................................................................................................................................... 84
THE CELL CYCLE.............................................................................................................................. 84
MITOSIS .............................................................................................................................................. 86
CYTOKINESISE ...................................................................................................................................... 88
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS ........................................................................................................ 89
Difference between cell division in plants and animals..................................................................... 89
MEOSIS [REPRODUCTION DIVISION] ........................................................................................... 90

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Meiosis I ................................................................................................................................................... 90
PROPHASE 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 90
METAPHASE 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 91
ANAPHASE 1 .......................................................................................................................................... 91
TELOPHASE 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 91
INTREPHASE II ...................................................................................................................................... 92
PROPHASE II .......................................................................................................................................... 92
METAPHASE II ....................................................................................................................................... 92
ANAPHASE II ......................................................................................................................................... 93
TELOPHASE II ........................................................................................................................................ 93
SIGNIFICANTS OF MEIOSIS ........................................................................................................ 94
Similarities between the prophase stage of mitosis and prophase I ........................................................... 96
NATURALSELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION.............................................................. 96
CAUSES OF CANCER .......................................................................................................................... 102
TOPIC4: GENE CONTROL .................................................................................................................. 105
Nucleotide Polymerisation ................................................................................................................ 107
Structure of DNA ............................................................................................................................ 108
RNA ................................................................................................................................................... 110
The Genetic Code ........................................................................................................................... 111
Replication - DNA Synthesis .......................................................................................................... 111
The Meselson-Stahl Experiment ...................................................................................................... 113
Transcription - RNA Synthesis ........................................................................................................... 114
Post-Translational Modification ...................................................................................................... 118
Mutations ............................................................................................................................................ 118
Mutation Rates and Mutagens ......................................................................................................... 120
DNA and Chromosomes ..................................................................................................................... 121
FORM 5 TERM 3 ................................................................................................................................... 123
TOPIC 6: Inherited change and evolution .............................................................................................. 123
PRINCIPLE OF MANDALIAN INHERITANCE ............................................................................. 124
THE GENETIC DIAGRAM ................................................................................................................... 124
TEST 1 BACK CROSS TECHNIQUE ................................................................................................... 125
MANDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION ....................................................................................... 126
CODOMINANCE .......................................................................................................................... 126
SEX DETERMINATION ............................................................................................................... 128

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SEX LINKAGE-GENES ON SEX CHROMOSOMES .......................................................................... 128
DIHYBRID INHERITANCE ................................................................................................................. 129
THE SUMMARY OF MENDEL’S 2nd LAW. ........................................................................................ 132
A PEDIGREE CHART ........................................................................................................................... 140
HOW MUTATION CAN AFFECT THE PHENOTYPE ............................................................... 141
EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ................................................................................................................. 142
TOPIC 7: ENERGETICS ....................................................................................................................... 144
Structure of ATP ................................................................................................................................. 144
PHOTOSYNTHESIS .......................................................................................................................... 145
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.............................................................................................................................. 147
SUNLIGHT ........................................................................................................................................... 148
LIGHT DEPENDED STAGE: THE Z SCHEME / PHITOPHOSPHORYLATION .......................... 148
C3 and C4 plants ..................................................................................................................................... 154
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTORESPIRATION ........................................................................ 156
The Krebs cycle .............................................................................................................................. 159
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION [ETC] ................................................................................ 161
ANAROBIC RESPIRATION ......................................................................................................... 161
ALTERNATIVE RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES ........................................................................... 165
RESPIRATION OF FATS ...................................................................................................................... 165
RESPIRATION OF PROTEINS............................................................................................................. 165
REPIRATION QUNTIENTS.............................................................................................................. 165
TRANSMINATION ............................................................................................................................... 166
TOPIC 8: TRANSPORT SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................... 166
Transport in plants .............................................................................................................................. 166
Xylem ............................................................................................................................................. 167
Tracheids ................................................................................................................................................ 167
Vessels .................................................................................................................................................... 168
Protoxylem ............................................................................................................................................. 168
Xylem parenchyma ................................................................................................................................. 168
Xylem fibres ........................................................................................................................................... 168
Phloem ............................................................................................................................................ 169
Uptake of water by roots ................................................................................................................. 170
Mass flow ............................................................................................................................................... 170
Set backs ................................................................................................................................................. 170

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Root pressure .......................................................................................................................................... 170
Role of root pressure ............................................................................................................................... 171
Apoplast pathway ................................................................................................................................... 171
Symplast pathway ................................................................................................................................... 171
Vacuole pathway .................................................................................................................................... 171
TRANSPIRATION ............................................................................................................................. 172
Factors affecting transpiration ................................................................................................................ 172
XEROPHITIC PLANTS ................................................................................................................. 173
Adaptations of Xerophitic plants ............................................................................................................ 173
TRANSLOCATION ........................................................................................................................... 174
MASS FLOW ......................................................................................................................................... 174
TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS .......................................................................................................... 183
The Bohr Effect .................................................................................................................................. 186
FORM 6 TERM 1 ................................................................................................................................... 197
TOPIC 9: NERVOUS CONTROL ......................................................................................................... 197
Homeostasis. ....................................................................................................................................... 197
TOPIC 10 : Sexual Reproduction ........................................................................................................... 207
TOPIC 11: ECOLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 267
FORM 6 TERM 2 ................................................................................................................................... 285
TOPIC 12: DIVERSITY OF ORGANISMS ....................................................................................... 285
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 285
Hierarchy of classification ...................................................................................................................... 285
DEFINITION OF TERMS ..................................................................................................................... 285
BINOMIAL CLASSIFICATION ....................................................................................................... 286
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................................ 293
TOPIC 13: HEALTH AND DISEASES .............................................................................................. 295
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES ...................................................................................... 295
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PATTERNS OF DISEASES....................................................................... 295
DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE.................................................................................................. 301
IMMUNITY .......................................................................................................................................... 316
ALLERGIES ................................................................................................................................... 338
TOPIC 5: GENE TECHNOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 340
GENE TECHNOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 341
The benefits and hazards of gene technology ...................................................................................... 350

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 Benefits ........................................................................................................................................... 350
The use of electrophoresis in genetic fingerprinting and DNA sequencing ......................................... 354
Genetic Counselling ............................................................................................................................ 355
Genetic fingerprinting ..................................................................................................................... 355
Uses of DNA fingerprinting ............................................................................................................ 356
Electrophoresis ................................................................................................................................... 357
Genetic screening and counseling ................................................................................................... 360
A Level Biology TEACHERS PRACTICAL TRAINING Module ................................................... 366
PRACTICAL 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROSCOPY ................................................................... 367
Part A:Calibration of the OcularMicrometer ............................................................................. 369
PRACTICAL 2: Demonstration of plasmolysis using red onion skin cells ....................................... 372
PRACTICAL 3: Measuring THE water potential OF potato tubers .................................................... 374
PRACTICAL 4: DETERMINATION OF WATER POTENTIAL OF SOLUTES ............................. 378
PRACTICAL 5: IDENTIFICATION OF NON-REDUCING SUGARS ............................................ 382
PRACTICAL 6: DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE QUANTITIES OF REDUCING SUGARS
IN FOOD ITEMS ............................................................................................................................... 384
PRACTICAL 7: DEMONSTRATION OF THE ACTION OF PROTEASE (PEPSIN) ON ENZYMES
............................................................................................................................................................ 386
PRACTICAL 8: DEMONSTRATION OF THE EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION ON
ENZYME ACTION ............................................................................................................................ 389
PRACTICAL 9: Demonstration REGULATION AND CONTROL through Dialysis ................... 393
PRACTICAL 10:PLANT GROSS FORM AND TISSUES ................................................................ 398
PRACTICAL 11: The structure of flowers and adaptation to pollination ........................................... 400
PRACTICAL 12: The basic Leaf Structure .................................................................................... 402
FORM 6 TERM 3 ................................................................................................................................. 405
Paper 1-MCQ.......................................................................................................................................... 413
Paper 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 413
Paper 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 414
Paper 4 .................................................................................................................................................... 414

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 FORM 5 TERM 1

TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Patience and perseverance have a magical effect before which difficulties
disappear and obstacles vanish
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.1.1 Microscopy  Calibrate eyepiece - calibration and  Calibrating  Relevant

graticule measurement eyepiece graticule. reference
 Draw and - units of  Observing cells materials
determine linear measurement
using light  ICT tools
dimensions of (millimeter, micrometer
specimens and nanometer) microscope.  Braille
 distinguish -magnification and  Measuring linear software/Jaws
between resolution (refer to light dimensions of  Light Microscope
magnification and and electron specimens. (X4, X10, X40
resolution microscopes)  Discussing the objective lenses)
 prepare temporary - wet mounts
concepts  Hand lenses
slides - staining
magnification and  Graticules
resolution.  Stage
 Mounting micrometers
temporary slides.  Stains
 Staining wet  Prepared slides
mounts with
appropriate stains.

MICROMETRY
Micrometry: The measurement of microscopic objects.

─ A micrometer is used.
─ In biology we often need to measure very small objects.
─ When measuring cells or parts of cells, the most useful unit is the micrometer (µm).
─ One micrometer is 1000 of a millimeter.
─ 1µm =1/1000mm.
─ Even smaller structures such as the organelles with such small sizes are measured using
even smaller units.
─ The Nanometers are used (nm).
─ 1nm=1/1000µm.

NB* Note that centimeters are not units in Biology, nm, µm, & mm are used.

Microscopy

─ The use of microscopes in Biology is called microscopy.

─ Microscopes used are light microscope and electron microscope.

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Distinguish between resolution and magnification.

─ Resolution is the ability of a microscope to distinguish two objects close together rather
than to see them as one object.
─ Magnification is the number of times an object is enlarged.

𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕.
𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍

─ E.g. A person makes a drawing of an incisor tooth and the width of the actual tooth is 5mm
while the tooth drawing is 12mm. Calculate the magnification of the drawing?

Magnification = 12/5 =x2, 4

Calculation of magnification and the conversion of units.

─ Let’s say, the real diagram of a red blood cell is 7nm and asked to calculate the
magnification.

Step 1– measure the diameter of the cell in the diagram. You find that it is 30mm.

Step2-we have been given its real size so we need to convert 30mm to µm. there are
1000µm in a mm, so 30mm =30x1000µm

Step 3-we can now put the numbers in the equation.

Calculating magnification from a scale bar

─ When given a scale bar, there is no need to measure the leukocyte. We can simply use the
scale bar.
─ All you need to do is to measure the length of the scale bar and then substitute it’s measured
length and the length that it represents on the scale bar.
─ Remember to convert the measurements to µm.

Step 1– measure the scale bar. Here it is 24mm

Step2-substutute into the equation.

𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕.
𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍

= length of scale Bar

Length of scale bar represents

Light microscope

─ A light microscope (compound microscope) uses the magnifying powers of the convex lens
to produce a magnified image of a small object.

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 ─ Therefore, the magnification of the light microscope I equal to the objective lens & the
magnifying lens.

Common stains used in light microscopy

Stain Use Colours produced

METHYLENE Staining living cells Dark blue nucleus , light cytoplasm 9in bacteria the
BLUE whole cell takes up the stain)

Iodine Staining living plant cells Very dark blue starch grains

Acidified Staining lignin (the Bright red

phloroglucinal substance in the cell walls
of xylem vessels)

Acetin orcein Nuclei and chromosomes Red

Light green Staining plant cell walls Green

Electron microscope.

─ Is like an up-side-down light microscope.

─ The radiation enters at the top and the specimen at the bottom is viewed.
─ The principle is the same as on the light microscope in that, a beam of radiation electrons is
focused by condenser lenses and the image is magnified by further lenses.
─ A photograph taken by the electron microscope is called an electron micrograph
─ The major advantage of an electron microscope is its high resolving power i.e., 0, 5 nm in
practice.

Comparison of a light microscope and an electron microscope

Electron microscope Light microscope

Radiation source Electrons Light

Wavelength About 0,005nm 400-700nm

Max resolution 0,5nm 200nm

Max magnification X250000 X1500

Lenses Electromagnets glass

Qn. Describe what is meant by the term resolution. [2]

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 Qn. State the maximum magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope and a
transmission electron microscope. Select your answers from the list below.

10x 40x 100x 400x 1500x 25 000x 50 000x 500 000x

light microscope ................................... x

transmission electron microscope ................................... x [Total 2 marks]

HINT* as magnification increase, resolution decreases.

Qn. Explain why it would not be possible to see the same detail of a cell, as can be seen using a
electron microscope on a light microscope. [3marks]

 Electron microscope has high resolution

 Because of shorter wave length
 More detail can be seen/ much clearer
 That are close together

Microscope techniques
Describe the preparation of a sample of tissue for examination with electron microscope. [8]

1. Permanent preparation
(i) Fixation
 This is the preservation of material in a life like condition.
 Tissues must be killed rapidly
 The chemical used is called a Fixative.
 The original shape and structure is maintained.
 The tissue hardens so that thin sections can be cut.
(ii) Dehydration
 Refers to the removal of water
 It’s done to prepare the material for infiltration with an embedding medium or
mounding medium.
 For the preservation of fine details, dehydration should be gradual eg. Acetone,
propanone, ethanol.
(iii) Clearing
 Alcohols do not mix with some of the common embedding and mounting media.
 When it’s the case, it is replaced with a medium (clearing agent) eg xylol.
(iv) Sectioning
 When material is too thick to allow sufficient light to pass through for
microscopic investigations it is usually cut into very thin slices for the material
(sections) to be seen.
 The razor is called Microtome.
 Sections should be 8-12micrometers thick.
(v) Mounting
 Usually done on slides
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(2) Temporary preparations

 Stages involved are fixation, staining and mounting.

 70% alcohol can be used as fixative

Outline the advantages of using light microscopes in comparison with electron microscopes. [3]
 easy to prepare a sample for;
 living material can be viewed / living processes (e.g. cytoplasmic streaming) can be seen;
 colour images can be seen;
 relatively portable;
 relatively cheap;
 larger field of view; [3 max]
Draw and label a generalized prokaryotic cell as seen under the electron microscope. [4]
Award [1] for any of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
Award [2 max] if two or more eukaryotic structures are given and if a nucleus is
included award [0].
 cell wall / capsule / slime wall/layer;  flagella;
 plasma/cell membrane;  pili;
 mesosome,  plasmid;
 cytoplasm;  size stated 1 to 10ìm; [4 max]
 ribosomes;
 nucleoid / naked DNA;

J2019- Explain the limitations of using electron microscopes to investigate cell structure. [6]

HOW TO DRAW IN A LEVEL BIOLOGY

What equipment is needed?

Sharp pencil - HB is generally preferred,

Pencil sharpener - A nail file may also be useful to keep the point really sharp.
Eraser
Ruler - For label lines.
Plain paper

General Principles

When assessing biological drawing, marks are awarded for both quality of drawing and labelling.
The latter may include annotation. The general principles described below apply to all types of
biological drawing:
Use a sharp pencil only. Don’t use pens or coloured pencils.
Use clear, continuous lines. A line which encloses a shape, such as a circle, should join up neatly
without obvious overlap. Overlapping lines is a common error in hastily drawn sketches and is easily
spotted and penalised by examiners.

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Don’t use any form of shading. This includes stippling, cross-hatching and shading. Students find
this is a hard instruction to follow, and it is sometimes difficult to justify. Although shading may help
to make the drawing look more realistic and/or to discriminate between areas of the specimen, it
does not represent a permanent structural feature. Artistic impression is certainly not what is
required.
Accuracy is paramount. It shows good observation. Remember that observation is assisted by
understanding, so a good knowledge of theory goes alongside good drawing. Pay particular attention
to the outlines of structures and to the relative proportions of different parts of the specimen. Don’t
draw what you think you should see, for example text book style drawings. Draw what you observe.
Guidelines can help. Faint sketching of the main areas of the specimen which can later be erased
may help. Some students find a simple grid helps them.
Magnification and illumination. To help in the drawing process it is often useful to use a hand lens
or a magnifying glass for larger specimens and, for microscopy, both low and high power lenses when
making preliminary observations. Field biologists usually carry a hand lens as standard equipment.
Dissection, and drawing from a dissection, is greatly aided by good illumination of the specimen by a
lamp and by a tripod lens placed over the material where possible.
Make the drawing large enough. If the specimen is a relatively large structure such as a plant or a
section of an organ, it should normally occupy more than half the available space on the page. In
microscopy, individual cells drawn at high power should be about one to several centimeters in
diameter.
• Correct mistakes. If you make a mistake, use a good quality eraser to rub out the lines completely.
• Include a title. Include a title stating what the specimen is.
• Include a scale. Include a scale if relevant (see Labelling below). If you are drawing from a
microscope, it is useful to state the combined magnification of the eyepiece plus objective lenses used
when making the drawing, e.g. x100 (low power) or x400 (high power). Note, though, that this is not
the same as recording the scale.

Labelling

When labelling biological drawings, follow the guidance below:

Use a sharp pencil.
Label all relevant structures, including all tissues in the case of microscopy.
Use a ruler for label lines and scale bars.
Label lines should start exactly at the structure being labelled; don’t use arrowheads.
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Arrange label lines neatly and make sure they don’t cross over each other. It is visually
attractive, though not essential, if the length of the label lines is adjusted so that the actual labels are
right or left justified, i.e. line up vertically above each other on either side of the drawing.
Labels should be written horizontally, as in a textbook, not written at the same angle as the label
line.
As previously mentioned, a title, stating what the specimen is, should be added at the top or bottom
of the drawing.
Add a scale bar immediately below the drawing if necessary.
Annotating
Annotation adds concise notes about the structures labelled on a biological drawing. It is often used
to draw attention to features of particular biological interest, either structural (such as shape, size,
color, hairiness) or functional.
See Figure 3, 4e, 4h and 5e for examples of annotation in this booklet.

Scale and magnification

It is useful to give an indication of the scale/magnification of a drawing, particularly for large
specimens drawn without the aid of a microscope. The actual size of a plant or leaf, for example, may
be impossible to judge simply from a drawing. For drawings made using microscopes, if the actual
scale or magnification is not given, it may be useful simply to indicate whether a low or high power
lens was used, preferably the actual magnification achieved by the combined eyepiece and objective
lens, usually just below the title.

Calculating scale/magnification of a drawing

Scale, or magnification, is simply how much bigger or smaller the drawing is compared with the
actual specimen. Calculate as follows:
Measure between two appropriate points of the drawing (e.g. total length or width).
Measure between the same two points of the specimen.
Divide measurement 1 by measurement 2.

Unfamiliar specimens

As stated above, the same basic principles of drawing technique apply to all drawings and specimens.
Nevertheless, it can be daunting for a student if they are asked to draw something they have not seen

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before or in a new situation, for example a plant growing in a field, a fungal colony growing on an
agar plate or an unfamiliar slide. Assessment questions will always be phrased so that it is clear
exactly what is required and any relevant information the student is not expected to

know will be provided. The important thing to remember is to follow instructions carefully and to
observe and draw the actual specimen and not try to guess what should be visible. For example, roots
should not be drawn on a plant growing in the field if they are not visible.

Specimens should be studied carefully before any drawing is undertaken, noting particularly where
the outlines of structures are going to be delimited in the final drawing. Depending on the subject,
separate, more detailed drawings may be useful to highlight features of particular biological interest.

The following figures are good biological drawings. Figure 2

shows a drawing made from a heart dissection and Figure 3

shows two flowers during a fieldwork exercise.

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Figure 3: The difference in arrangement of the sepals in two species of buttercup, Ranunculus bulbosus and R.
repens. Again, this is a good biological drawing, showing specific details of the flowers and labelling them
accordingly. However, care should be taken to ensure lines do not overlap or are left incomplete. Also, a scale
bar is not present.

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DRAWING FROM A MICROSCOPE SLIDE
Low power drawings

The purpose of a low power drawing is usually to show the distribution of the main tissues within an
organ, for example in a transverse section of a stem or a trachea. Students are required only to
identify the tissues and to delimit the different tissues with boundary lines. No individual cells should
be drawn. There should be no mysterious gaps between tissues. The temptation is to try to make the
drawing look like the specimen, hence the tendency to fill spaces with cells. The final

drawing is basically a map – accurate details of the cells can only be revealed at high power.

Follow these guidelines:

• Identify the different tissues, using high power to help if necessary

• Draw all tissues and completely enclose each tissue by lines

• Don’t draw individual cells

• Accuracy is important – the specimen will not necessarily look like a textbook drawing. For
example, vascular bundles in a stem may vary in size and shape.

• A representative portion may be drawn if the structure is symmetrical, e.g. a wedge or half
of a transverse section of root or stem, or in the case of a leaf, half a midrib and asmall portion
of the adjacent lamina.

High power drawings

The purpose of high-power drawings is to show as much accurate detail as microscopy will allow. It
is important to realize that the high power and low power drawings are complementary – neither on
its own looks like the whole specimen being viewed, but the combination would allow someone to
reconstruct the structure being drawn. As with low power drawings, students often fall into the trap
of wanting the drawing to ‘look like what they see down the microscope’ and draw a lot of cells, none
accurately.

• Draw only a few representative adjacent cells (assessment questions will usually give specific
instructions about what exactly is required.) If all the cells are similar, then three cells is often
sufficient to show both cell structure and the way in which cells are arranged in relation to each other.
In such a case, detail of only one cell may be needed, with outlines only of adjacent cells just to show
their relative positions.

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• Don’t shade in nuclei – just draw the outline. Similarly, with nucleoli.

Figure 4a: Photomicrograph of part of a section of the pancreas of a mouse taken at low power.

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Figure 4b: Low power plan trace of one lobule from the pancreas shown in Figure 4a showing an islet of
Langerhans and one acinus.

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Figure 4c: Low power plan of the same lobule as in Figure 4b but drawn by a student. This is a good
attempt at drawing the lobule shown in Fig 4a, although some lines are thicker than others.

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Figure 4d: High power photomicrograph of the pancreas shown in Figure 4a. The acinus drawn in
Figures 4e and 4f is outlined.

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Figure 4e: High power drawing of the acinus outlined in Figure 4d, obtained by tracing and fully labelled.

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Figure 4f: High power drawing of the acinus outlined in Figure 4d, drawn from the slide by a student. This is
a good attempt at drawing the acinus from Figure 4d, although there are some overlapping lines.

Figure 5a: Photomicrograph of a transverse section of the lamina of a shade leaf of beech (Fagus) taken at
low power.

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 Figure 5b: This is a low power plan of the beech leaf section shown in Figure 5a drawn by a student. The
student has correctly drawn and labelled the different tissues, rather than drawn individual cells.

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 Figure 5b: This is a low power plan of the beech leaf section shown in Figure 5a drawn by a student. The
student has correctly drawn and labelled the different tissues, rather than drawn individual cells.

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WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
COMMON ERRORS ACTIVITY

Figure 1: Transverse section of a young Helianthus stem showing some common drawing errors in the left-
hand half of the drawing. The right-hand half shows examples of good technique.

Try to draw the following

[Link]. 1 is a photomicrograph of a stained transverse section through the stem of a plant

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species.

Fig 1
Make a large plan drawing of Fig 1. [5marks]

2. Fig. 2. shows four photomicrographs of stained transverse sections through blood

vessels, Q, R, S and T.

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Choose one of the blood vessels shown in Fig. 2 which carries blood away from the
heart. State the blood vessel, Q, R, S or T, which you have chosen ....................
Draw a large plan diagram of this blood vessel. [5 marks]

3. Fig. 3 is a photomicrograph showing some cells from a transverse section from the
part of a root taken under high-power.
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From Fig. 3 make a large, labelled drawing of three complete cells which are touching and include at
least one cell with a nucleus. Show clearly on Fig. 3 the three cells, which you have drawn. [5]

MARKING SCHEME

Fig 1 MARKING SCHEME

1. lines should be continuous, thin and sharp and no shading;

2. at least four lines shown;
3. no cells + bottom sector drawn;
4. draws endodermis as two lines;
5. length between epidermis and endodermis is at least twice the diameter of the stele;

Fig 2 MARKING SCHEME

1 correct selection of vessel Q or T;

2 size at least 100 mm + no shading;

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 3 length of drawing is at least twice the size of the narrowest width;

4 draws at least three lines across wall + inner line crinkled;

5 proportions of vessel walls correct with one selected;

Fig 3 MARKING SCHEME

1. clear, sharp, AND unbroken lines AND no shading;
2. 3 complete cells marked on Fig. 3 AND drawn 3 complete cells touching;
3. 2 nuclei each drawn near to one edge of cell AND not in centre of cell;
4. space between outer wall and cytoplasm shown in part of two cells;
5. nucleus and cell wall correctly labelled;

Continue to learn on your own, you will make it

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WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
 State one contribution to cell theory made by each of the following: Hooke, van
Leeuwenhoek,
State one contributionSchleiden, Schwann
to cell theory madeand Virchow.
by each of the following: Hooke, van
Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow.
[1 max] per scientist
Hooke: Hooke: developeddeveloped
the term thecell.
term [Link]
(after (after investigating cork under
cork under
microscope);
microscope);
Van Leeuwenhoek:observed
Van Leeuwenhoek: observed unicellular
unicellular organismsorganisms
/ nucleus/ nucleus / discovers
/ discovers
bacteria;bacteria;
(Do not(Do not contributions
accept accept contributions to microscope
to microscope development.)
development.)
Schleiden:
Schleiden: concludedconcluded
all plantsall are
plants
madeareofmade
cells of cells / (discovered
/ (discovered
importance
importance of nucleusof nucleus to cell division);
to cell division);
Schwann:
Schwann: concludedconcluded
that all that
animalsall animals
are made areofmade
cells;of cells;
SchwannSchwann & Schleiden:
& Schleiden: proposedproposed
the cellthe cell and
theory theory and concluded
concluded that all that all and
plants plants and
animals are made of cells (that within an organism these these
animals are made of cells (that within an organism
cells arecells are identical);
identical);
Virchow:
Virchow: showed that all that
showed cellsall cellsfrom
come comeexisting
from existing
cells; cells;

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PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
be able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.1.2 Plant and  identify plant - Ultrastructure of the  Observing plant  Photomicrographs
Animal Cells and animal cells plant and animal cells and animal  Print media
 compare plant - Rough and smooth cells.  ICT tools
and animal cells endoplasmic reticula,
Golgi body,  Drawing plant  Braille software/Jaws
mitochondria, and animal  Microscope
ribosomes, chloroplasts, cells.  Prepared slides
cell surface membrane,  Discussing the  Models
nuclear envelope, similarities and
centrioles, nucleus and differences
nucleolus
between plant
and animal
cells.
8.1.3 Organelles  outline the - Functions of  Discussing  Photomicrographs
and their functions functions of organelles listed functions of cell  Print media
organelles above organelles.  ICT tools
 Braille software/Jaws

I am not rich enough to give you gold; here is what I have. It may not be the best gift. but I know you
may get one or two. Share with others …

Ultra-structure of a typical animal cell

─ A typical animal cell is surrounded by a membrane known as the cell surface or plasma
membrane.
─ Inside the membrane is a jelly-like fluid known as the cytoplasm.
─ It contains the nucleus and other organelles.
─ The cytoplasm and the nucleus together are known as the protoplasm.

Nucleus
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describe the structure and Function of the Nucleus. [6]

─ It is the largest organelle in a (plant; animal) cell

─ Spherical structure 10-20 micrometers in diameter
─ Surrounded by a double membrane called nuclear envelope
─ Contains nucleoplasm
─ Nuclear envelope compartmentalizes chemical reactions taking place in the nucleus
─ Nucleoplasm contains chromosomes and nucleoli
─ Chromosomes contain DNA attached to proteins (histones)
─ Nucleoplasm also contains RNA (3 types of RNA)
─ Nucleus functions to control the synthesis of proteins
─ Controls the cell’s activities
─ Divide at the start of cell division, ensuring that daughter cells have exact copies of the cell’s
genetic material
─ To assemble ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum

─ It is a system of flattened membrane bound sacs called cisternae, forming tubes and sheets.
─ It is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
─ Have ribosomes on them.
─ Their role is to manufacture proteins.
─ Rough endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cell that either secrete proteins or that are
growing rapidly.
(b) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
─ Lacks ribosomes on its surface.
─ Abundant in cells that secrete steroids or lipid substances
─ These are the site for lipid and steroid synthesis.

Functions of endoplasmic reticulum

─ To provide area for biochemical reactions.

─ To act as a pathway for the transport and exchange of material.
─ To manufacture proteins e.g. enzymes
─ To manufacture lipids and steroids.
─ To collect and store any synthesized material.
─ To form a structural skeleton for maintaining cellular shape

Ribosomes

─ Very small organelles consisting of a large subunit and a small subunit.

─ They are made of roughly equal amounts of protein and RNA.
─ There are two types i.e. 70s and 80s ribosomes.
─ They are responsible for protein synthesis.
─ They are either bound to ER or lie free in the cytoplasm.
─ They form polysomes i.e. collection of ribosomes strung along messenger RNA
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 J2017/P2- Distinguish between the lysosome and the ribosome in terms of structure and function.
[8]

Mitochondria

(Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and outline its function in a plant cell.[8])

─ 0.5–1.0 μm, diameter / width;

─ double membrane;
─ inner membrane folded / cristae;
─ hold, stalked particles / ATP synthase / ATP synthetase;
─ site of ETC;
─ ref. H+ and intermembrane space;
─ ATP production;
─ oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis;
─ matrix is site of, link reaction / Krebs cycle;
─ enzymes in matrix;
─ 70S ribosomes;
─ (mitochondrial) DNA;
─ They are envelope bound and the inner membrane folds to form cristae.
─ It consists of a matrix with few ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule and phosphate granules.
─ In aerobic respiration, cristae are the sites for oxidative phosphorylation and electron
transport chain.
─ Matrix is the site for Krebs’s cycle of enzymes.

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Golgi apparatus.

─ Composed of a series of parallel membranes that are flattened fluid spaces.

─ The cristae are slightly curved the entire structure appear concave.
─ Functions of Golgi apparatus:
o Manufacture of glycoproteins which are required for secretions.
o Production of secretory enzymes.
o Production of carbohydrates e.g. those involved in the manufacture of new cell walls.
o Transport and storage of lipids.
o Formation of lysosomes.

Lysosomes.

─ A simple spherical sac bound by a single membrane and containing digestive and or
hydrolytic enzymes.
─ Functions of Lysosomes:
o To contain enzymes capable of digesting a wide variety of substances.
o To digest cytoplasmic organelles.
o To act as suicide bags which help to rapidly digest entire cells that are old.

Vacuoles

─ They are temporary membrane bound pockets of cell sap.

─ White blood cells in higher animals form similar vacuoles around pathogens which are
engulfed.

Centrioles

─ Found as a pair near the nucleus.

─ They are made up of bundles of tubules.
─ They pull apart during cell division to produce a spindle made of microtubules which are
involved in chromosome movement.

Cilia and flagella

─ They are concerned with cell movement e.g. they are outgrowths from cells which can beat
either in one direction (cilia) or in a wavelike manner (flagella).
─ Flagella are larger than cilia.
─ Both cilia and flagella have a characteristic 9+2 arrangement of microtubules.

Plant cells

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 ─ Plant cells tend to be uniform in their shape because the cell is bound by a rigid cell wall.
─ The cells give strength and support to plants due to insoluble cellulose fibres which are
meshed in a matrix of carbohydrates called pectates or hemicelluloses.
─ Plant Cells have the following:

Vacuole

─ Is a fluid filled space in the cytoplasm.

─ In plants a vacuole is a permanent feature.
─ It is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.
─ Is filled with cell sap.
─ The vacuole determines the osmotic properties of a plant cell.

Chloroplast.

(Relate the structure of the chloroplast to their roles in photosynthesis. [7])

─ Are large organelles containing their own DNA and have a double membrane.
─ Chloroplasts have a folded inner membrane which gives a greater surface area for
biochemical reactions to occur.
─ Thylakoid membranes contain pigments/ electron carriers/ enzymes
─ Used in cyclic and non – cyclic photophosphorylation/ light dependent reactions
─ Stroma (contain enzymes) for the Calvin cycle/ dark reaction
─ Grana a network of proteins holding pigments into photosynthesis
─ Light reactions on thylakoid which contain ATP/ stalked particles
─ Membrane system separates the reactions of photosynthesis from other cell reactions
─ Stroma fluid which surrounds grana so that products light dependent stage can easily pass
into stroma.
─ Contain DNA /ribosomes for manufacture of proteins needed for protein synthesis
─ Grana are interconnected by membranes called lamella.

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(List any 3 structural similarities between a mitochondrion and a chloroplast. [3])

─ Circular DNA
─ Double membranes
─ 70s ribosomes

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
be able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.1.4 Eukaryotic  compare - Structure of eukaryotic  Observing and  Prepared slides

and Prokaryotic eukaryotic and and prokaryotic cells drawing  Microscope
Cells prokaryotic cells eukaryotic and  Print media
prokaryotic  ICT tools
cells.  Braille software/Jaws
 Discussing the
similarities and
differences
between the
cells.

─ Prokaryotes are organisms which are single celled e.g. bacteria.

─ Eukaryotes are organisms usually complex and these include animal and plant cells.

Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Cell division Binary fission. Mitosis and meiosis.

No spindle Spindle in animal cells.

Genetic material. DNA is circular and lies free in DNA is linear, often associated
the cytoplasm. with proteins to form
chromosomes.
No true nucleus.
It is contained in the nucleus.

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Protein synthesis. 70s ribosomes. 80s ribosomes.

No ER present. ER present and ribosomes

may be attached to ER.

Organelles. Few organelles. Many organelles,

None envelope bound. Envelope bound organelles

e.g. nucleus.

Cell walls. Rigid, contain polysaccharides Rigid , contain polysaccharides

of amino acids , murein is the , lignin is the main
main strengthening strengthening material.
compound.

Respiration Use mesosomes except blue Use mitochondria for aerobic

green bacteria cytoplasmic respiration.
membranes.

Photosynthesis No chloroplasts Contain chloroplasts

Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability None have the ability.

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(Compare and contrast the structure of a typical animal and plant cell. [6])

Structure Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall Cellulose No cell wall

Cell membrane Protein/ phospholipid or Protein/ phospholipid or

phospholipid bilayer (same phospholipid bilayer (same
as animal) as animal)

Cytoplasm Fluid with dissolved Fluid with dissolved

substances substances

Vacuole Large central vacuole If present, small and

temporary

Shape Regular Irregular

Chloroplast Present Absent

Mitochondrial Present Present

Plasmodesmata Present Absent

Distinguish between the structure of plant and animal cells. [6]

Award [1] per difference.
plant cells:
 have cell walls, animal cells do not;
 have plastids / chloroplasts, animal cells do not;
 have a large central vacuole, animal cells do not;
 store starch, animal cells store glycogen;
 have plasmodesomata, animal cells do not;

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animal cells:
 have centrioles, plant cells do not;
 have cholesterol in the cell membrane, plant cells do not;
 plant cells are generally have a fixed shape / more regular whereas animal cells are
 more rounded; [6 max]

MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS

OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
KEY CONCEPT be able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.1.5 Movement of  describe and - Fluid mosaic model  Drawing the cell  Print media
substances into and explain the cell including the roles of surface  Photomicrographs
surface phospholipids,
out of cells membrane.  ICT tools
membrane cholesterol, glycolipids,
 Identifying the  Braille software/Jaws
structure proteins and
glycoproteins components.
 Discussing the
functions of
parts of the cell
surface
membrane.
 relate the - Diffusion  Designing and  Onion
structure of the - Facilitated diffusion carrying out  Potatoes
membrane to - Osmosis experiments to  Slides
movement of - Active uptake
substances into - Endocytosis
demonstrate  Microscope
and out of cells - Exocytosis osmosis (include  Egg membrane
serial dilutions).  Visking tubing

Membranes

J2019/P9: Describe the structure of cell surface membrane. [8]

─ Cell membranes separate their contents from their external environment controlling the
exchange of materials between the two.
─ Membranes also act as receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters and other
chemicals.
─ Membranes are described as selectively permeable, since other substances such as
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol and ions can diffuse through slowly.
─ Membranes are made almost entirely of proteins and lipids.

Draw and label a diagram to illustrate the fluid mosaic model of biological membranes. [5]

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 7nm

Award [1] for each of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
• Phospholipid (bilayer)
• Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
• Intrinsic /integral proteins/protein channels
• Glycoproteins/receptor proteins/ glycolipids on the outside;
• Cholesterol imbedded in the bilayer
• 7nm thick

Phospholipids

─ Each phospholipid molecule consists of a polar head containing a phosphate and two fatty
acids.
─ The polar head is hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic.
─ In aqueous environments, the hydrophilic heads face the external environments and the
hydrophobic fatty acid tails come into close intact to exclude water.

Proteins

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 ─ Freeze fracturing reveals the presence of proteins which penetrate into and often through
the phospholipids bilayer.
─ The more metabolically the membrane is, the more the protein cuticles are found.

Glycolipids and cholesterol

─ Glycolipids are lipids with carbohydrate residues, like phospholipids they have polar heads
and non-polar tails.
─ Cholesterol acts as a plug reducing even further exit and entry of molecules through the
membrane.

Fluid mosaic model membrane

(why is it called the fluid mosaic model membrane? [2marks])

─ This was so called because of the protein molecules which float about hap-hazard in the
phospholipid bilayer
─ The membrane is 7nm thick.
─ Its basic structure is the phospholipid bilayer.
─ The phospholipids are fluid and move about rapidly by diffusion in their own layers.
─ Unsaturated fatty acids are bent.
─ Most protein molecules float about in the phospholipid bilayer forming a fluid mosaic
pattern.
─ The proteins stay in the membranes because they have regions of hydrophobic amino acids
which interact with fatty acid tails to exclude water.
─ The two sides of the membrane can differ in composition and function

This is called the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure:

 ‘Fluid’ because the molecules within the membrane can move around within their
own layers.
 ‘Mosaic’ because the protein molecules are dotted around within the membrane.
 ‘Model’ because no-one has ever seen a membrane looking like the diagram — the
molecules are too small to see even with the most powerful microscope. The
structure has been worked out because it explains the behavior of membranes that
has been discovered through experiment.

(Explain how the phospholipid bilayer prevents the flow of protons)

─ The phospholipid bilayer is non-polar whilst the hydrogen ions are polar because of the
charge they possesses so the polar substance cannot easily pass through the non-polar
unless there is a hydrophilic channel.
─ The cytoplasm is negatively charged whilst the hydrogen ions are positively charged such
that they attract each other, so the phospholipid bilayer prevents the flow because the
hydrogen ions will cause a change in electrochemical gradient of the cytoplasm.

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Channel proteins and carrier proteins

─ These are involved in the selective transport of polar molecules and ions across the
membranes.

Qn. Outline the process of cell signaling? [4marks]

Qn. Outline the route by which proteins are exported from a cell. [3marks]

Transport across the cell surface membrane.

Outline four reasons why transport of substances across membranes is vital to a cell.

─ To generate ionic gradient for action potentials/ muscle contraction

─ To secrete useful substances;
─ To excrete waste substances;
─ To obtain nutrients;
─ To maintain suitable pH/ ionic concentration;

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 Qn. Small non-polar substances enter cells in different ways to large or polar substances.

Outline the ways in which substances, other than water, can enter a cell through the
plasma (cell surface) membrane.

In your answer, you should use appropriate technical terms, spelt correctly.

Small, non-polar substances

Large substances

Polar substances [Total 5 marks]

State the 3 features/ properties of a substance which influence its ability to pass through a cell
surface membrane.

─ Polarity (polar or non-polar)

─ Size of the particle

─ Solubility (lipid solubility/ water solubility )

Qn. Outline the roles of the membrane? [4marks]

Qn. Explain why the cell surface membrane is impermeable to most biological molecules.
[4marks]

Endocytosis is one method by which substances enter cells

Describe the process of endocytosis.

─ membrane, folding in / engulfing / invaginates / AW ;

─ fuses with itself / pinches off ;
─ formation of , vesicle / vacuole ; A completely surrounded by membrane
─ fate of vesicle ; e.g. moves through cytoplasm / fate of contents
─ ref. fluid nature (of membrane) / requires energy ;
─ A active / ATP R active transport
─ triggered by binding of molecule (to receptor site) ;
─ ref. to uptake of solid and liquid (not name alone) ;

Outline the roles of membranes within cells and at the surface of cells.

 The main roles of internal membranes include; o Separating the components of organelles
from the cell cytoplasm o Separates DNA from the cytoplasm but allows RNA to pass o
Intracellular transport o Protects cells from contents of Lysosomes

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 o Prevents disruption of metabolic reactions in organelles
 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 The main roles of surfaces membranes include; o Separating the contents of the cell from
the external environment o Controls the movement of molecules in and out of cells
 Facilitated diffusion
 Active transport o Cell recognition o Cell to
cell attachment o Involved in cell signaling - hormones

State that plasma (cell surface) membranes are partially permeable barriers.

 Plasma membranes are partially permeable barriers, meaning that some molecules can
pass through the plasma membrane easily while others cannot. o Plasma membranes are
permeable to;
 Small polar molecules – ethanol, water & carbon dioxide
 Non-polar molecules – oxygen & fatty acids o Plasma membranes are
impermeable to;
 Large polar molecules and charged (Ionic) molecules – sugars and amino
acids
 Water soluble molecules

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure.

 The structure of all membranes is basically the same. They contain; o Lipids (mainly
phospholipids) o Proteins o Carbohydrates
 The fluid mosaic model was first suggested in 1972 to describe the arrangement of
molecules in the plasma membrane
 Fluid o The phospholipid units are not attached together and are constantly moving
 Mosaic o The plasma membrane is comprised of many different components giving a
mosaic like appearance.

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 Glycoprotein

7nm
Glycolipid

Phospholipid

Cholesterol
Intrinsic
Protein
Extrinsic
Protein

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Describe the roles of the components of the cell membrane; phospholipids, cholesterol,
glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins.

 Phospholipids

o Phosphorylated lipid molecule o Made of;

 1 head molecule (Hydrophilic)
 Phosphate
 Glycerol
2 tail molecules (Hydrophobic)
 Fatty acid chains
o Arrange themselves into;
 A bilayer if there are two layers of phospholipids

 A michelle if there is only one layer of phospholipids

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  Cholestrerol o Type of lipid o Present in all cell membranes except prokaryotes
o Fit in between the phospholipid, binding to the tails, resulting in the tails being more
tightly packed together.
o Makes the membrane less fluid and more rigid at high temperatures o
Makes the membrane more fluid at low temperatures o Reduces
permeability to water, ions and polar molecules
 Glycoproteins & Glycolipids o Have attached carbohydrate chains – only found on
exterior of cell membranes.
o They have a specific shape o These stabilize the membrane by forming
hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
o These can act as receptor sites where drugs, hormones and antibodies can
bind.
o They can acts as receptors for cell signaling o They are also antigens – cell
surface molecules involved in the immune system.
o They allow cell recognition (self or non-self) o They attach to cytoskeleton for
cell adhesion Proteins o Can form channels
 These allow small or charged particles through
 Some channels are open all the time while others are gated. o Can form
carriers
 Transport molecules and ions across the membrane by active transport and
facilitated diffusion
 Molecules bind to the protein, which stimulates the protein to change its
overall shape, allowing the molecule to pass through.
o Can acts as receptors
 These are involved in cell signaling
 When a molecule binds to the protein, a chemical reaction is triggered
inside the cell.
Explain how the structure and properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell
membranes. [9]
phospholipid structure
 hydrophobic tail / hydrophilic head;
 head made from glycerol and phosphate;
 tail made from two fatty acids;
 saturated / unsaturated fatty acid (in tail);
arrangement in membrane
 phospholipids form a bilayer;
 heads face outside the membrane / tails face inside the membrane / hydrophobic
 interior / hydrophilic exterior of membrane;
A suitable annotated diagram may incorporate all or many of the above points.
Award [5 max] for a suitable diagram that is labeled correctly.
 phospholipids held together by hydrophobic interactions;
 phospholipids layers are stabilized by interaction of hydrophilic heads and surrounding
 water;
WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
  phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity / flexibility;
 fluidity / flexibility helps membranes to be (functionally) stable;
 phospholipids with short fatty acids / unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid;
 fluidity is important in breaking and remaking membranes (e.g. endocytosis /
 exocytosis);
 phospholipids can move about / move horizontally / “flip flop” to increase fluidity;
 hydrophilic / hydrophobic layers restrict entry / exit of substances; [9 max]

Outline the effect of changing temperature on membrane structure and permeability.

 Temperature < 0OC o Phospholipids do not have much energy and so do not move much o
Phospholipids are tightly packed together and the membrane is rigid o Channel and carrier
proteins in the membrane denature increasing the permeability of the membrane
o Ice crystals can form, increasing the permeability when it thaws
 Temperatures between 0OC and 45OC o The phospholipids can move around and aren’t
packed as tightly together o Membrane is partially permeable o Increases in temperature
will result in the phospholipids having more energy, which increases the permeability of
the plasma membrane
 Temperature > 45OC o The phospholipid bilayer starts to breakdown and the membrane
becomes more permeable
o Water inside the cell expands, putting pressure on the membrane o Channel and
carrier proteins in the membrane denature so they cannot control what enters or
leaves the cell – increasing the permeability of the phospholipid bilayer.

Explain the term cell signaling.

 Cell signaling: The processes that lead to communication and coordination between
cells.
 Can lead to cell identification / recognition
 Can trigger a response / action
 Cells communicate with each other using messenger molecules.
o One cell releases a messenger molecule (e.g. hormone)
o The molecule travels to another cell (e.g. by the blood) o The messenger molecule
has a complementary shape to the receptor site and so binds.

Explain the role of membrane-bound receptors as sites where hormones and drugs can bind.
 Receptor proteins have a specific shape
 Only messenger molecules that have a complementary shape can bind to them

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  Different cells have different types of receptors and so respond to different messenger
molecules
 A cell that responds to a messenger molecule is referred to as a target cell
 Messenger molecules can be; o Hormones o Neurotransmitters
 Many drugs can also affect target cells
 Drugs can also have a complementary shape to a receptor protein.
 This binding can; o Trigger a response o Block the receptor and prevent it from working
effectively.

Explain what is meant by passive transport (diffusion and facilitated diffusion including the
role of membrane proteins), active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.
 Diffusion o Passive process (no ATP required) where molecules move down their
concentration gradient.
o Molecules are small and non-polar such as oxygen and carbon dioxide o Rate
of diffusion depends on:
 The concentration gradient - The higher the gradient the faster the rate of
diffusion.
 The thickness of the exchange surface - The thicker the surface, the greater
the diffusion distance, the slower the rate of diffusion.
 The surface area – The larger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion.
 Temperature

WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH

  Facilitated Diffusion o Some molecules that are needed by the cell are too large, or
charged (therefore cannot pass through the hydrophobic region of the bilayer).
o Involves protein channels (for polar molecules)
and carriers (for large or polar molecules).

 Active transport o Some substances that are required by the cell are in lower
concentrations outside the cell than inside it.
o Cells can therefore not obtain these molecules by diffusion.
o Carrier proteins are used along with ATP to move molecules across the membrane
against their concentration gradient.
o Moves molecules faster than diffusion.
o

WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH

 o

 Endocytosis
Outline the process of endocytosis. [5]
o Bulk movement of large molecules into the cell – proteins & bacteria
(phagocytes)
o Solids = Phago
o Liquids = Pino
 membrane, folding in / engulfing / invaginates / AW;
 fuses with itself / pinches off;
 formation of, vesicle / vacuole; A completely surrounded by membrane
 fate of vesicle; e.g. moves through cytoplasm / fate of contents
 ref. fluid nature (of membrane) / requires energy;
A active / ATP R active transport
 triggered by binding of molecule (to receptor site);
 ref. to uptake of solid (Phago) and liquid (pino) (not name alone);

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  Exocytosis
o Bulk movement of large molecules out of the cell.
o Solids = Phago o Liquids = Pino
 Substances are packaged by the golgi apparatus
 Delivered to the plasma membrane in vesicles
 Vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane
 fuses with the cell plasma membrane;
 fate of contents
 ref. fluid nature (of membrane) / requires energy;
A active / ATP R active transport
▪ `triggered by binding of molecule (to receptor site);
▪ ref. to release of solid (Phago) and liquid (pino) (not name alone);

Explain what is meant by osmosis, in terms of water potential.

 Osmosis: The diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from an
area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential.
 Water potential is the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to another, and
is determined by the factors above.
 Pure water has the highest water potential = 0, while the more concentrated the solution
the lower the water potential = more negative.
 Although water molecules are polar, they are small enough to pass through the
phospholipid bilayer
 Some membranes are very permeable to water as they contain special. Highly selective
channel proteins for water known as aquaporins
 The movement of water into and out of cells is influenced by; o The amount of free water in
the cell cytoplasm and in the exterior environment.

WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH

 o The concentration of solutes, such as ions and sugars, on either side of the cell
surface membrane.
o The presence of aquaporins in the membranes o The pressure exerted on cell
contents by the cell wall, which is rigid and resists expansion and thus the
uptake of water.

Recognize and explain the effects that solutions of different water potentials can have upon
plant and animal cells.

Cells immersed in Movement of

Water Response of cells

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Distilled water - Water moves

into the cell
Higher water by osmosis
potential then cells Cell becomes TURGID Cell swells

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 Cells burst as there is no cell
wall and the cell membrane is
not

strong enough to withstand the

Cell wall prevents any more
water entering pressure

Dilute solution of No net

salt or sugar - movement of
same water water into or Cells remain the same shape Cells remain the same shape and
potential as cells out of cells and volume volume

Concentrated
Plasmolysis - vacuole shrinks,
solution of salt or Water moves pulling the cytoplasm and cell
sugar - lower out of cells by membrane away from the cell
osmosis wall.
water potential Cells become plasmolysed. Cells decrease in volume and
than cells shrink

1. The figure below shows the structure of a plasma (cell surface) membrane.

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 (a) (i) Name the components of the plasma (cell surface) membrane labelled D, E
and F. [3]

(ii) State one function for each of the components D, E and F. [3]

(b) Glycoprotein molecules are positioned in the plasma (cell surface) membrane
with the carbohydrate chain outside the cell.

This is to allow the glycoproteins to act as receptors in the process of cell

signaling.

(i) Explain what is meant by the term cell signaling. [2]

(ii) Explain how a glycoprotein can act as a receptor. [2]

Outline the roles of membranes at the surface of cells and within cells. [9]
 Small non-polar substances enter cells in different ways to large or polar substances.
 Outline the ways in which substances, other than water, can enter a cell through the
plasma (cell surface) membrane.
 small, non-polar substances
 large substances
 polar substances

[Total 5 marks]

An experiment was carried out in which an artificial membrane was used to form the boundary
of a model of a cell. A solution of different sugars was placed inside this ‘cell’, which was
then placed in a beaker containing a solution of sucrose and glucose.

The artificial membrane is:

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 • permeable to monosaccharides (e.g. glucose and fructose) and water; • not
permeable to disaccharides (e.g. maltose and sucrose);
• flexible.

The diagram below shows the ‘cell’, together with the concentrations of the sugars
inside the ‘cell’ and in the surrounding solution. The figures represent the
concentration in mol dm-3.
'cell'

sucrose 0.20
glucose 0.01
fructose 0.01 surrounding
maltose 0.01 solution
sucrose 0.65
glucose 0.04

(a) (i) State which sugar or sugars will show a net movement out of the ‘cell’. [1]

(ii) State which sugar or sugars will show a net movement into the ‘cell’. [1]

(iii) Name the method by which these sugars cross the membrane. [1]

(iv) Explain why the volume of the ‘cell’ would change during the experiment.
[4]

(b) The artificial membrane used in this experiment does not resemble a plasma (cell
surface) membrane in all respects.

State one method by which substances would be unable to cross the artificial
membrane. [1]

Outline the roles of membranes at the surface of cells and within cells. [9]
At surface
─ Separate cell from environment;
─ Control entry /exit (of molecules/ions/suitable substance);
o A selective/ partial
─ Movement of substance is by facilitated diffusion;
─ Active transport
─ Phagocytosis/pinocytosis/endocytosis/exocytosis
─ Cell recognition/ cell surface antigens;
─ Receptor (for hormones/ neurotransmitters etc.)
─ Microvilli increase surface area of cell
─ enzyme attachement
within
─ complartmentalise /surrounds organelles
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 ─ prevents disruption of, reactions / process
─ e.g reaction/ process, and organelle
─ reactions take place on membraines
─ enzymes attached to membranes
─ isolates/ separates, DNA /nucleus;
─ (nuclear pole) permits RNA to leave nucleus;
─ (forms) ER / (golge) vesicles/ lysosomes/ other named organelle;
─ Attachment of ribosomes;
─ Intracellular transport;
─ Protects cells from contents of lysosomes;
─ (tonoplast) surrounds / controls content of vacuole;
─ Increase (internal) surface area of organelle;
─ Attachment of pigments
─ Formation of mesosomes

TOPIC 2: Biological molecules and Water

Someone asked me, “Why do you insist on taking the hard road?” and I replied, “Why do
you assume that I see two roads?” So challenges are what make life interesting and
overcoming them is what makes life meaningful.

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.2.1Carbohydrates  carry out tests to - Reducing sugars  Performing the  Benedict’s

identify - Non- reducing reducing and non- solution
carbohydrates sugars reducing sugar tests.  Reducing sugars
 describe the - Starch
 Carrying out the  Non-reducing
formation and - (Qualitative and
breakage of Quantitative tests) starch test. sugars
glyosidic bond  Illustrating formation  Potassium iodide
 describe the - Glyosidic bond and breakage of solution
synthesis and - Starch glyosidic bonds.  Colorimeters
molecular - Glycogen
 Discussing the
structure of - cellulose
synthesis and
polysaccharides
molecular structure
 relate structures
of of starch, glycogen  ICT tools
polysaccharides and cellulose.  Braille
to their functions  Observing molecular software/Jaws
in living structures of  models
organisms polysaccharides.
 Discussing the link
between the
structure and the
function of each
polysaccharide.

Macromolecule

─ A macromolecule is a giant molecule made from many repeating molecule units.

─ Poly-many, saccharides -carbohydrates.
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 ─ Such molecules are called polymers.
─ The individual units are known as monomers.
─ The units are joined together by condensation reaction which is the removal of water
molecules.
─ The bonds can be broken by hydrolysis. Example of macromolecules are polysaccharides,
proteins and nuclei acids e.g DNA and their constituent monomers are monosaccharides,
amino acids and nucleotide respectively.

Carbohydrates
─ Carbohydrates are substances which contains the elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen)
and hence a general fomular Cx(H2O)y where x and y are variable number .
─ They have the following general properties :
i. They area aldehyde or keto

ii. They all contain several hydroxyl group.

Monosaccharide

─ Monosaccharide are single sugar units.

─ Their general formula is (H2O)n
─ They are classified according to the number of carbon atom i.e triose, tenthose, pentose,
hexose is the most common.
─ Triose e.g glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone are intermediates in respiration.
─ Pentose e.g ribose, deoxyribose and ribulose aid in the synthesis of nucleic acid and
coenzyme.

Aidose and Ketoses

─ In monosaccharaides all carbon atoms have a hydroxyl group attached. The remain carbon
atom is either c-atom.

Open chain and closed chain

─ The rings structure of pentose and hexose are the usual forms with only a small portion of
the molecules in the open chain forms.
─ These ring structure is the form used to make disaccharides and polysaccharides.

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Alpha and Beta isomers

─ Glucose can exist in two different ring forms called the Alpha and Beta forms.
─ The hydroxyl group on the carbon atom 1 projects below the ring (alpha glucose) or above
the ring (BETA GLUCOSE).
─ These two are said to be isomers of each other.
─ Alpha glucose is used to make starch (monomer of starch) and Beta glucose used to make
cellulose.

Disaccharide

─ Are formed when two monosaccharides usually hexose combines by condensation reaction
forming a glyosidic bond.
─ It normally forms between C-atoms 1 & 4 of neighboring (1,4 linkages).
─ Most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose and sucrose.

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WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
Polysaccharides

─ Function as store of food and energy e.g starch and glycogen and as structural material e.g
cellulose.
─ They are convenient storage molecules cause their large size make them more insoluble in
water, hence they do not exert on osmotic pressure on the cell.
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Starch.

(Describe the molecular structure of starch. [6])

─ Is a polymer of alpha glucose.

─ Joined by alpha glyosidic link
─ It is an energy store in plant.
─ It has two components which are amylase and amylopectin.
─ Both are polymers of alpha glucose
─ Amylase have a straight chain and the glucose residues are joined together by 1,4 glycosidic
bond.
─ Amylase forms 20% of starch
─ These bonds cause the chains to coil helically into more compact shape.
─ Amylopectin is also more compact as it has many branches formed by 1,4 and 1,6
glycosidic bonds.
─ Starch molecules can be built up into starch grains / compact shape.
─ Coiled chains (may) contain 1 500 monomers with braches every ten (10) units
─ Forms 80% of Starch
─ As suspension of amylase in water gives a blue black colour with iodine (potassium iodide)
and amylopectin give a red violet colour .

Glycogen

Describe the molecular structure of glycogen and explain how this structure makes it suitable
for storage. [4]
─ Is of animal equivalent of starch and act as a store of energy.
─ It is a polysaccharide made from alpha glucose (residues).
─ Linked together by 1-4 glycosidic bonds
─ Branches (because of) alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds, only need glycosidic once.
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 ─ These ‘many’ ends to easily add or remove glucose;
─ Its compact
─ Insoluble so will not affect water potential
─ In vertebrates, glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles where it work as an energy
reserve.
─ Its conversion back to insulin is controlled by insulin

Structure Function related to structure

Starch It consist branched and The large size of the molecule makes
unbranched chain of amylase starch insoluble and can be used for food
and amylopectin molecules storage in plant.
.these chain comprises large
alpha glucose units that’s are
folded.

Cellulose It consists of Beta GLUCOSE The cross bonds give cellulose its tough
units in a long unbranched and resistance properties to provide
chain linked by many cross structural strength to cell walls
bridges between the chains.

Glycogen It consist of alpha glucose units It is a mean of food storage in animals

in more branched and compact due to its compact shape that is not bulk.
chains.

Cellulose

─ Is a polymer of Beta glucose and has a structural role

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 ─ One of the glucose molecule is rotated 180 for the bond to be formed. This rotation gives
cellulose a different structure to starch.
─ It consists of long chain of glucose residues with about 10 000 residues per chain.
─ The Beta 1, 4 linkages make the chain in contrast to starch where 1,4 linkages cause of chain
to be curve.
─ Hydroxyl project out wards from each chain in all direction and form hydrogen bonds with
neighboring chains .
─ The chain associate in group of appropriate 60-70 to form micro fibrils which are arranged
in larger bundle to form micro fibrils.
─ These have tremendous tensile strength.
─ Several layers of cell wall are found in cell wall.
─ This prevents the cell from bursting when water enters the cell by osmosis and help to
determine the shape of plant cells.
─ The layers are freely permeable to water and food material.

Describe the structure of a cellulose microfibril.

 cellulose molecule is an unbranched {polymer/chain};
 of β-glucose;
 joined by glycosidic bonds;
 microfibril formed from 50 to 80 cellulose molecules;
 reference to hydrogen bonds (between adjacent
 cellulose molecules);
 between adjacent –OH groups;
 large number of hydrogen bonds;
Summary of differences between starch, glycogen and cellulose

Starch Glycogen cellulose

Name of monomer Glucose Glucose Beta glucose

Bonds between I,4 glycosidic 1,4+1,6 glycosidic 1,4 glycosidic

monomers (amylase) 1,4+1,6
(amylopectin)

Characteristics of Coiled unbranched Short branched chains Straight long

chains unbranched chains
+

long branched

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Lipids
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.2.2 Lipids  identify lipids in - emulsion test - Carrying out the  Lipids
different - triglycerides emulsion test.  Alcohol
substances - phospholipids - Illustrating the  ICT tools
 describe the molecular  Braille
molecular
structures of a software/Jaws
structures of a
triglyceride and a triglyceride and a  Models
phospholipid phospholipid.
 relate the - Observing the
Structures of molecular
triglycerides and structures
phospholipids to - Discussing the
their functions in
relationship
living organisms
between structures
and functions.

─ Lipids are classified in general as water insoluble substances extracted from cells by solvent
e.g benzene,chloroform,ether. Lipids are made of glycerol and fatty acids.

Fatty acids

─ Contain the acidic group (-COOH).

─ Have the general formula R-COOH .R is the hydrogen or group such as –CH3-C2H3 etc.
increasing CH3 IN each subsequent member of the series.
─ Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an even number of carbon atom between 14 and
22.

Steric acids

─ The tails are hydrophobic.

─ Fatty acids with one or more double bonds etc. oleic acid are said to be unsaturated while
those lacking double bond are saturated. Unsaturated bonds melt at a lower temperature
than saturated bonds.

Triglyceride

─ Glycerol has 3 hydroxyl all of which can bond with 3 fatty acids to form a triglyceride
─ Condensation reaction takes place resulting in an ester link and is known as esterification.
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Function of triglycerides

─ They are non-polar and no even distribution charge which mean they do not form hydrogen
bonds with water molecules and do not dissolve in water (hydrophobic).
─ They are less dense than water, they float on the top and they act as energy store.
─ Have high energy value than carbohydrates cause of higher proportion of hydrogen as
compared to carbohydrates.
─ Animal excess energy to fats and in vertebrates the fats act as the insulator.
─ When fats are oxidized H2O is a product to desert animals e.g. kangaroo rat.

Explain how the molecular structure of triglycerides is related to their functions. [8]

─ possess hydrophobic tails of fatty acids;

─ which cause the molecule to be insoluble in water;
─ they are not so easily dissolved out of the cell;
─ this functions to provide the properties of the phospholipid bilayer in cell membranes;
─ acts as energy store for the cell;
─ due to their higher proportion of hydrogen compared to carbohydrates;
─ as a result, the breakdown of triglycerides yields ore energy;
─ due to the lower proportion of oxygen to carbon that requires more oxygen for complete
oxidation to occur;
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 ─ triglycerides also float in water due to their lighter density;
─ this enables them to aid in the buoyancy of aquatic animals;

(Describe with examples the roles of lipids in an organism. [6])

─ Used as high energy stores e.g triglycerides (fat or oil)

─ Used in waterproofing coverings e.g. in wax cuticles found in insects and leaves to prevent
water loss while sea birds prune their feathers with oil
─ Form an insulating layer against heat loss
─ Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes
─ Steroids such as cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and nerve fibres.
Steroids form the basis of many hormones
─ Lipids form the basis of scents that attract insects for pollination

Phospholipids

─ These are the containing phosphate, one of the OH (hydroxyl group) of glycerol, combines
with phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the other combine with fatty acids.

Describe the structure of a phospholipid [3marks]

─ Glycerol
─ 2 fatty acids/hydrocarbon(s) (tails /chains)
─ Phosphate

Suggest 2 possible functions of carbohydrate chains attached to the membrane [2 marks]

─ Cell recognition
─ Carbohydrates cement/ stick cells together
─ Receptor sites for chemical signals

Glycolipid

─ Is the association of lipids and carbohydrates.

─ The carbohydrates chain forms at the polar heard of the molecules.
─ Glycolipids are found in membrane.
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 Structure Role in cell

Triglyceride  Possess hydrophobic tails of fatty  Alternative energy for the

acids which cause the molecule cell
to be insoluble in water

Phospholipids  Possessing a hydrophilic  Major component of the cell

phosphoric head and membrane bilayer.
hydrophobic tail of fatty acid.

Glycolipid  Possessing a carbohydrate  Found as one of the

component in the lipid structure component in the cell
membrane bilayer and act
as recognition site .it also
make the cell membrane
more stable.

Explain why triglycerides are insoluble in water. [3]

 Triglycerides are non-polar molecules that are insoluble;

 Due to their incapacity of forming hydrogen bind with water molecules;
 Glycerol and fatty acid are products of their hydrolysis;
 Glycerol is an alcohol that is soluble but fatty acids are insoluble; this is due to their long
hydrogen tails that are non –polar and hydrophilic;

Suggest why triglycerides release more energy on oxidation compared to an equivalent mass of
carbohydrates. [2]

 They have higher proportion of hydrogen compared to carbohydrates;

 There is lower proportion of oxygen to carbon
 That requires more oxygen for complete oxidation to occur

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PROTEINS
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.2.3 Proteins  Identify proteins - Biuret test - Carrying out the  Biuret reagents
in different food - Amino acid Biuret test for  ICT tools
substances - Peptide Bond proteins.  Braille
 describe the - Dipeptides
- Observing the
- Polypeptides software/Jaws
structure of an
amino acid
molecular structure  Print media
of amino acid.  Models
 outline the - Primary,
formation and Secondary, - Demonstrating (buttons/beads
breakage of a Tertiary, peptide bond threads)
peptide bond Quaternary formation and
 explain the structures breakage.
meaning of the - Illustrating
terms primary, - Hydrogen, ionic,
disulphide and structures of
secondary,
hydrophobic proteins.
tertiary and
quaternary interactions - Discussing the
structures of - Hemoglobin various bonds in
proteins - Collagen proteins.
 describe the - Making models of
types of bonds hemoglobin and
which hold the collagen.
protein molecules
- Discussing the
in shape
 describe the relationship
molecular - Lock and key between structure
structures of hypothesis and function.
hemoglobin and - Induced fit  Catalase
- Constructing
hypothesis
collagen models to  Amylase
 relate the demonstrate the  Substrates
structures of - Enzyme catalyzed
reactions mode of action of  Buffers
hemoglobin and
collagen to their enzymes.  Acids and bases
functions in living - Effects of - Measuring the rate  Inhibitors
temperature, pH,
organisms
enzyme
of formation of  Models of
 explain the mode products or rates enzymes
concentration and
of action of of disappearance
substrate
enzymes of substrates.
concentration
 follow the - Carrying out
- Reversible and
progress of an
non- reversible experiments to
enzyme
inhibition show effects of the
catalyzed
Inhibitors such as factors on the rate
reaction
heavy metals
 explain factors (cyanide, mercury),
of reactions.
affecting rate of insecticides - Demonstrating
enzyme effects of inhibitors
catalyzed on enzyme
reactions
catalysed
 explain the effect
of competitive reactions.
and non –
competitive
inhibitors on
enzyme activity

Amino acids

─ These are the basic units from which the proteins are made.
─ Plants are able to make all the amino acids they need in their diet, these are called essential
amino acids they require from these.

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 ─ There is a central carbon atom attached to an acidic carboxyl group, a basic amino group i.e.
NH2 and a hydrogen atom.
─ The 4 position is occupied by the R group. This group give each amino acids have its
uniqueness.
─ Amino acids are amphoteric (are acidic and basic) because they contain an acid and basic
[Link] ions are dipolar and are known as zwitterions.
─ Amino acids maintain the pH cause in acid conditions it absorbs protons while in basic
condition it donates proteins.

Bonds used in protein structure

─ Amino acids combine to form protein and are joined together to form peptides bonds
─ The protein folds into a particular shape as a result of 4 types of bonds. These are
ionic,disulphide, hydrogen and hydrophobic interaction.

Peptide bonds

─ Is formed when condensation reaction occurs between the amino group of one amino acids
and the carboxyl group of another.
─ A polypeptide is formed when amino acids are joined this way.

Qn. State 2 sites in a eukaryotic cell were peptide bonds are formed. [2]

─ cytoplasm and Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Qn. Explain the significance of the R groups of different amino –acids to protein structure. [3]

─ it gives amino acid its uniqueness, by differentiating one amino acid from another.
─ the R groups determine the chemical characteristics of the whole amino acid

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Ionic bonds

─ Acidic R groups are negatively charged and basic R groups are positively charged.
─ They can be attracted to each other, formic ionic bonds.
─ In aqueous environment, this bond is weaker than a covalent bond and can be broken by
changing the pH.
─ As a result pH changing have a destructive effects on protein structure.

Disulphide bonds

─ The amino acid cistern have contain a sulphide group –SH as its R group.
─ If two molecules of cistern lie up alongside each other neighboring sulphidryl groups can be
oxidized and form disulphide bonds
─ Disulphide can be formed between different parts of chain of amino acids e.g. insulin,
causing the molecule to fold into a particular shape.

Hydrogen bonds

─ When hydrogen is part of an OH group /NH group it become slightly positively charged
(electropositive) cause the electron which are shared and which are negatively charged are
attracted more towards the oxygen and nitrogen atoms.
─ The hydrogen may then be attracted towards a neighboring electronegative oxygen /
nitrogen atom.

Hydrophobic interaction

─ If a polypeptide contains non-polar R groups i.e. hydrophobic and is in aqueous

environment, the chain will tend to fold so that hydrophobic groups come into close contact
and exclude water.
─ This how many globular protein folds up.

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Protein

─ Are made from amino acid therefore contain the elements C, H, O and N & in some cases
sulphur.
─ Proteins are macromolecules of high Mr, consisting of amino acids.
─ The potential variety of protein is limited because the sequence of amino acids in each
protein is specific for that protein and is generally controlled by the DNA of the cell on
which it is made.

Structure of protein

─ Each protein contains a characteristic of 3-dimension shape, its conformation.

─ There are four levels of structure which are as follows:

Primary structure

─ It is the number of sequence of amino acids.

─ The sequence of amino acids of a protein detects its biological function.
─ In turn this sequence is controlled by the sequence of bases on DNA.
─ Substitution of a single amino acid can cause major alteration in the protein function, as in
the sickle cell anemia.

Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship between amino acids and
dipeptides. [4]

 diagram of peptide bond drawn;

 condensation / dehydration synthesis: water produced (when two amino acids joined);
 hydrolysis: water needed to break bond;
 dipeptide t amino acids - hydrolysis occurs;
 amino acids t dipeptide - condensation occurs; [4 max]

Secondary structure

─ The most common secondary structure is Alpha helix whose structure is maintained by
hydrogen bonds which are formed between neighboring CO and NH groups.

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 ─ The hydrogen atom of the NH group is bonded to oxygen of carbon dioxide group, 4 amino
acids away.
─ Amino acids would be bonded to 5 &2 to 6 etc.
─ Alpha helix makes one complete turn for every 36 amino acids.

Keratin
─ Is a protein which is alpha helical and is the structural protein of hair protein, nail.
─ Its hardness and stretch ability may vary with the degree of cross linkages of disulphide
bonds between neighboring chains.
─ Another type of secondary structure is B pleated sheet.
─ The proteins that make silk, is fibrin is entirely in this B pleated form.
─ It is made up of a number of adjacent chains which are more extended than the alpha helix.
─ They are arranged in parallel fashion, either running in the same direction, or in opposite
direction they are joined by hydrogen bond, formed between the CO and NH groups, of one
chain and groups are involved in hydrogen bonding to the structure is rigid and very stable.
─ The whole structure is known as the B pleated sheet.
─ In globular protein a single polypeptide chain commonly folds back to itself several times to
form B pleated sheet.
─ Another arrangements is seen in the protein collagen.
─ Three polypeptides chain are found wound around each other.
─ They are like strands of a rope to form a triple helix.
─ There are about 1 000 amino acids in each chain and the complete triple helix structure is
called tropollogen.
─ The 3 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds.
─ Many triple helix can be parallel to each other to form fibrils.
─ They are joined by covalent bonds.
─ Fibrils in turn unite to form fibers.

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 Collagen
─ Collagen is the main protein that form teuckans,ligaments, connective, tissues and skin.

Tertiary structure

─ Usually the polypeptide chain bends and fall extensively, forming a compact globular
structure.
─ This is the tertiary structure and is maintained by ionic, disulphide and hydrogen bonds and
hydrophobic interaction (all the bonds).
─ Myoglobin is formed found in the muscles where its function is to store oxygen.
─ Oxygen combines with heam group contained in myoglobin just like in heamoglobin.

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Quaternary structure

─ Highly complex protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain.

─ The chains are held together by hydrogen bonds ionic bonds hydrophobic interaction.
─ Their precise arrangement is known as quaternary structure.
─ It consists of four separate chains of two types which is Alpha chains and Beta CHAINS.
─ These resembles myoglobin in structure to Alpha CHAINS, EACH CONTAIN 146.
─ A mutation which causes one of the hydrophilic amino acids to be replaced by a
hydrophobic amino acid there by reducing its solubility is responsible for sickle cell anemia.

An enzyme, such as amylase, has a specific 3-dimensional shape.’

Explain how DNA structure determines the specific shape of enzymes.

─ DNA codes for, protein / polypeptide ;

─ transcription and translation (or described) ;
─ enzyme is globular (protein) ;
─ 3 bases 1 amino acid ;
─ sequence of , bases / triplets , determines , sequence of amino acids / primary
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 ─ structure;
─ coiling / helix / pleated sheet / particular secondary structure;
─ determines projecting side groups;
─ folding / bonding, for tertiary structure;
─ 3-D structure is tertiary structure;
─ AVP; e.g. ref. active site related to shape
─ 2 or more genes produce quaternary structure

Denaturation of protein

─ Denaturation the loss of three dimensional shape of a protein molecule.

─ The amino acids sequence of protein remains unaffected (the primary structure remains the
same)
─ If denaturation occurs, the molecules unfolds and can no longer perform its normal
function.

Qn (a) In globular proteins, the polypeptide chain bends and folds to give a more compact shape.
This is the tertiary structure of the protein. Name three types of bond that help to maintain the
tertiary structure.
[3]
(b) Monosaccharide can also be linked together to form long chain molecules
calledPolysaccharides. State two ways, other than the names of the monomers present, in which the
structure of a Polysaccharide chain differs from that of a polypeptide chain.
[2]
(c) The fibrous protein collagen and the polysaccharide cellulose both possess considerable tensile
strength. List two features that contribute to the strength of
(i) Collagen; [2]
(ii) Cellulose. [2]

Key points
Primary structure

 Number + sequence of amino acids

 By peptide bonds, involving condensation reaction;
 Sequence determined by DNA
Secondary Structure
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  Folding/twisting;
 Resulting from hydrogen bonding;
 Produce alpha helix;
 And beta pleated sheet;
 Carboxyl group of each amino acid hydrogen bonded to amide hydrogen of amino acid 4
residues away in chain, eg myosin in muscles
 Protein chains lie side by side held in position by Hydrogen bonds between amide carboxyl
oxygens of one chain and amide hydrogen of adjacent chains;
 Eg silk
Tertiary structure
 Bending and folding of proteins
 To form a specific three-dimensional shape;
 Results from interactions between R side chains of amino acids residues;
 R-group interactions (a) Disulphide bridges between two cysteine residues that are close to
each other in chain/in different chains
(b)ionic bonds between ionized side chain of acidic amino acid
(-COO-) and side chain of basic amino acid (-NH3+)
(c)Hydrogen bonds between a variety of R groups /side chains
especially those that possess the functional group
-OH
-NH2
-CONH2
(d)Hydrophobic reactions: result when non polar groups are attracted to one another of forced
together by their mutual repulsion of aqueous solvent. Interactions of this type common between
nonpolar R groups

Quaternary Structure
 Many functional proteins contain two or more polypeptide chains held together by ionic
interactions, disulphide bridges, hydrogen bonds + Hydrophobic interactions;
 Each of the polypeptide chains has its own primary structure, secondary structure , and
tertiary structure;
 Eg. Haemoglobin made of four chains- 2 alpha chains each with 141 amino acids
-2 Beta chains each with 146 amino acids
 Each of the subunits contains a haem group with iron in its center;

Qn. Monosaccharide can be linked together to form long chain molecules called
polysaccharides. State two ways, other than the names of the monomers present, in which the
structure of a polysaccharide chain differs from that of a polypeptide chain. [2]

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Difference between globular proteins and Fibrous proteins
GLOBULAR PROTEIN FIBROUS PROTEINS

It has polypeptide chains with irregular It has polypeptide chains with regular
sequence of amino acids repetitive sequences of amino acids

Its shape is a compact globule of polypeptides It has long chins running parallel

It is chemically less stable and stable its It is chemically stable and relatively unaffected
activity if affected by factors such as its by temperature, concentration and pH
concentration,pH and temperature

Each molecule of the same type of globular Each molecule of the same type of Fibrous
proteins has a specific sequence proteins may vary in length with slightly
different sequences of amino acids

It is water soluble It is insoluble in water

It is involved in various body systems such as Its roles is mainly in helping to maintain
the digestive system, the endocrine system and structure and providing support.
the immune system

Enzymes
─ Enzymes are protein molecules synthesized by living cells that speed up the rate of chemical
reactions. That is they are biological catalyst, globular proteins.
─ They are used to catalyze a vast number of reactions at temperatures suitable for living
organisms, between 5-40 degrees Celsius.
─ The chemical which an enzyme works on is called a substrate.
─ An enzyme, combined with its substrate to form a short lived enzyme / substrate complex.
─ Once catalysis has occurred, the complex breaks up into product and enzyme.
─ The enzyme remain unchanged at the end of the reaction
─ A number of enzymes can be used in sequence to convert one substrate into one / several
products via a series of intermediate compounds.
─ The chain of such reaction is known as a metabolic cell owing to the specific enzymes.
─ This enzyme serves to control the chemical reaction that occurs within cells.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

Enzymes possess the following properties

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 ─ They are all globular proteins
─ Being proteins, they are coded for by the DNA
─ They are catalyst
─ They are very efficient, they have a high turnover rate .A typical enzyme undergoes 100
reactions.
─ They are highly specific; an enzyme will only catalyze one reaction.
─ Their catalyzed reaction is reversible
─ They are affected by pH, temperature, substrate concentration & enzyme concentration.
─ Enzyme lower Activation energy
─ Enzymes possess Active sites where the reaction take place
o Mechanism of enzymes
─ Activation energy is the amount of energy required for a reaction to occur.
─ Enzymes by function as catalyst serve to reduce the activation energy (E.a) required for a
chemical reaction to occur, thus the overall rate of reaction to greatly increased.

─ Enzymes are very specific. This is because enzymes have a particular shape into which the
substrate fit exactly. This is referred to as the lock and key hypothesis.
─ The substrate is thought to be like a key whose shape is complementary to the lock.
─ The site where substrate bite in the enzyme is called the active site and it is this which has a
specific shape.
─ Active sites are usually a very small position of enzyme between 3 & 12 amino acids long.
These amino acids are brought together to for a particular shape of INDUCED FIT
HYPOTHESIS.
─ The active site, due to the interacting of hydrogen, ionic, disulphide linkages & hydrophobic
interactions or bonds – the tertiary structure of proteins.
─ Sometimes when the substrate do not fit exactly into the active site maybe induced or
moulded into a more precise shape as to fit the substrate for catalysis to occur more
effectively.
─ This is known as the Induced fit hypothesis
─ Enzymes change shape slightly as substrate enters active site making the fit more precise.

Factor affecting the rate of enzyme reaction

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 ─ The rate of an enzyme controlled reaction is measured by the amount of substance changed
(e.g. use of amylase/ amount of product formed(e.g. the use catalase )formed during a
period of time
─ The rate is determined by measuring the shape of the tangent to the curve in the initial
stage of the reaction.

(with reference to a named example, describe one model of enzyme action. [6])

─ Enzyme are very specific

─ They have a particular shape into which the substrate or substrate fit e.g. the enzyme
amylase will only act on starch converting it to maltose
─ Although the enzyme molecule is large, overall, only a small region of it is functional.
─ This is known as the active site.
─ Active site-small hollow depression
─ Substrate –molecule on which enzyme acts e.g starch for the enzyme salvary amylase
─ Substrate fits into depression to form an enzyme- substrate complex
─ Substrate molecule is held within the active site by bonds that form between certain amino
acids and the active site
─ One model, the lock and key model proposes that enzymes work in the same way as a key
operates a lock
─ Substrate only fit the active site of one particular enzyme e.g. starch on amylase only
─ Shape of substrate exactly fits the active site.

(Describe the role of the “active site”. [2])

─ The site were enzyme binds

─ to substrate/to bacterial cell wall
─ by lock and key mechanism/ induced fit theory
─ substrate / bacterial cell wall broken down into subunits/products/ smaller units

(Explain why enzymes are effective in very small quantities. [2])

─ not used up in reaction/ can be used up again and again

─ often work fast/high turn over

(1) Enzyme concentration

─ Assuming that the substrate concentration is maintained at a level, ceteris paribus, the rate
of reaction is proportional to the enzyme concentration increases, the rate also increases

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  At low concentration reaction is slow;
 There are fewer active sites
 At high concentration, reaction is fact, more active sites
 At Vmax reaction rate is constant;
 Active sites are saturated.
 If enzyme concentration is increased,Vmax is not exceeded..

(2) Substrate concentration

─ For a given enzyme concentration, the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction increased with
increasing substrate concentration but there comes a time when any further increase in
substrate concentration does not result in significant increase in the rate of reaction.
─ This is because at high substrate concentration, virtually all the active sites will be saturated
& any extra substrate have to wait until the active sites are free, that means that V-max is
reached.

 At low substrate concentration, reaction is slow;

 At high substrate concentration /Vmax , reaction is constant

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  Further increase in substrate concentration, reaction rate is not affected.

(3) Temperature

─ As temperature increases, the rate of enzyme controlled reaction increases.

─ This is because the E.K of molecules of both the enzyme & the substrate such that they start
to vibrate quickly & their chances of fruitful collision are greatly increased.
─ The temperature beyond the optimum temperature will result in the decrease of the rate of
reaction, as the secondary & tertiary structure of the enzyme is disrupted thus the enzyme
becomes denatured & catalysis declines.
─ Low temperature inactivates enzymes.
─ Catalysis becomes very low or almost ceases.
─ This is basic of refrigeration in preserving food for a long time catalysis gradually resumes
as the temperature gradually increases.
─ The effect of temperature on enzyme activity can also be expressed as the temperature co-
efficient Q10.

Q10 = Rate of reaction (a) (x+10) degrees Celsius divided by the rate of reaction (a) x degrees
Celsius.

─ Over a range of 0 – 40 degrees Celsius, Q10 for an enzyme controlled reaction is 2 e.g. their
rate of an enzyme controlled reaction doubles for every 10 degrees’ Celsius rise.

(4) pH

─ Enzymes are very sensitive to a slight change in pH changes & as such operate in very
narrow pH ranges. The optimum pH is that at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs.

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 ─ When the pH is altered, above or below, this optimum value, the rate of enzyme activity
diminishes significantly.
─ Pepsin has an optimum pH of 2, while Arginine has 9,7 for instance. Changes in pH alter the
ionic charge of acidic & basic group & therefore disrupt the ionic bonds that maintain the
specific shape of the enzyme.
─ Extreme pH denatures the enzyme. The peptide bond can be hydrolyzed.

Explain why changes in pH affect enzyme activity [3]

 Change in H+ concentration
 Change in pH alters charges/ionization on R groups
 These breaks bonds in the enzyme structure of enzyme
 Resulting in change in active site.
 The substrate binding site is affected
 The enzyme can be completely denatures at extreme pH

Enzyme inhibition

J2019/ 2a: describe the effects of inhibitors on the rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions. [8]
─ Molecules/ substance that reduce the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction are referred to
as enzyme inhibitors.
─ Inhibition is a normal part of the regulation of enzyme activity & many drugs & poisons act
as enzyme inhibition to achieve their effects.
─ Inhibition can be divided into competitive & non competitive

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Competitive inhibition

─ This occurs when a compound (inhibitor) have a shape similar to the actual substrate such
that they both competes for the active sites of the enzyme.
─ Normally the molecule / inhibitor does not take part in the reaction, but while it occupies
the active site, it prevents the actual substrate to be catalyzed hence the rate of the reaction
decreases.
─ However, a characteristic feature of competitive inhibitor is that of the substrate is
increased the rate of reaction also increases

Noncompetitive inhibitor- reversible

─ This type of inhibitor has no structural similarity to the substrate & combines with the
enzyme at a point other than the active site.
─ It does not affect the ability of the substrate to bind with the enzyme, but makes it
impossible for catalysis for catalysis to occur.
─ The rate of reaction decreases with inhibitor concentration to almost nil, when inhibitor
saturation is reached.
─ However, increasing substrate concentration does not increase the rate of reaction.
─ When the inhibitor is removed, the enzyme regains its catalytic activity hence reversible

Noncompetitive inhibitor/irreversible

─ Some chemicals can cause irreversible inhibition of enzymes.

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 ─ Some concentration of chemicals reagents e.g. heave metals or certain iodine containing
compounds, complete inhibit enzymes.
─ They may be in active site or elsewhere.
─ Once such reactions have occurred the enzyme loses its catalytic activity effectually /
permanently.
─ The change may cause the enzyme protein to precipitate.

Allosteric enzymes

─ These are enzymes which can change their shape.

─ They are regulated by compound bind to the enzyme at specific site well away from the
active site.
─ While there, they cause the active site to change, there by affecting the ability of the
substrate to bind the enzyme.
─ Compounds of this nature are called allosteric inhibitor.

Enzyme Co- factor

─ Enzymes require non proteins components called co- factors for their effective activity.
─ Co- factors vary from simple inorganic ions to complex organs molecules &may either
remain unchanged at the end of a reaction or be generated by a later process.
─ There are 3 types of co-factors & these are inorganic ions prosthetic group & coenzymes.

Prosthetic group (e.g. Haem, FAD, hydrogen carrier molecules)

─ There are organic molecules that are tightly bound on a permanent basis to the enzyme.
─ They assist in catalytic activity of the enzyme e.g. fluorine adenine dinucleotide (FAD) which
contains fluorine.
─ Its function is to accept hydrogen. Haem is found in the catalase & peroxides which
catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in to water & oxygen.

Inorganic ions (enzyme activators (CL)

─ These are thought to mold either the enzyme or substrate in a shape that easily allows an
enzyme / substrate complex to be formed.
─ Hence, they greatly increase the chance of the reaction occurring, salivary amylase is
activated by chloride ions.

Coenzyme (NAD, NADP, Coenzyme A & ATP)

─ Like prosthetic group, coenzymes are organic molecules which act as co- factors, but they
do not remain attached to the enzyme between reactions.
─ Coenzymes are derived from victims. NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is derived
from vitamins nicotinic & can exist in both reduced & oxidized form.
─ It functions as a hydrogen acceptor.

(Explain the effect of inhibitors on enzyme action. [6])

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 ─ A variety of small molecules exist which can reduce the rate of an enzyme controlled
reaction
─ These are inhibitors
─ Inhibition can be
1. Competitive
2. Non-competitive
─ They can also be classified as reversive and non-reversive (permanent)
─ Reversive inhibitors-can be competitive or non-competitive
─ Competitive- have molecular shape similar to substrate
─ Fit into active site, substrate prevented from occupying it- no of enzyme substrate
molecules reduced-active site directed inhibitors
─ Compete for active site with substrate
─ Non- competitive inhibitors bind to other parts of enzyme
─ Overall shape of the enzyme molecules including the active site
─ Substrate-enzyme complex not formed

Water molecules
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.2.4 Water  describe the - Structure of a - Constructing a  ICT tools

structure and water molecule water molecule  Braille
properties of - Physical and model. software/Jaws
water chemical
properties of water
- Performing  Models
experiments
 explain the roles - Roles of water in
of water in living living organisms illustrating various
organisms and as properties of
an environment water.
- Visiting water
bodies.
- Discussing the
roles of water in
living organisms.

─ Is a vital chemical constituent of living organisms.

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THE STRUCTURE AND PROPETIES OF WATER

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFINCE OF WATER

─ WATER IS IMPOTANT FOR TWO MAIN REASONS :

1) IT IS VITAL FOR CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF LIVING CELLS.
2) It provides environment needed by living organisms that leave in water.
─ The chemical of water are due to its small size, its polarity and hydrogen bonding between
its molecules.
─ Polarity is an even distribution of a charge in a molecule.
─ The electronegative oxygen atom draws electrons from the hydrogen atom making the
oxygen atom more negative, relative to the hydrogen atom.
─ Thus what is dipole (contain both negative and positive poles )
─ Water molecules therefore have weak attraction for each other, with positive charges
coming together and cause them to stick to each other like links in a chain.
─ These bonds are relatively weaker than the ionic and the covalent bond bonds and are
called hydrogen bonds

The solvent properties of water

─ To dissolve chemicals inside the cells/ metabolic reaction + place in aqeous solutions
─ Uptake of mineral salts from soil
─ Excretion of waste products dissolved in water e.g urine
─ Water has high solvent of polar molecules e.g. ionic compounds like NaCL and non ionic
substances like sugar that contain polar group.
─ On contact with water the ions and the polar group are surrounded by water molecules
which separate the molecules from each other.
─ Biochemical reaction takes place in aqueous conditions.
─ Water as a solvent acts as transport medium e.g. in blood, lymphatic system and xylem and
the phloem vessel.

High heat capacity

─ Constant environment for aquatic plants

─ Constant temperature in cell hence no denaturation of enzymes
─ Cooling by evaporation
─ Contains of the cell do not freeze easily
o Water has high heat capacity i.e. (the total amount of water required to raise water
temperature of 1Kg of water by 1 degree.
o A large amount of heat energy results in a small rise in temperature.
o Temperature changes within water or aqueous unitary therefore minimized.
o Biochemical processes consequently operate over a small temperature range and are less
likely to be affected extremities of temperatures.
o Water also provides a very constant external environment for many cell and organisms.

High heat of evaporation

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 ─ Latent of evaporation is the measure of vaporization is a measure of heat energy required to
vaporize a liquid.
─ A large amount of water is required to make water vapour.
─ This is due to hydrogen bonding of water molecules.
─ Therefore, water have usually high boiling point.
─ Evaporating water as a result takes a lot of heat energy with them from the surrounding
thus cooling takes place.
─ This is made use of in the transpiration, sweating and panting of mammals.
─ High heat of evaporation also means that a large amount of heat can be lost with minimal
loss the body, plant etc.

High heat of fusion

─ Latent heat of fusion is the measure of the heat energy required to melt a solid i.e. (ice)
─ Ice requires a relative large amount of heat energy to thaw it.
─ Conversely, liquid must loss a relative large amount of heat to freeze.
─ Content of a cell and their environment are less likely to freeze.

Density and freezing properties

─ Water has highest density at 4 degrees

─ Its density increases as the temperature decreases
─ Ice therefore tends to float.
─ Ice insulates the water below it thus increasing survival chance of organisms below it.
─ Since water below 4 degrees tend to rise, this also tends to maintain circulation in lentx
ecosystem.
─ This may result in nutrient cycling and colonization of water to greater depth.

High surface tension and cohesion

─ Cohesion is the force where individual molecules stick together at the surface, a force
called surface tension between the molecules as they try to occupy the least possible
space (ideally a sphere).
─ Water has a higher surface tension which makes it possible for small organism to skate
over its surface.
─ The high cohesion of water is important in cell and in the translocation of water in the
xylem vessel.
─ Movement of water in the xylem
─ Habitat for less dense aquatic organism

Water as a reagent

─ Water is biological significant as an essential metabolite that is , it takes part in chemical

reaction of metabolism .
─ For example it is used as a source of hydrogen and electron.

Functions of water

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 ─ Turgidity of exoskeletons
─ Preventing friction of joints /lubricant
─ Fertilization of swimming gametes
─ Component of blood
─ Raw material for photosynthesis
─ Part of fluid produced e.g. mucus and tears to clean the body

Some small insects are able to stand on the surface of water.

State the property of water that enable insects to stand on water– high surface tension

Outline the importance of high heat of vaporization of water in living organisms

─ Enable cooling/ energy transferred to water molecules

─ Which allows them to vaporize resulting in loss of heat from the surrounding

Explain why cell contents and their environment are less likely to freeze under extremely cold
temperatures

─ Due to high heat capacity

─ Were high amount of heat is needed to break hydrogen bonds (in water)
─ Which restricts movement of molecules / (boiling)
─ Water must loose large amounts of heat to freeze

Describe the significance of water to living organisms. [8]

 Surface tension-allows some organisms (e.g insects) to move on surface water.

 Polarity/capillarity/Adhesion_- helps plants transport water
 Transparency- allows plants to photosynthesis in water/ allows animals to see
 Solvent- capable of dissolving substances for transport in organisms.
 Thermal properties- (high heat of vaporization)- excellent coolant.
 Ice floats- lakes/ oceans do not freeze, allow life under ice;
 Buoyancy- supports organisms
 Structure- turgor in plants cell/ hydrostatic skeleton
 Habitant- place for aquatic organisms to live
 Involved in chemical reactions

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 FORM 5 TERM 2
TOPIC 3: Cell and Nuclear division
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED LEARNING SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS ACTIVITIES AND NOTES RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE)

8.3.1 The Cell  outline the cell - Interphase  Illustrating the cell  ICT tools
Cycle cycle - Mitosis cycle.  Braille
 describe - Cytokinesis  Outlining DNA software/Jaws
interphase - Growth
- DNA replication replication.  Print media

Life is like riding a bicycle. You can‘t fall off unless you stop pedaling. A bend in the
road is not the ends of the road unless if you fail to make the turn.

Chromosomes
─ A composed of deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] and protein with small amount of chromosomal RNA
DNA has a negative charge distributed along it’s length and positively charged protein molecule
called histones and bond to it .
─ Between division of the nucleus each chromosome contain one DNA molecule .
─ Before the nucleus divides the DNA replicates such that at nuclear division the chromosomes is a
double structure, containing two identical DNA molecules.
─ The two parts of the chromosomes are referred to as chromatids.
─ Each chromatids one of the two identical molecules.
─ Species in which there are two sets of chromosomes are referred to as diploid given symbol 2n
. A few simple organisms have only one set of chromosomes and are referred to as hyploid
symbol n
─ Garments either sex are haploid.

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 ─ There are two types of nuclear division: meiosis and mitosis.
─ Mitosis is a process by which a cell nucleus divides to produce daughter nuclei containing
identical sets of chromosomes of parent cell.
─ Usually it is followed by division of whole cell to form two daughter cells a process known
as cell division.
─ Mitosis with cell division results in increase in cell number and is the method by which
growth replacement and repair of cell occurs in eukaryotes.
─ In unicellular eukaryotes, mitosis results in asexual reproduction.

Meiosis

─ Is the process by which a cell nuclear divide to form four daughter cells containing half
the number of chromosomes of the original cell .
─ It is also called reduction division since it reduces the number of chromosomes in the cell
from the diploid 2n to hypoid n.
─ Meiosis occurs during gametogenesis in animals and during spore formation in plants .

THE CELL CYCLE

PHASE EVENTS WITHIN THE CELL

GROWTH PHASE Intensive cellular synthesis mitochondrion, chloroplast divide. energy store
G1/G2 increases mitotic spindle begins to form.

M Nuclear division occurs in four phases.

C Equal distribution of organelles and cytoplasm into each daughter cells.

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 ─ The sequence of events which occur between one cell division and next is called cell cycle. It
has three main stages.

INTERPHASE MITOSIS CELL DIVISION

This is a period of synthesis The actual process of nuclear This is the process of division
and growth. The cell produces division. of the cytoplasm into the
the material required or its daughter cells.
own growth, DNA replication
also occurs .

PHASE EVENTS IN THE CELL

G1 Intensive cellular synthesis including new organelle cell growth occurs.

S DNA replication occurs. Protein molecules [histones] produced .At this stage the
cell is 4n.

Describe how you would prepare a root tip squash so that mitosis can be studied:

─ Ref- to a named stain (acetic orcein/schyffs)

─ Warm /heat with stain
─ Break open tip with needle;
─ Mount in stain/ acid or water
WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
 ─ Gently squash under coverslip;
─ Warm gently to intensify strain.

MITOSIS
8.3.2 Mitosis  describe the - Prophase  Observing behavior  Onion root tips
behaviour of - Metaphase of chromosomes in  Microscope
chromosomes, - Anaphase a root tip squash  Stains
nuclear envelope, - Telophase
 Drawing of  Prepared slides
cell membrane,
centrioles and diagrams showing  ICT tools
spindles during phases of mitosis.  Braille
mitosis - Cytokinesis  Discussing software/Jaws
 distinguish - Growth cytokinesis in  Print media
between - Repair plant and
cytokinesis in - Asexual
animal cells.
plants and animals reproduction
 Discussing the
 explain the - Production of
importance of genetically importance of
mitosis identical cells mitosis.
 identify factors that - Carcinogens  Discussing factors
increase chances - Mutations associated with
of cancerous - Radiation
cancerous growth.
growth - Uncontrolled cell
division  Watching video
 outline the stages
involved in the clips.
development of  Analysing video
cancer clips.

─ Has 5 stages / phases

1. INTERPHASE
─ Variable according to the function of the cell. .
─ DNA replicates
─ Each chromosome exits as a pair of chromatids joined at the centromere.
─ The cell now has 4n.
─ Chromosomes now visible as loosely coiled threads called chromatin.
─ Centrioles replicate

2. PROPHASE
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 ─ Formation of spindle.
─ It is the longest phase.
─ Chromosomes shorten and thicken by coiling.
─ Chromosomes now available as a double structure.
─ In animal cells centrioles move to opposite poles.
─ A star from short microtubules radiating from centrioles.
─ The spindle is formed.
─ Chromatids form chromosomes.
─ Nuclear envelope disappear.

3. METAPHASE
 Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle attached by the centromeres to the
spindle.
 Chromosomes move to metaphase plate.

4. ANAPHASE

 A very rapid stage.

 The centromers split into two and the spindle pull the daughter chromosomes to opposite
poles.
 The separated are pulled behind the centromeres.
 The shortening of the spindle fiber by the removal of the subunits account to moving of
chromatids during anaphase.

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 5. TELOPHASE
 The chromatids reach the opposite poles.
 They uncoil and lengthen to from chromatin again.
 The spindle fiber disintegrate and centrioles replicate.
 Nuclear envelope reforms.

CYTOKINESISE

─ Is the actual division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.

─ The cell become evenly distributed towards the two poles.
─ In animal cells the cell surface membrane invigilates around the equator forming a farrow
which eventually meet up and completely separate the cells.
─ In plant cells, spindle fibre remain around the equatorial plane and increase in number to
form a barrel shaped region called the phagmoplast. Cell organelles line at the equator
─ Forming a cell plate. The cell plate spreads across the equator meeting the cell wall, there by
separating the two daughter cells.
─ The new cell wall is called a primary cell wall, it later develops to a secondary cell wall by
the deposition of cellulose andlignin.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
SPECIMEN PAPER: Explain the importance of Mitosis in living organisms. [6]

1. GENETIC STABILITY
 Mitosis produces two cells with the same chromosomal number as the mother cell .No
variation is introduced during mitosis.

2. GROWTH
 The number of cells in organism increase with mitosis .This is the basic of growth in a
multicellular organism.

3. CELL REPLACEMENT

 Replacement of cell tissue involve mitosis.

HINT** EX 9190/2 N2008 QN 3

4. REGENARATION
 Some animals are also regenerated some parts of their body by mitosis.

5. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
─ Mitosis is the basic of asexual reproduction of new individuals of a spice by one parent
organism.

Difference between cell division in plants and animals

PLANT ANIMAL

Centrioles Absent Present

Asters Absent Asters form

Cell division Involves formation of cell Involves furrowing and

plate cleavage of cytoplasm

Site of occurrence Occurs mainly in meristems Occurs in tissues

throughout body

Describe how you would prepare a root tip squash so that mitosis could be studied. [4]

 Reference to named stain (acetic orcein / acetocarmine / Feulgens / Schiffs) ;

 {Warm / heat} (with the stain / acid) ;
 Break open tip (with needle / eq) ;
 {Mount / eq} in {stain / acid / water / glycerol} ;
 (Gently) squash under coverslip / eq ;
 Warm (gently to intensify stain) ; 4 marks

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MEOSIS [REPRODUCTION DIVISION]
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED LEARNING SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND NOTES RESOURCES
able to: KNOWLEDGE)

8.3.3Meiosis  explain the - Haploid  Illustrating haploid cells,  ICT tools

meanings of - Diploid diploid cells and  Braille
the terms - Homologous homologous software/Jaws
haploid, diploid - Chromosomes
- Interphase
chromosomes.  Print media
and
homologous - Meiosis I  Observing behavior of
chromosomes - Meiosis II chromosomes during
 Describe the - Cytokinesis pollen grain formation
behavior of
chromosomes,  Drawing of diagrams
nuclear showing phases of  Microscope
envelope, cell - Gamete formation
- Genetic variation meiosis.  Prepared slides
membrane,
centrioles and  Flowers
spindles during  Discussing the
meiosis importance of meosis.
 discuss the - Similarities and
importance of differences between  Discussing the
meiosis mitosis and meiosis
similarities and
 compare and differences.
contrast mitosis
and meiosis

─ Like mitosis involves DNA replication during interphase in the parent cell but this is
followed by two cycles of nuclear division which are meiosis one and mitosis two.
─ Meiosis occurs during gametogenesis and spore formation in plants.

Meiosis I

PROPHASE 1

─ Longest phase.
─ Crossing over may occurs.
─ Chromosomes shorten and become visible as a single structure.
─ Homologous pair up in a process called synapses.
─ Each pair is called a bivalent.
─ One of the homologues pair comes from the father paternal and the other from the mother
maternal.
─ The bivalents shorten and thicken by coiling.
─ The homologous chromosomes partially separate some for a fill points along the length
.These points are called chiasmata.
─ Genes from one chromosome may swap with genes from the other chromosome leading to
new gene combinations in the resulting chromatids.

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METAPHASE 1

 The bivalents become arranged around the equator attached to their centromers .

ANAPHASE 1

─ Spindle fibres pull homologues chromosomes apart centromeres face opposite poles of the
spindle.
─ This separates the chromosomes into two haploid one set at each of the opposite spindle.

TELOPHASE 1
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 ─ Chromatides usually uncoil and nuclear envelope reforms.
─ Cytokinesis now occurs as in mitosis.
─ In many plants there is no telophase I.
─ Cell formation and interphase II and then the cell passes from anaphase II to prophase II.
─ Reduction of chromosomes has occurred but sister chromatids are genetically different.

INTREPHASE II

─ Present only in animal cells and varies in length.

─ No synthesis occurs and no further and replication occurs.
─ The second meiotic division is similar to mitosis.

PROPHASE II

─ Only present if interphase two is present.

─ The nucleoli and the nuclear envelope disappears, the chromatids, shorten and thicken.
─ Centrioles if present move to opposite poles and the spindle axis of the first meiotic
division.

METAPHASE II

─ Chromosomes arrange theme self at the centre of the equator and centromers appear as
double structure. The orientation or assortment of chromosomes is at the equator is
random.
─ Independent assortment occurs at metaphase II .

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ANAPHASE II

─ The centromers divide and the spindle pulls to opposite poles and to double centromeres
─ The separated chromatids now called chromosomes are pulled along the centromeres.

TELOPHASE II

─ The stage is similar to that found at mitosis. The chromosomes uncoil, lengthen and become
very indistinct. The spindle fiber disappears and the centrioles replicate.
─ Nuclear envelope reforms around the nucleus. Cell wall forms in plants and four daughter
cells are produced.

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SIGNIFICANTS OF MEIOSIS
1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
─ All organisms reproduce sexually use [Link] production involves meiosis.
─ The number 2n is restored during fertilization.

2. GENETIC VARIATION
─ Meiosis provides a platform for new gene combinations of genes. This results in genetic
variation in offspring when garments fuse.

a) Independent assortment

─ During the first division of meiosis, the pairs of homologous chromosomes line up on the
equator before being pulled to opposite ends of the cell.
─ Each pair behaves independently from every other pair, so there are many different
combinations that can end up together.
─ In a human there are 23 pairs, so there is a huge number of different possibilities.

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 b) CROSSING OVER

─ Each chromosome in a homologous pair carries genes for characteristics at the same locus.
─ The alleles of the genes on the two chromosomes may be the same or different.
─ During prophase of meiosis I, as the two homologous chromosomes lie side by side, their
chromatids form links called chiasmata (singular: chiasma) with each other.
─ When they move apart, a piece of chromatid from one chromosome may swap places with a
piece from the other chromosome. This is called crossing over.

Explain how independent assortment leads to genetic variation.

 ref. to random aligning of chromosomes/eq;

 idea of new combinations of {(parental) chromosomes /alleles};

Describe how crossing over further increases genetic variation.

 breaking and rejoining of {chromatids / DNA /eq};

 on same chromosome pair;
 recombines {genes / alleles} / produces recombinants/eq;

(Outline the difference between mitosis and meiosis. [8])

STAGE MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Homologues chromosomes Homologues chromosomes

remain separated Pair up in a process called

PROPHASE synapsis.

Crossing over does not occurs crossing over occurs

No Formation of chiasmata Formation of chiasmata

Pairs of chormatids line up on Pairs of chromosomes line up

METAPHASE
spindle equator on spindle equator

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 Centriomeres divide Centromeres don’t divide

Chromatids separate Chromosomes separate

ANAPHASE
Chromatids identical Chromatids may not be
identical

Cell contain the same number Cells contain half the number
of chromosomes as the mother of the chromosomes .
cell

May occur in haploid and Only occurs in diploid cells

TELOPHASE diploid or polyploidy cells

2 daughter cells identical 4 daughter cells

Genetically identical to Genetically different from

parents parents

Similarities between the prophase stage of mitosis and prophase I

─ Chromosomes shorten and thicken;

─ Spindle fibres form;
─ Nucleoli disappears.

NATURALSELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.10.1 Natural  explain, with - Natural Selection  Discussing how  Print media
selection examples, how - Mutations mutations and  ICT tools
mutations and - Natural selection environment may  Braille
environment may - Environmental affect phenotype. software/Jaws
affect phenotype factors  Discussing with
 explain, with examples how
examples, how environmental
environmental factors act as forces
factors act as of natural selection.
forces of natural  Researching and
selection presenting on how
 explain how natural selection
- Evolution
natural selection may bring about
may bring about evolution.
evolution

WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH

 KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.10.2 Artificial  describe one - Artificial selection  Outlining the  ICT tools
selection example of examples of  Print media
artificial selection artificial selection  Braille
software/Jaws

"Until one is committed, there is hesitancy, the chance to draw back, always ineffectiveness.
Concerning all acts of initiative (and creation) there is one elementary truth, the ignorance of
which kills countless ideas and splendid plans: that the moment one definitely commits oneself,
and then Providence moves too. All sorts of things occur to help one that would never otherwise
have occurred. A whole stream of events issues from the decision, raising in one's favour all
manner of unforeseen incidents and meetings and material assistance, which no man could
have dreamed would have come his way. Whatever you can do, or dream you can, begin it.
Boldness has genius, power, and magic in it. "

Explain the role of natural selection

─ In an ecosystem individual within a particular population (of an organism) have a great

reproduction potential.

─ The population members of the individuals remain roughly constant in that community. This

occurs while other individuals may fail to survive or may fail to reproduce.

─ What determine whether an individual survives and is able to reproduce are the environmental

factors.

─ The environment factors tend to support the survival of other members compared to others.

─ This is referred to as natural selection.

─ Members that survive and reproduce are said to be selected for, while those that do not survive

or die or later fail to reproduce are said to be selected against.

─ What determine the selection is the variations that different individuals possess.

─ some variations in characteristics make other members best adapted to survive and these ones

tend to reproduce, passing their alleles make it different for the members to survive thus they

are selected against.

─ It is this genetic variation which leads to a change in the phenotype thus overtime some alleles

can be completely lost from the genetic pool.

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 ─ Overtime this produces an evolutionary change as new species which are well adapted tend to

rise.

─ A good illustration or a good example is a British moth during the industrialisation era. Where

lightly coloured moth (white) where selected against because of the environment that had

turned darker as a result of soot from industries.

─ Predators such as birds could easily identify the moth reducing its survival chances while the

dark coloured moth was selected for as they were difficult to identify.

─ these members tended to survive and reproduce passing on their alleles of dark colour

Outline how artificial selection differs from natural selection. [6]

artificial selection natural selection

selection (pressure by) humans or environmental selection pressure ;
genetic diversity lowered or genetic diversity remains high ;
inbreeding common or outbreeding common ;
loss of vigour / inbreeding
depression
or increased vigour / less chance of
inbreeding depression ;
increased homozygosity / decreased
heterozygosity
or decreased homozygosity / increased
heterozygosity ;
no isolation mechanisms operating or isolation mechanisms do operate ;
(usually) faster or (usually) slower ;
selected feature for human benefit or selected feature for organism’s benefit ;
not for, survival / evolution or promotes, survival / evolution ;

1. Describe the role of natural selection in evolution. [8]

 individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;

 numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
 many fail to survive / die ;
 do not reproduce ;
 due to environmental factors / named factor ;
 variation in members of population ;
 those best adapted survive ;
 reproduce / pass on alleles ; R genes
 genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
 ref: changes in gene pool ;
 over time produces evolutionary change ;
 new species arise from existing ones

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 2. Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution. [8]
Speci
men  individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW;
 numbers in population remain roughly constant;
 variation in members of population ;
 environmental factors / named factor (biotic or abiotic) ; linked to 17 and 18
 (cause) many, fail to survive / die / do not reproduce;
 those best adapted survive / survival of the fittest;
 (reproduce to) pass on alleles; R genes
 genetic variation leads to change in phenotype;
 ref: changes in, gene pool / allele frequency;
 over time produces evolutionary change;
 new species arise from existing ones / speciation;
 directional / stabilising, selection; [8 max]

3(a) Describe why variation is important in natural selection. [6]

 ref. continuous / discontinuous variation;

 genetic / inherited variation;
 variation in phenotype / characteristics / AW;
 (can be due to) interaction of genotype and environment;
 e.g. of characteristic that influences survival;
 ref. intraspecific competition / struggle for existence;
 those with favourable characteristics survive / AW;
 pass on favourable characteristics to offspring;
 those with disadvantageous characteristics die ; 6 max
(b) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [9]

 ref. to definition of species; Speci

 ref. allopatric; men
 geographical isolation;
 ref. to examples e.g. islands / lakes / mountain chains / idea of barrier ;
 ref. to example organism ;
 ref. to populations prevented from interbreeding ;
 isolated populations subjected to different selection pressures / conditions ;
 over time sufficient differences to prevent interbreeding ;
 ref. sympatric ;
 ref. to reproductive isolation ;
 ref. behavioural barriers (within a population) ;
 e.g. day active / night active ;
 correct ref. to gene pool ;
 change in allele frequencies ; 9 max
(c) Explain, using named examples, how mutation can affect phenotype. [7]

 gene) example ; (sickle cell / PKU )

 change in gene / DNA / base change ;
 different amino acid ;
 different polypeptide / different protein / non-functional protein ;
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  AVP ; details
 AVP ; details
 (chromosome) example ; (Down’s, Turner’s syndromes)
 structural changes in chromosomes ;
 change in number of chromosomes ;
 change in sets of chromosomes / ref. polyploidy ;
 AVP ; details
 AVP ; details
(b) Explain, using examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of an organism

[8]

 phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment /

VP = VG+ VE ;
 environment may limit expression of gene(s) / AW ;
 e.g. for size / mass / height ;
 because, food / nutrients / ion, missing / malnutrition ;
 named, nutrient / ion / mineral, missing ;
 environment may, trigger / switch on, gene ;
 ref. low temperature and change in animal colour ;
 ref. high temperature and, curled wing in Drosophila / gender in crocodiles ;
 ref. UV light and melanin production ;
 ref. wavelength of light and, flowering / germination / fruit colour ;
 other named trigger plus example ;
 environment effect usually greater on polygenes / ora ;
 environment may induce mutation affecting phenotype ;

(a) Explain how meiosis and fertilization can result in genetic variation amongst offspring.
[7]
 chiasma / crossing over ;
 between non-sister chromatids ;
 of, homologous chromosomes / bivalent ;
 in prophase 1 ; linked to 1
 exchange of genetic material / AW ; Rgenes unqualified
 linkage groups broken ;
 new combination of alleles ;
 independent assortment ; Rrandom assortment
 metaphase 1 ; linked to 8
 detail of independent assortment ;
 possible mutation ;
 random mating ;
 random fusion of gametes ;
(a) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [8]
 allopatric speciation ;
 geographical isolation / spatial separation ;
 e.g. of barrier ;
 e.g. of organism ; must relate to 3
 sympatric speciation ;
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  example ;
 meiosis problems ;
 polyploidy ;
 behavioural / temporal / ecological / structural, isolation;
 (isolated) populations, prevented from interbreeding / can only breed
 amongst themselves;
 no, gene flow / gene mixing, (between populations);
 different selection pressures operate;
 natural selection;
 change in allele frequencies;
 different gene pool;
 over time (differences prevent interbreeding);
 reproductively isolated;
(b) Describe and explain, using an example, the process of artificial selection. [7]

 humans; must be linked to, choosing / selecting / mating etc

 parents with desirable feature ;
 e.g. organism and feature;
 bred / crossed;
 select offspring with desirable feature;
 repeat over many generations;
 increase in frequency of desired allele(s) / decrease in frequency of
 undesired allele(s);
 background genes;
 loss of hybrid vigour / increase in homozygosity / ref. inbreeding depression;
AVP; e.g. detail of breeding techniques [7 max]

Explain the benefits of maintaining biodiversity. [4]

 cultural / aesthetic / leisure, reasons;

 moral / ethical, reasons; e.g. right to exist / prevent extinction
 resource material; e.g. wood for building / fibres for clothes / food for
 humans
 ecotourism;
 economic benefits;
 ref. resource / species, may have use in future / AW; e.g. medical use
 maintains, food webs / food chains; A description
 nutrient cycling / protection against erosion;
 climate stability;
 maintains, large gene pool / genetic variation;

Discuss the validity of the following statement:” Artificial selection of crop plants and farm
animals has tended to reduce variety within their populations.’’

─ Artificial selection is application of selection pressure to populations by humans;

─ Alleles conferring characteristics not desired decrease frequency/ or may be lost entirely;
─ Increases homozygosity in both plants and animals;
─ By leaving only alleles conferring desired characteristics;
─ Results in reduction in gene pool/ weaker gene pool;
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 ─ Thereby reducing variety in population;
─ Ref- examples e.g maize population/ pigs/ milk production.

CANCER
─ Are a group of diseases that are caused by uncontrolled cell division which involve mitosis.
─ The problem is caused by mutations /abnormal activation of genes which control cell
division. Such abnormal genes are called oncogenes.
─ An abnormal cell divides by mitosis to form an irregular mass of undifferentiated cells
called tumor.
─ Tumor cell can break away and spread to all parts of the body especially in blood stream or
lymphatic system causing secondary tumor called metastasis .
─ The process is known as metastasis.
─ Tumors that spread and eventually cause ill health and death are described as malignant
.The rest of tumors that do not spread such as the warts are described as benign .

CAUSES OF CANCER

J2019: Explain factors associated with cancerous growth in animals. [6]

─ Change in the genetic constitution of a cell / organism are called mutations. And any factor
that brings about a mutation is called a mutagen.
─ An agent that causes cancer is referred to as carcinogens are not always mutagens.

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 ─ Development of malignant cancer cell involves several steps and is usually caused by more
than one factor operating over a considerate period of time.

1. Retroviruses
─ Retroviruses are RNA viruses which when they invade animal cells, use the enzyme
reverse transcriptase to make DNA copies of the viral RNA.
─ The DNA contain a gene which alters host cell division genes, switching them on and
causing the cell

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Describe the first division of meiosis (meiosis I) in animal cells. [6]

─ reduction division / (to) halve number of chromosomes / diploid to haploid / AW ;

─ homologous chromosomes pair up / bivalents form ;
─ ref. chiasmata / ref. crossing over ;
─ homologous chromosome pairs / bivalents, line up on equator ;
─ independent assortment ;
─ spindle / microtubules, attached to centromeres ;
─ chromosomes of each pair pulled to opposite poles ;
─ by shortening of, spindle / microtubules ;
─ nuclear envelopes re-form ;
─ cytokinesis / AW ;

(Describe how crossing over and independent assortment can lead to genetic variation.[9])
─ occur during meiosis I ;
─ crossing over
─ between non-sister chromatids ;
─ of, (a pair of) homologous chromosomes / a bivalent ;
─ in prophase 1 ;
─ at chiasma(ta) ;
─ exchange of genetic material / AW ;R genes unqualified
─ linkage groups broken / AW ;
─ new combination of alleles (within each chromosome) ;
─ independent assortment
─ of homologous chromosomes pairs / bivalents ;
─ each pair lines up independently of others ;
─ line up on equator ;

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 ─ (during) metaphase 1 ;
─ results in gametes that are genetically unique / AW ;

Describe how genetic variation in secondary oocytes arises.

─ During / prophase 1;
─ Crossing over/ chiasmata formation occurs
─ Leads to new combination of alleles;
─ During metaphase 1;
─ Homologous chromosomes position themselves either way up/ down on equator of spindles/ AW
─ Independent assortment
─ Segregation occurs;

TOPIC4: GENE CONTROL

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.4.1 Nucleic  describe the structure - Nucleoside  Illustrating the  Models

Acids of a nucleotide - Nucleotide structure of a  ICT tools
 describe formation of nucleotide.  Braille
a dinucleotide - Dinucleotide
 Demonstrating the software/Jaws
 distinguish between - Phosphodiester
bonds formation of a
Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) and phosphodiester
Deoxyribonucleic - RNA nucleotides bond.
acid (DNA) - DNA nucleotides  Discussing the
nucleotides differences.
between RNA and
DNA nucleotides.
8.4.2  describe the - DNA structure  Constructing  ICT tools
Structur structure of DNA - semi - models of DNA.  Braille
e and replication  explain how DNA conservative  Making DNA software/Jaws
replicates replication of DNA
of DNA
- Messelson and
models illustrating  Print media
Stahl experiment replication.  Models (zips,
beads, soft
wires)

8.4.3 Protein  outline the process - Transcription  Viewing  ICT tools

synthesis of protein synthesis - Translation simulations and  Braille
including role of videos of protein software/Jaws
messenger RNA,
synthesis.
transfer RNA and
ribosomes

In life as in football, you won‘t go far unless you know where the goalposts are.
Have a vision in life. The vision must be followed by venture. It is not enough to
stair up the steps but you must step up the stairs.
Nucleotides

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Nucleotides have three parts to them:

• a phosphate group(PO24- ), which is negatively

charged, and gives nucleic acids their acidic
properties.

• a pentose sugar, which has 5 carbon atoms in it. By

convention the carbon atoms are numbered as
shown (1', 2', etc, read as "one prime", "two prime",
etc), to distinguish them from the carbon atoms in the base. If carbon 2' has a hydroxyl group
attached (as shown), then the sugar is ribose, found in RNA. If the carbon 2' just has a hydrogen
atom attached instead, then the sugar is deoxyribose, found in DNA.
• a nitrogenous base. There are five different bases (and you don't need to know their structures),
but they all contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Since there are five bases,
there are five different nucleotides:

Base: Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

Nucleotide: Adenosine Cytidine Guanosine Thymidine Uridine

The bases are usually known by there first letters only, so you don't need to learn the full names.
The base thymine is found in DNA only and the base uracil is found in RNA only, so there are only
four different bases present at a time in one nucleic acid molecule.

he nucleotide above is shown with a single phosphate group, but in fact nucleotides can have one,
two or three phosphate groups. So for instance you can have adenosine monophosphate (AMP),
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). These nucleotides are very
common in cells and have many roles other than just part of DNA. ATP is used as an energy store (see
module 3), while AMP and GTP are used as messenger chemicals (see module 4).

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This shows a nucleotide - - triphosphate molecule. -O
O O O
P O P O P O CH2
5’

O O O O
C C1’ N
4’

C 3’ C 2’

OH OH

Nucleotide Polymerisation
Nucleotides polymerise by forming phosphodiester bonds between carbon 3' of the
sugar and an oxygen atom of the phosphate. This is a condensation polymerisation reaction.
The bases do not take part in the polymerisation, so there is a sugar-
phosphate backbone with the bases extending off it. This means that the nucleotides can join
together in any order along the chain. Two nucleotides form a dinucleotide, three form a
trinucleotide, a few form an oligonucleotide, and many form a polynucleotide.

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A polynucleotide has a free phosphate group at one end, called the 5' end because the phosphate
is attached to carbon 5' of the sugar, and a free OH group at the other end, called the 3' end
because it's on carbon 3' of the sugar. The terms 3' and 5' are often used to denote the different
ends of a DNA molecule.

Structure of DNA
The three-dimensional structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Watson and Crick in Cambridge,
using experimental data of Wilkins and Franklin in London, for which work they won a Nobel prize.
The main features of the structure are:
• DNA is double-stranded, so there are two polynucleotide stands alongside each other. The strands
are antiparallel, i.e. they run in opposite directions.
• The two strands are wound round each other to form a double helix (not a spiral, despite what
some textbooks say).
• The two strands are joined together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. The bases therefore
form base pairs, which are like rungs of a ladder.
• The base pairs are specific. A only binds to T (and T with A), and C only binds to G (and G with C).
These are called complementary base pairs (or sometimes Watson-Crick base pairs). This means
that whatever the sequence of bases along one strand, the sequence of bases on the other stand
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 must be complementary to it. (Incidentally, complementary, which means matching, is different
from complimentary, which means being nice.)

Function of DNA
DNA is the genetic material, and genes are made of DNA. DNA therefore has two essential functions:
replication and expression.

• Replication means that the DNA, with all its genes, must be copied every time a cell divides.
• Expression means that the genes on DNA must control characteristics. A gene was traditionally
defined as a factor that controls a particular characteristic (such as flower colour), but a much
more precise definition is that a gene is a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein.
Characteristics are controlled by genes through the proteins they code for, like this:

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 Expression can be split into two parts: transcription (making RNA) and translation (making
proteins).
These two functions are summarised in this diagram (called the central dogma of genetics).

RNA
RNA is a nucleic acid like DNA, but with 4 differences:
• RNA has the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose
• RNA has the base uracil instead of thymine
• RNA is usually single stranded, but can fold into 3-dimentional structures, like proteins.
• RNA is usually shorter than DNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

mRNA carries the "message" that codes for a particular protein from the nucleus (where the DNA
master copy is) to the cytoplasm (where proteins are synthesised). It is single stranded and just long
enough to contain one gene only. It has a short lifetime and is degraded soon after it is used.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

rRNA, together with proteins, form ribosomes, which are the site of mRNA translation and protein
synthesis. Ribosomes have two subunits, small and large, and are assembled in the nucleolus of the
nucleus and exported into the cytoplasm. rRNA is coded for by
numerous genes in many different chromosomes. Ribosomes free in the
cytoplasm make proteins for use in the cell, while those attached to the
RER make proteins for export.

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Transfer RNA (tRNA)
tRNA is an “adapter” that matches amino acids to their codon. tRNA is
only about 80 nucleotides long, and it folds up by complementary base
pairing to form a looped clover-leaf structure. At one end of the molecule
there is always the base sequence ACC, where the amino acid binds. On
the middle loop there is a triplet nucleotide sequence called the
anticodon. There are 64 different tRNA molecules, each with a different
anticodon sequence complementary to the 64 different codons. The
amino acids are attached to their tRNA molecule by specific aminoacyl
tRNA synthase enzymes. These are highly specific, so that each amino
acid is attached to a tRNA adapter with the appropriate anticodon.

The Genetic Code

The sequence of bases on DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in proteins. But there are 20
different amino acids and only 4 different bases, so the bases are read in groups of three. This gives
43 or 64 combinations, more than enough to code for 20 amino acids. A group of three bases coding
for an amino acid is called a codon, and the meaning of each of the 64 codons is called the genetic
code.
There are several interesting points / features from this code:
• The code is degenerate, i.e. there is often more than one codon for an amino acid.
• It is universal. The DNA bases triplet cords for the same amino acid in all living organisms.
Therefore, its universal.
• The genetic cord is none overlapping because its DNA bases contribute to the cord for one amino
acid. i.e no base for a given amino acid contributes to the part of the cord of the adjunct triplet.
• A group of three bases coding for an amino acid is called a codon
Qn. Features of the genetic code. [4]

Replication - DNA Synthesis

DNA is copied, or replicated, before every cell division, so that one identical copy can go to each
daughter cell. The method of DNA replication is obvious from its structure: the double helix unzips
and two new strands are built up by complementary base-pairing onto the two old strands.

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1. Replication starts at a specific sequence on the DNA molecule called the replication origin.
2. The enzyme helicase unwinds and unzips DNA, breaking the hydrogen bonds that join the base
pairs, and forming two separate strands.
3. The new DNA is built up from the four nucleotides (A, C, G and T) that are abundant in the
nucleoplasm.
4. These nucleotides attach themselves to the bases on the old strands by complementary base
pairing. Where there is a T base, only an A nucleotide will bind, and so on.
5. The enzyme DNA polymerase joins the new nucleotides to each other by strong covalent
phosphodiester bonds, forming the sugar-phosphate backbone. This enzyme is enormously
complex and contains 18 subunits.
6. A winding enzyme winds the new strands up to form double helices.
7. The two new molecules are identical to the old molecule.
DNA replication can takes a few hours, and in fact this limits the speed of cell division. One reason
bacteria can reproduce so fast is that they have a relatively small amount of DNA. In eukaryotes
replication is speeded up by taking place at thousands of sites along the DNA simultaneously.

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The Meselson-Stahl Experiment
This replication mechanism is sometimes called semi-conservative replication, because each new
DNA molecule contains one new strand and one old strand. This need not be the case, and alternative
theories suggested that a "photocopy" of the original DNA could be made, leaving the original DNA
conserved (conservative replication), or the old DNA molecule could be dispersed randomly in the
two copies (dispersive replication). The evidence for the semi-conservative method came from an
elegant experiment performed in 1958 by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl. They used the
bacterium E. coli together with the technique of density gradient centrifugation, which separates
molecules on the basis of their density.

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Transcription - RNA Synthesis
DNA never leaves the nucleus, but proteins are synthesised in the cytoplasm, so a copy of each
gene is made to carry the “message” from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. This copy is mRNA, and
the process of copying is called transcription.

1. The start of each gene on DNA is marked by a special sequence of bases called the promoter.
2. The RNA molecule is built up from the four ribose nucleotides (A, C, G and U) in the
nucleoplasm. The nucleotides attach themselves to the bases on the DNA by complementary
base pairing, just as in DNA replication. However, only one strand of RNA is made. The DNA
stand that is copied is called the template or sense strand because it contains the sequence of
bases that codes for a protein. The other strand is just a complimentary copy, and is called the
non-template or antisense strand.
3. The new nucleotides are joined to each other by strong covalent phosphodiester bonds by the
enzyme RNA polymerase.

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4. Only about 8 base pairs remain attached at a time, since the mRNA molecule peels off from
the DNA as it is made. A winding enzyme rewinds the DNA.
5. The initial mRNA, or primary transcript, contains many regions that are not needed as part of
the protein code. These are called introns (for interruption sequences), while the parts that are
needed are called exons (for expressed sequences). All eukaryotic genes have introns, and they
are usually longer than the exons.
6. The introns are cut out and the exons are spliced together by enzymes. Some of this splicing
is done by the RNA intron itself, acting as an RNA enzyme. The recent discovery of these
RNA enzymes, or ribozymes, illustrates what a diverse and important molecule RNA is. Other
splicing is performed by RNA/protein complexes called snurps.
7. The result is a shorter mature RNA containing only exons. The introns are broken down.
8. The mRNA diffuses out of the nucleus through a nuclear pore into the cytoplasm.

Explain the process of translation. [8]

 messenger / mRNA attaches to ribosome (small unit);

 many ribosome/polyribosomes bind to same mRNA;
 carries codons / triplet of bases each coding for one amino acid;
 transfer / tRNA each have specific anticodon;
 triplet of bases for specific amino acid;
 tRNA carries specific amino acid;
 tRNA binds to ribosomes;
 to corresponding triplet base / codon;
 a second tRNA binds to next codon;
 two amino acids bind together;
 in a peptide linkage;
 first tRNA detaches;
 ribosome moves along mRNA;
 another tRNA binds to next codon;
 continues until polypeptide / protein formed to stop codon;
 stop codon has no corresponding tRNA/amino acid / causes release of polypeptide;
[8 max]

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 Translation - Protein
Synthesis
1. A ribosome attaches to the mRNA at an initiation
codon (AUG). The ribosome encloses two codons.

2. met-tRNA diffuses to the ribosome and attaches to

the mRNA initiation codon by complementary base
pairing.

3. The next amino acid-tRNA attaches to the adjacent

mRNA codon (leu in this case).

4. The bond between the amino acid and the tRNAis cut
and a peptide bond is formed between the two amino
acids. This operation is catalysed by an rRNA-protein
complex called a ribozyme.

5. The ribosome moves along one codon so that anew

amino acid-tRNA can attach. The free tRNA
molecule leaves to collect another amino acid. The
cycle repeats from step 3.

6. The polypeptide chain elongates one amino acidat a

time, and peels away from the ribosome, folding up
into a protein as it goes. This continues for hundreds

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 of amino acids until a stop codon is reached, when the ribosome falls apart, releasing the
finished protein.
A single piece of mRNA can be translated by many ribosomes simultaneously, so many protein
molecules can be made from one mRNA molecule. A group of ribosomes all attached to one piece
of mRNA is called a polyribosome, or a polysome.

Translation

After transcription, the mRNA, tRNA, and ribosomal subunits are transported across the nuclear
envelope and into the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, amino acids attach to the 3' end of the tRNA’s,
forming an aminoacyl-tRNA. The reaction requires an enzyme specific to each tRNA and the energy
from one ATP. The amino acid-tRNA bond that results is a high-energy bond, creating an activated
amino acid-tRNA complex. As in transcription, translation is categorized into three steps—initiation,
elongation, and termination. The details of translation follow, with numbers corresponding to events
illustrated in Figure 8-6.

1. Initiation begins when the small ribosomal subunit attaches to a special region near the 5' end of
the mRNA.
2. A tRNA (with anticodon UAC) carrying the amino acid methionine attaches to the mRNA at the
start codon AUG. (You can remember that the start codon is AUG because school often starts in
August.)
3. The large ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA, forming a complete ribosome with the tRNA
(bearing a methionine) occupying the P site.
4. Elongation begins when the next tRNA (bearing an amino acid) binds to the A site of the ribosome.
The methionine is removed from the first tRNA and attached to the amino acid on the newly arrived
tRNA. Figure 8-6 shows elongation after several tRNAs have delivered amino acids. The growing
polypeptide is shown at 4.
5. The first tRNA, which no longer carries an amino acid, is released. After its release, the tRNA can
again bind with its specific amino acid, allowing repeated deliveries to the mRNA during translation.
6. The remaining tRNA (together with the mRNA to which it is bonded) moves from the A site to the
P site
(translocation). Now the A site is unoccupied and a new codon is exposed. This is analogous to the
ribosome moving over one codon.
7. A new tRNA carrying a new amino acid enters the A site. The two amino acids on the tRNA in the
P site are transferred to the new amino acid, forming a chain of three amino acids. Figure 8-6 shows
a chain of four amino acids.
8. As in step 5, the tRNA in the P site is released, and subsequent steps are repeated. As each new
tRNA arrives, the polypeptide chain is elongated by one new amino acid, growing in sequence and
length as dictated by the codons on the mRNA.

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9. Termination occurs when the ribosome encounters one of the three stop codons (see Figure 8-4).
At termination, the completed polypeptide, the last tRNA, and the two ribosomal subunits are
released. The ribosomal subunits can now attach to the same or another mRNA and repeat the
process.
Once the polypeptide is completed, interactions among the amino acids give it its secondary and
tertiary structures. Subsequent processing by the endoplasmic reticulum or a Golgi body may make
final modifications before the protein functions as a structural element or as an enzyme.

Post-Translational Modification
In eukaryotes, proteins often need to be altered before they become fully functional. Because this
happens after translation, it is called post-translational modification. Modifications are carried out
by other enzymes and include: chain cutting, adding methyl or phosphate groups to amino acids,
or adding sugars (to make glycoproteins) or lipids (to make lipoporteins).

Mutations
Mutations are changes in genes, which are passed on to daughter cells. DNA is a very stable molecule,
and it doesn't suddenly change without reason, but bases can change when DNA is being replicated.
Normally replication is extremely accurate, and there are even error-checking procedures in place to
ensure accuracy, but very occasionally mistakes do occur (such as a T-C base pair).
There are 3 types of mutations:
1. Chromosomal Mutations- these involve change in the number of chromosomes. i.e. (2n+1)
2. Gene mutations- these involve a change in the sequence of the DNA bases of a gene. These
may lead to a change in the sequence of the amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
3. Point Mutation – this involves a change in one triplet of DNA bases, the triplets then affect a
number of DNA triplet. Therefore, involves a number of point mutation.

Changes in DNA can lead to changes in cell function like this:

There are basically three kinds of gene mutation, shown in this diagram:

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The actual effect of a single mutation depends on many factors:
• A substitution on the third base of a codon may have no effect because the third base is less
important (e.g. all codons beginning with CC code for proline).
• If a single amino acid is changed to a similar one (e.g. both small and uncharged), then the protein
structure and function may be unchanged, but if an amino acid is changed to a very different one
(e.g. an acidic R group to a basic R group), then the structure and function of the protein will be
very different.
• If the changed amino acid is at the active site of the enzyme, then it is more likely to affect enzyme
function than if it is part of the supporting structure.
• Frame shift mutations are far more serious than substitutions because more of the protein is
altered (though even a single amino acid change can have a big effect).
• If a frame-shift mutation is near the end of a gene it will have less effect than if it is near the start
of the gene.
• Inversion- a nucleotide becomes separate from the chain and is inverted/ rotated back in the
sequence.
• The effect of a deletion can be cancelled out by a near-by insertion, or by two more deletions,
because these will restore the reading frame. A similar argument holds for a substitution.
• It a mutation leads to a premature stop codon the protein will be incomplete and non-functional.
• If the mutation is in a gene that is not expressed in this cell (e.g. the insulin gene in a red blood
cell) then it won't matter.
• Duplication-a chain of nucleotide becomes repeated.
• Addition (insertion) – an extra nucleotide sequence becomes inserted in the chain.
• If the mutation is in an intron (or the 98% junk DNA) then it probably won't matter. This may
even be why so many introns exist.
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• Some proteins are simply more important than others. For instance, non-functioning receptor
proteins in the tongue may lead to a lack of taste but is not life-threatening, whereas
nonfunctioning haemoglobin is fatal.
• Some cells are more important than others. Mutations in somatic cells (i.e. non-reproductive body
cells) will only affect cells that derive from that cell, so will probably have a small local effect like
a birthmark (although they can cause widespread effects like diabetes or cancer). Mutations in
germ cells (i.e. reproductive cells) will affect every single cell of the resulting organism as well as
its offspring. These mutations are one source of genetic variation.

As a result of a mutation there are three possible phenotypic effects:

• Most mutations have no phenotypic effect. These are called silent mutations, and we all have a
few of these.
• Of the mutations that have a phenotypic effect, most will have a deleterious effect. Most of the
proteins in cells are enzymes, and most changes in enzymes will stop them working (because
there are far more ways of making an inactive enzyme than there are of making a working one).
When an enzyme stops working, a metabolic block can occur, when a reaction in cell doesn't
happen, so the cell's function is changed. An example of this is the genetic disease phenylketonuria
(PKU), caused by a mutation in the gene for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. This causes a
metabolic block in the pathway involving the amino acid phenylalanine, which builds up, causing
mental retardation.
• Very rarely a mutation can have a beneficial phenotypic effect, such as making an enzyme work
faster, or a structural protein stronger, or a receptor protein more sensitive. A small mutation in
a control gene can have a very large phenotypic effect, such as developing extra limbs or flowering
more often. Although rare, these beneficial mutations are important as they drive evolution.
The kinds of mutations discussed so far are called point or gene mutations because they affect specific
points within a gene. There are other kinds of mutation that can affect many genes at once or even
whole chromosomes. These chromosome mutations can arise due to mistakes in cell division. A well-
known example is Down syndrome (trisonomy 21) where there are three copies of chromosome 21
instead of the normal two.

Mutation Rates and Mutagens

Mutations are normally very rare, which is why members of a species all look alike and can
interbreed. However the rate of mutations is increased by chemicals or by radiation. These are called
mutagenic agents or mutagens, and include:
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• High energy ionising radiation such as x-rays, ultraviolet rays, α, β, or γ rays from radioactive
sources. These ionise the bases so that they don't form the correct base pairs.
• Intercalating chemicals such as mustard gas (used in World War 1), which bind to DNA separating
the two strands.
• Chemicals that react with the DNA bases such as benzene, nitrous acid, and tar in cigarette smoke.
Colchiane, pesticides
• Viruses. Some viruses can change the base sequence in DNA causing genetic disease and cancer.
During the Earth's early history there were far more of these mutagens than there are now, so the
mutation rate would have been much higher than now, leading to a greater diversity of life. Some
of these mutagens are used today in research, to kill microbes or in warfare. They are often
carcinogens since a common result of a mutation is cancer.

DNA and Chromosomes

Each chromosome is roughly X-shaped because it contains two replicated copies of the DNA. The two
arms of the X are therefore identical. They are called chromatids, and are joined at the centromere.
(Do not confuse the two chromatids with the two strands of DNA.) The complex folding of DNA into
chromosomes is shown below.

Chromatin DNA + histones at any stage of the cell cycle

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 Chromosome compact X-shaped form of chromatin formed (and visible) during mitosis

Chromatid single arm of an X-shaped chromosome

Since the DNA molecule extends form one end of a chromosome to the other, and the genes are
distributed along the DNA, then each gene has a defined position on a chromosome. This position is
called the locus of the gene, and the loci of thousands of human genes are now known. There are on
average about 3 000 genes per chromosome, although of course the larger chromosomes have more
than this, and the smaller ones have fewer.

Karyotypes and Homologous Chromosomes

If a dividing cell is stained with a special fluorescent dye and examined under a microscope during
cell division, the individual chromosomes can be distinguished. They can then be photographed
and studied. This is a difficult and skilled procedure, and it often helps if the chromosomes are cut
out and arranged in order of size
.

Mutations

DNA replication is not perfect, and errors occur. If an error is not repaired, it becomes a mutation. A
mutation is any
sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that does not exactly match the original DNA molecule
from which it was
copied. A point mutation is a single nucleotide error and includes the following.
1. A substitution occurs when the DNA sequence contains an incorrect nucleotide in place of the
correct nucleotide.
2. A deletion occurs when a nucleotide is omitted from the nucleotide sequence.
3. An insertion occurs when a nucleotide is added to the nucleotide sequence.

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4. A frameshift mutation occurs as a result of a nucleotide deletion or insertion. Such mutations
cause all subsequent
nucleotides to be displaced one position. If a frameshift mutation occurs in a DNA segment whose
transcription
produces an mRNA, all codons following the transcribed mutation will change.

FORM 5 TERM 3

TOPIC 6: Inherited change and evolution

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED LEARNING SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, ACTIVITIES AND NOTES RESOURCES
able to: SKILLS AND
KNOWLEDGE)

8.5.1 Nature of  discuss the - Gene as unit of  Discussing the gene  ICT tools
Gene gene concept inheritance concept.  Braille
software/Jaws
 Print media

8.5.2 Monohybrid  use genetic - Co-dominance  Performing genetic  Print media

and Dihybrid diagrams to - Sex linkage crosses.  Seeds
solve problems - Multiple alleles
crosses  Demonstrating  Pebbles
involving - Test crosses
monohybrid
genetic crosses  Beads
and dihybrid using beads, seeds  Scientific calculator
crosses or pebbles.  Statistical tables
 use chi – - Chi – squared  Applying the chi-
squared test to test squared test to
test the results obtained
significance of from the
difference
demonstrations.
between
observed and
expected
results

Someone asked me, “Why do you insist on taking the hard road?” and I replied, “Why
do you assume that I see two roads?” So challenges are what make life interesting and
overcoming them is what makes life meaningful
-Inheritance is a process in which the material is passed from the parents to the off-springs.

-In sexual reproduction the fusion of male and female gametes results in transfer of DNA from
parents

o A gene is a sequence of nucleotide on the DNA strand which codes for a certain peptide
chain. It’s also referred as a unit of inheritance.
o An allele is an alternative form of the same gene responsible for determining, construction
of characteristics. e.g. an allele for black skin color and an allele for white skin color.
o A dominant allele is an allele which influences the appearance of the phenotype presence
of an alternative allele. It suppose of expression of a recessive allele. It is represented by
capital letters.
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 o A recessive allele which influence the appearance of the phenotype only in the presence of
the other identical allele. It will not express itself in the presence of the alternative allele of
the same gene.
o A phenotype is the outward appearance of an organism or the external expression of a
gene or genotype e.g. black white etc.
o A genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism with respect to alleles under
consideration e.g. BB, Bb, bb.
o A locus is the position of an allele in the DNA molecule.
o Homozygous is a diploid condition in which the alleles at a given locus are identical e.g. BB
or bb.
o Heterozygous is a diploid condition in which the alleles at a given locus are different e.g.
Bb.
o A first filial generation (F1) these are off-springs produced by crossing parental genotypes
of organism.
o A second filial generation (F2) these are produced by crossing the parents from the F1
generation.

PRINCIPLE OF MANDALIAN INHERITANCE

1. MANDALIAN FIRST LAW OF SEGREGATION
─ In one of Gregor Mandel’s experiments he crossed pure breeding pea plants which are tall and
short. Cross pollination was presented and the F1 were all tall and no short plants were produced.
He intercrossed the F1 ones to produce the F2 generation. On counting these 787 were tall plants,
277 were short.
─ This is a ratio of 3:1 Mandel made the following conclusions:
─ There were no intermediate plants in F1 and F2 generation, this indicated that inheritance is not
a process in which parental features are blended. It is a process in which definite features which
may show themselves in F2 generation only, this implied that the F1 were carrying the allele for
shortness were being suppressed. All the F1 were tall and this indicated that the allele for tallness
was dominant and the allele for shortness was recessive.

THE GENETIC DIAGRAM

Let T represent the allele for dominant tallness. And t represents the recessive allele for shortness.

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Back cross test or test cross is then done by intercrossing the parents from F1 generation.

TEST 1 BACK CROSS TECHNIQUE

─ An organism showing dominant characteristics can have two possible genotypes, A tall plant
can have either homozygous or heterozygous tall. The phenotype will be the same but the
genotype is different and is determined by crossing the plant with the recessive organism.
─ By crossing this organism with the unknown genotype with homozygous recessive it is
possible to determine the unknown or dominant characteristics genotype e.g. tall pea plant.

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 ─ If half the off-springs are tall and the other half is short this implies that the unknown
genotype is heterozygous tall.

MANDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION

─ It states that the characteristics of organisms are determined by internal factors which
occur in pairs and only one of the pair of such a pair is represented in a single gamete.
The internal factors are the genes.
─ This law’s explanation is obtained from meiosis, the alleles are located on one of the two
homologous chromosomes and during meiosis the homologous chromosomes come together
and they segregate into different gametes. Each gamete only receives one of each type of
chromosome and it also receives one of the pair of alleles.

ALBINISM

─ It is a condition in which the external segregation fails to develop due to lack of the skin
pigment melanin.
─ The individuals have light skin, white hair and pink eyes. It is an example of monohybrid
inheritance in humans caused by a recessive allele.
─ This implies that it will only exert its effects in the homozygous condition. The genotype of
a normal person AA and of a carrier is Aa and the sufferer is aa. It is a result of gene mutation.

CODOMINANCE
─ It is a condition in which two or more alleles fail to show complete dominance or
recessiveness to each other. This causes the alleles to show equally their effects on the
phenotype.
─ This is due to the failure of one of the alleles to be dominant in the heterozygous condition.
Co dominance is found in both plants and animals.
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 ─ The heterozygous has a phenotype which is intermediate between homozygous dominant
and recessive condition produced by crossing pure breeding black and splashed white fowls.
─ A cross between pure breeds of red and white cows produces an intermediate color called
ROAN.
─ The presence of the black plumage is the result of possession of an allele for black pigment
melanin. Splashed white fowls also lack this melanin. Heterozygous show a partial
development of this melanin which produces a blue sheen in the plumage.

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 ─ If the F1 generation intercrossed, the F2 generation shows the modification of the Normal
Mendelian F2 phenotypic monohybrid ratios of 3:1
─ A phenotypic ratio of [Link] is product of alleles which are codominant.

SEX DETERMINATION
─ Sex chromosomes carry genes that determine an individual’s sex. In females the two sex
chromosomes are identical and are called X chromosomes.
─ The female genotype (autozome) is XX. In males the two sex chromosomes differ. They are
heterozomes X chromosome and one Y chromosome. Their genotype is XY.
─ The genotype XX is described as homogametic since it produces gamete cells with X
chromosomes. The XY genotype is described as heterogametic since half the gametes contain
X chromosomes and the other half contains the Y chromosomes.
─ The sex genotypes differ in other organisms e.g. in female butterflies have XY genotype and
male XX.

SEX LINKAGE-GENES ON SEX CHROMOSOMES

─ Genes carried on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex linked. In the case of heterogametic
sex there is a portion of X chromosome for which there is a non-homologous region of the Y
chromosomes.
─ Characteristics determined by genes carried on the non-homologous portion of the X
chromosome appear in males if they are recessive e.g. hemophilia and color blindness e.g.
hemophilia male is married to a carrier woman.
─ For example, you could be asked to predict the chance of a woman who is a carrier for colour
blindness (that is, heterozygous) and a man with normal vision having a colour-blind child.

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DIHYBRID INHERITANCE

─ Is concerned with the inheritance of two pairs of alleles consider the following example;
─ Pea plants can produce the seeds which are round and wrinkled, Also they can be green and
yellow. One pure breed produce seeds that are round and yellow seeds while one pure breed
produces round and yellow seeds while the other pure breed winkled and green seeds.

Let R the dominant allele for round seeds and r for winkled.

Let Y be the dominant allele for yellow seeds and y for green.

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 Phenotypic ratio: [Link]

─ Basing on the results of the dihybrid cross therefore the presence of new combinations of
characteristics. Mandel postulated his second law known as “the principle of
independent assortment”. On one pair of characteristics may combine with either one. The
typical dihybrid ratio of [Link] only apply to characteristics controlled by genes and
different chromosome are said to be linked, they form a linkage group.

Activity

In fruit Drosophila the gene for long wing length and for eye colour are sex linked. Normal wing and
red eye are dominant to miniature wing and white eye.

(i) Define the term sex-linked. [1]

(ii) A cross between a miniature wing, red eyed male and homozygous normal wing, white-
eyed female was carried out.

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 Using symbols N for normal wing R for red eye, r for white eye and n for miniature wing,
draw a genetic diagram to show the genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation in
the space below. [5]

(source: June 2015 Zimsec)

HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS

─ They are controlled by an autozomal gene. The gene locus is represented by a single (I)
isohaemoglobin.
─ There are three alleles for the blood groups A, B, and O. A, AB, and B are codominant
(equally dominant) while O is recessive to both.
─ The presence of the single dominant allele, A or B results in the blood producing a substrate
agglutinin which acts as an antibody e.g. the genotype IAIO would give rise to agglutionogen
A on the red blood cell membrane and plasma would contain agglutinin anti-B. There are six
possible genotypes and only four exist.

─ The A, B, O blood groups in humans are controlled by multiple alleles of a single autozomal
gene. The gene locus is usually represented by the symbols (IA, IB, and IO). There are three
alleles represented by the symbols IA, IB, IO. Allele IA and allele IB are equally dominant to IO
which is recessive to both.
─ For example, you could be asked to use a genetic diagram to show how parents with blood
groups A and B could have a child with blood group O.

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 THE SUMMARY OF MENDEL’S 2nd LAW.

─ Orientations on the equatorial spindle of bivalents during metaphase 1 and of chromosome in

metaphase 2 are random. The subsequent separation of these chromosomes during anaphase
1 and 2 respectively produces new alleles recombination in gamete cells. This is called
independent assortment and results in the random assortment of maternal and paternal
chromosomes between daughter nuclei. This is the basis of Mendel’s second law.

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1. Pure-breeding pea plants with round, yellow seeds were crossed with pure-breeding
pea plants with wrinkled, green seeds. The offspring all had round, yellow seeds.
These seeds were grown and the resultant plants allowed to self-pollinate.

This produced 1112 offspring with the following characteristics.

630 round, yellow seeds

202 round, green seeds
216 wrinkled, yellow seeds
64 wrinkled, green seeds
(a) Using the symbols R for round, r for wrinkled, B for yellow and b for green,
draw a genetic diagram to explain these results. [4]

(b) Explain why the wrinkled, green seeds produced pure-breeding offspring, while
the round, yellow seeds did not. [3]

(c) A ratio of [Link] was expected.

A chi-squared test was carried out to test the significance of the differences
between the observed and expected results. This gave a value of 0.47.

probability 0.99 0.98 0.95 0.90 0.50 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01

at 3 degrees
0.12 0.19 0.35 0.58 2.4 6.3 7.8 9.8 11.3
of freedom

With reference to the table of probabilities, explain how the value for the chi-
squared test supports the hypothesis that these are two pairs of segregating
alleles at two loci. [2]

[Total: 9]

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WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
(2) A student carried out a genetic investigation with fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster. Two
characteristics were observed, body colour and wing shape. The student had the following
information:

• the characteristics were controlled by separate genes carried on separate chromosomes

• grey body colour was dominant to black body colour

• normal wing shape was dominant to bent wing shape.

The student carried out a cross between a fly heterozygous for both grey body colour and normal
wing shape and a fly with a black body and bent wing. The numbers and phenotypes of
the offspring were as follows:
grey body and normal wing 83
black body and normal wing 85
grey body and bent wing 78
black body and bent wing 74
(i) Complete the genetic diagram to explain this cross. Use the following symbols to represent the
alleles:

A = grey body colour, a = black body colour B = normal wing shape, b = bent wing shape

Parental phenotypes: grey body / normal wing x black body / bent wing

Parental genotypes: .......................................... ..........................................................

Gametes: .......................................................... ..........................................................

Offspring genotypes: .........................................................................................................

Offspring phenotypes: .......................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

Phenotypic ratio: ............................................................................................................[5]

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 The student concluded that the results showed that independent assortment had taken place.

To determine whether this conclusion is justified a chi-squared test (χ2) can be carried out on
the experimental data.

(ii) Complete Table 4.1 by calculating the expected numbers.

Table 4.1
offspring observed numbers expected numbers

grey body / normal wing 83

black body / normal wing 85

grey body / bent wing 78

black body / bent wing 74
total 320 320
[1]

(iii) The χ2 value is calculated in the following way:

(observed – expected)2
χ2 = ∑ ___________________ where ∑ = ‘ sum of …’
expected

Calculate the χ2 value for the above data. Show your working.

χ2 value = .......................................................... [2]

(iv) The critical value of χ2 for this type of investigation with three degrees of freedom is
7.82.

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 Explain whether your answer to (c) (iii) supports the student’s conclusion.

......................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................[1]

Expected Answers

(b) (i) (parental genotypes:) AaBb x aabb;

(gametes:) AB, Ab, aB, ab (all) ab;
(offspring genotypes:) AaBb, Aabb, aaBb, aabb;
(offspring phenotypes:) grey body/normal wing, grey body/bent wing,
black body/normal wing, black body/bent wing;

[sequence of phenotypes must match genotypes for mark]

(phenotypic ratio:) 1 : 1 : 1 : 1;

apply ecf.

accept alternative symbols if a key is given, but if no key given max 4 5

(ii) 80,80,80,80; 1

(iii) (working) 0.1125 + 0.3125 + 0.05 + 0.45;

= 0.925; A 0.9/0.92/0.93
2 marks for correct answer with no working.
ecf if correctly use wrong figures from (ii) 2

(iv) yes (but no mark for yes on own)

as calculated figure is smaller than 7.82;

ecf applies to value calculated in part (iii) 1

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WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
 Question Expected Answers Marks

2 (a) parental genotypes CrCr x CwCw;

gametes Cr , Cw;

F1 genotypes (all) CrCw

F1 phenotypes (all) pink;

(F1 genotypes and phenotypes 1 mark )

gametes Cr , Cw Cr , Cw;

F2 genotypes CrCr CrCw CrCw CwCw

F2 phenotypes red pink (pink) white;

(F2 genotypes and phenotypes 1 mark)

F2 ratio [Link];
accept other symbols
if key given.
accept r and w as symbols without key. 6
(b) (i) 65; 130; 65; 3

(ii) 0.138 + 0.007 + 0.061; (or other suitable working)

0.206 – 0.208;

2 marks for correct value if no working shown ecf for both marks but
calculated value must be to three decimal places 2

(iii) support, figure lower than 5.991 / figure lower than critical
value; R ‘support’ on its own.
ecf applies if value in (ii) is incorrect 1

(c) named characteristic;

named environmental factor;

mark first example only 2

A PEDIGREE CHART

─ Taking an example of albinism.

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 ─ A pedigree chart is a diagram of a family tree over several generations, showing the
descendants. The relationships and the presence or absence of a specific trait in all the
members.
─ In the chart the males are represented by squares and females by circles.
─ Shading indicates the incidence of the particular genotype.
─ Under investigation, analysis of the pedigree chart enables us to detest the difference
between a dominant and a recessive trait.
─ A dominant trait occurs in members of every generation. A recessive trait is seen in
frequently often skipping one or more generations.

HOW MUTATION CAN AFFECT THE PHENOTYPE

─ Chromosome mutation – is a change in the structure and amount of the chromosomes, and
gene sequence on the chromosome. The changes are most likely to occur when chromatids
break and rejoin during cross over in prophase of meiosis. Sections of the chromosome may
be lost or incorporated into other chromosome i.e.
 detection,
 inversion,
 Translocation
 duplication (reshuffling of genes).
─ CHANGE IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER
 An individual’s failure of chromosome segregation during anaphase in meiosis leads
to the production of 24 chromosomes in a gamete cells instead of the normal 23 in a
human being.
 Usually it is the 21𝑠𝑡 chromosome (which is very small) which fails to separate to two
separate chromosomes.
 An extra chromosome is left in the gamete to leave 24 chromosomes (2n+1).
 The outer gamete is left ladening another chromosome it is left with 22 chromosomes
(2n-1). The process of a failure in chromosome segregation is called non-disjunction.

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 EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS

(A) DOWN’S SYNDROME/ MONGOLISM

─ It is caused by non-disjunction. When a gamete with an extra chromosome fuses with a normal
gamete with 23 chromosomes the total number of chromosome will be 47 (2n+1) instead of 46
(2n).
─ DOWN’S SYNDROME CHILDREN HAVE THE FOLLOWING DISABILITIES
 Flat broad face.
 Squint eyes, with a skin fold in the inner corner.
 Furrowed and protruding tongue.
 Short stacky body thick neck.
 Thick neck.
 Short life expectancy.
 Low IQ (intelligence quotient)

Activity
1. Coat colour in cats is determined by a sex-linked gene with two alleles, black and orange. When
black cats are mated with orange cats, the female offspring are always tortoiseshell, their coats show
black and orange patches of various sizes, while the male offspring have the same coat colour as their
(a) Using the symbols XBfor black and XOfor orange, draw genetic diagrams to account forboth
these crosses.
(i) black female X orange male

(ii) orange female X black male

(b) List the genotypes and their phenotypes of the offspring that may result from mating
atortoiseshell female with a black male.
[4]
(c) Suggest an explanation for the tortoiseshell coat in terms of the activity of the Xchromosomes.
[1]
2. Fig. 4.1 shows four generations of a family in which some members of the family suffer from
sickle cell anaemia.

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(a) Using the symbols HNfor the allele for normal haemoglobin and HSfor the allele forSickle cell
haemoglobin, state the genotypes of the individuals A and C [1]
(b) Draw a genetic diagram to show the probability of the parents A and B producinganother child
with sickle cell anaemia. [5]

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TOPIC 7: ENERGETICS
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.6.1 ATP  outline the need for - Anabolic reactions  Discussing uses of  Print media
Structure and energy in living - Active transport energy.  ICT tools
organisms - Movement  Illustrating the
Synthesis  Braille software/Jaws
 describe ATP - Maintenance of body
structure of ATP.
structure as a temperature
phosphorylated  Illustrating the
nucleotide - Structure of ATP chemiosmosis
 describe synthesis - Chemiosmosis coupling of ATP  Model
of ATP by synthesis.
chemiosmosis

I long to die knowing that I have lived well… I have taught well…. Helped them that needed help
n did come my way….

─ Need to use energy in living organisms.

─ Energy is defined as the capacity \ ability to do work.
─ Living organisms require a constant supply of energy for them to keep working and alive.
─ Energy required by living organisms for:
o Anabolic reactions e.g growth.
o Active transport of sustains against concentration gradient.
o Phagocytosis, pinocytosis , exocytosis, endocytosis.
o Electrical transmission of nerve impulse.
o Mechanical, contraction of muscles.
o Maintainace of temperature heat from respiration.
o Bioluminescence.
o Electrical discharge.

Structure of ATP

─ ATP is a energy carrier molecule made up of organic base adenine ,a pentose sugar ribose
and three phosphate groups.
─ The third phosphate can be debouched from ATP by the release producing ADP plus a
inorganic phosphate .

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 Hydrolyses

ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + energy [30 .6KJ/mol ]

Condensation

─ Adding Pi to ADP is known as phosphorylation. The enzyme ATPASE has catalyzed the
reaction.
─ All cells in every living organism use ATP as their energy source
─ ATP is known as the universal energy carrier molecule.

Explain the different energy values of carbohydrate, lipid and protein as respiratory
substrates. [6]

 idea of lipid > protein > carbohydrate / AW ; A lipid has more energy thaneither protein or
carbohydrate
 comparative figures ; e.g. 39.4, 17.0 and 15.8 accept any two
 kJ g-1 / per unit mass ;
 more hydrogen atoms in molecule, more energy ;
 lipid have more, hydrogen atoms / C-H bonds ;
 (most) energy comes from oxidation of hydrogen to water ;
 using reduced, NAD / FAD ;
 in ETC ;
 detail of ETC ;
 ATP production

Describe the structure and synthesis of ATP and its universal role as the energy currency in
all living organisms. [8]
─ nucleotide ;
─ adenine + ribose / pentose + three phosphates ;
─ loss of phosphate leads to energy release / hydrolysis releases
─ 30.5 kJ ;
─ ADP + Pi ↔ ATP (reversible reaction) ;
─ synthesised during, glycolysis / Krebs cycle / substrate level
─ phosphorylation ;
─ synthesised, using electron carriers / oxidative phosphorylation /
─ photophosphorylation ;
─ in, mitochondria / chloroplasts ;
─ ATP synthase / ATP synthetase ;
─ chemiosmosis / description;
─ used by cells as immediate energy donor ;
─ link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions / AW ;
─ active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle / protein synthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

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 8.6.2  draw detailed - chloroplast structure  Drawing and  Print media
Photosynthesis structure of labeling chloroplast.  Filter paper
chloroplast  Acetone
- Chloroplast pigments
 Separating pigments  Different coloured
 identify chloroplast
pigments by paper leaves
chromatography.  Leaf extracts
- Absorption and  Collecting different
Action spectra colored leaves.
 discuss the role of  Finding out other
chloroplast uses of pigments in  ICT tools
pigments in
absorption and
life.  Braille software/Jaws
- Light dependent
action spectra reactions  Analyzing
 describe the photo - (cyclic and non- absorption and
activation of cyclic photo action spectra.
chlorophyll phosphorylation)  Outlining the light
 outline the Calvin dependent reactions
Cycle
of photosynthesis.
- Light – independent
reactions (Calvin  Illustrating the
 discuss Cycle) Calvin Cycle.
photosynthesis in C4
plants - Carbon fixation in C4
plants
 Discussing carbon
 discuss the concept - Light intensity and
fixation in C4 plants.
of limiting factors wavelength
- Carbon dioxide  Investigating the
concentration effects of limiting
- Temperature factors on rate of
photosynthesis

Photosynthetic pigments

─ Photosynthetic pigments of higher plants fall into two classes the chlorophylls and
carotenoides .
─ The role of the pigments is to absorb light .
─ There are located in the thylakoids. Chloroplasts absorb mainly red blue violet light
reflecting green.

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 ─ The chlorophyll has flat light absorbing and it has a magnesium at the centre .
─ It also as along hydrophobic tail .Chlorophyll is the most common pigment and it exists in
various forms each differ slightly according to it’s light absorbing peck.

CARTENOIDES

─ Cartenoides are yellow , orange and red carbon pigments that absorb strongly in the blue violet
range .
─ They are accessory pigments because they pass their energy they absorb to the chlorophyll.
─ Carotenoide have two types carotenes and xanthophylls.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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 ─ The chlorophyll and accessory pigments molecules are are located in two types of
photosystems known as photosystem 1 and photosystem 2 .
─ Each contain an antenna complex of pigments collect light of different wave length making
the process more efficient.
─ All the energy harvesting transferred to chrolophylls are known as P700 in PS1 and P680
in PS2.
─ The biochem of photosynthesis.
─ The commonly used equation for photosynthesis is

SUNLIGHT

6H2O +6CO2 C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 .

CHLOROPYLL

─ It implies that carbon dioxide reacts with H2O to give carbohydrates + oxygen in a one of
process yet the CO2 and H2O do not react together perse .
─ Photosynthesis is divided into stages. The first stage is the light depended stage and the
dark stage.

LIGHT DEPENDED STAGE: THE Z SCHEME / PHITOPHOSPHORYLATION

Describe the transfer of energy to ATP during photosynthesis [6]

─ light absorbed by chlorophyll

─ An electron from P700 orP680 is boosted to a higher energy level when light strikes the
photosystem;
─ the electron which acquires excitation is accepted by electron acceptor x or y .
─ The electron acceptor x or y become reduced and chlorophylls become oxidized with positive
change.

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 ─ The electrons with the excess energy of oxidation are very unstable tend to fall down to their
ground state.
─ The electrons then in terms of energy via a series of electrons acceptors.
─ The excess energy lose when they fall back to the ground state is coupled is coupled in the
production of ATP.
─ The positive change left in the p680 contribute to to the photochemical lysis of water which
releases electrons which lost from electron acceptor X .
─ Electrons flow X along a chain of electron carries loosing energy [used to phospholyate ADP
to ATP ] FILLING THE HOLE LEFT IN p700 ,electrons also pass down from Y to NADP along
a chain a chain of electron carries to and combine with hydrogen ions from water to form
reduced NADP.
─ This is called non cyclic photophosphorylation .
─ In cycle photophosphorylation electrons from Y are recycled to P700 via a electron chain
carries results in ATP being formed

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Describe the roles of the following substances in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis:
(i) RuBP [2]
(ii) (ii) reduced NADP [2]
(iii) (iii) ATP. [2]
(i) carbon dioxide fixation;
production of GP;
ref. to rubisco;

(ii) reduction (of GP) / donates hydrogen;

GP to TP;

(iii) supplies, energy / phosphate;

(to convert) GP to TP;
(to) regenerate of RuBP;

Outline the process of the photolysis of water and describe what happens to theproducts of
photolysis. [10]
─ PII absorbs light;
─ enzyme (in PII) involved;
─ to break down water / AW;
─ 2H2O 4H+ + 4e– + O2;
─ oxygen is produced;
─ used by cells for (aerobic) respiration;
─ or released (out of plant) through stomata;
─ protons used to reduce NADP;
─ with electrons from PI;
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─ reduced NADP used in, light independent stage / Calvin cycle;
─ to convert GP to TP;
─ electrons also used in ETC;
─ to release energy for photophosphorylation;
─ to produce ATP;
─ electrons (from PII) go to PI;
─ ref. re-stabilise PI;

Light independent stage; The Calvin cycle

─ The light independent (or dark) reactions takes place in stroma and do not require light.
─ they make use of the ATP (energy) and NADPH2 from the light dependent stage of
photosynthesis.
─ The biochemistry of these reactions take place where promulgated by Calvin, Benson and
Basham, hence they are known as Calvin –Benson cycle.
1. Carbon dioxide fixation
─ The first stage is carbon dioxide fixation or acceptance.
─ The carbon dioxide acceptor RuBP a5C compound combines with CO2 to form a highly unstable
6C compound which quickly breaks down to form to 3C compound to glycerate phosphate.
─ The enzyme Ribulose biphoshate carboxylase oxyfenal (Rubisco) catalyse the reaction.

2. Reduction phase
─ The glycerate phosphate a 3C acid contains the carboxylic group (COOH) which is reduced to
an aldehyde group (-CHO).
─ Energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH2 are used to remove oxgen from GP.
─ TP is produced a sugar phosphate, the first carbohydrate made in photosynthesis.

3. Regeration of RuBP – the CO2 Acceptor

─ Some of the TP is used to generate the RuBP consumed in the first reaction.
─ The regeneration of RuBP involves a complex cycle containing 4,5,6. And 7C sugar
phosphates.

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(a) Outline/ describe the main features/reactions of the Calvin Cycle. [9]
─ RuBP 5C;
─ combines with carbon dioxide;
─ rubisco;
─ to form an unstable 6C compound;
─ which forms 2 X GP (PGA);
─ ATP;
─ energy source
─ and reduced NADP;
─ forms TP (GALP);
─ TP used to form glucose / carbohydrates 1 lipids / amino acids;
─ TP used in regeneration of RuBP
─ requires ATP;
─ as source of phosphate;
─ light independent;
─ Grana increase surface area for light absorption

Qn. Fig. 1.1 shows the arrangement of photosystems, protein complexes containing
chlorophyll molecules, on the thylakoid membrane of a plant chloroplast.

(a) Describe the photoactivation of chlorophyll. [3]

(b) Explain how the photolysis of water occurs. [3]
(c) Outline how ATP is formed in the chloroplast [3]
(d) Suggest an advantage of having photosystems, the electron transport chain and
ATPsynthase as part of the thylakoid membrane.
[1]
[Total: 10]

Solution

1 (a) 1 chlorophyll absorbs mainly red and blue light;

2 light absorbed by antenna complex;
3 energy transferred;
4 reaction centres/P700/P680;
5 light energy excites electron(s)/reference passing to higher energy level;
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 6 electron lost from chlorophyll 3 max
(c) 1 water is split into H+ and OH-;
2 electron removed from OH-;
3 to replace electron from photosystem/chlorophyll;
4 OH breaks down into O2 and water;
5 H+ used to form reduced NADP;
6 reference correct, balanced equation; 3 max
(d) 1 reference flow of electrons along ETC;
2 reference to pumping H+ across membrane;
3 reference to H+/proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane;
4 flow of protons down gradient;
5 via ATPase/stalked particles;
6 formation of ATP from ADP and Pi;
7 cyclic, electron returns to original photosystem;
8 non-cyclic, electrons from PSII to PSI; 3 max
(e) reference increased efficiency/short diffusion distance/close together;

Describe the arrangement and location of chloroplast pigments and discuss their effect on absorption
spectra. [8]

─ chlorophyll a is primary pigment;

─ carotenoids / chlorophyll b, is accessory pigment;
─ arranged in, light harvesting clusters / photosystems; A antenna complex
─ on, grana / thylakoids;
─ ref. PI and PII ; A P700 and P680
─ primary pigment / chlorophyll a, in reaction centre;
─ accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b, surround primary pigment;
─ light energy absorbed by, accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b;
─ (energy) passed on to, primary pigment / chlorophyll a / reaction centre;
─ chlorophyll a and b absorb light in red and blue/violet region;
─ carotenoids absorb light in blue/violet region;
─ ref. absorption spectrum peaks;
─ diagram of absorption spectrum;
─ different combinations of pigments (in different plants) give different spectra

The C4 pathway
─ Certain plants (C4 plants) possess a characteristic leaf anatomy in which two rings of cells
are found around each of vascular bundles.
─ The inner ring the bundle sheath cells contain chloroplast which differ in form from those
in mesophyll cells thee are referred to as the kranz anatomy

Hatch slack pathway

─ The hatch slack pathway is a pathway for transporting CO2 from the mesophyll , it’s a
pumping mechanism for CO2 .
─ The carbon dioxide in acceptor is PEP and the reaction is catalysed by PEP carboxlase an
efficient enzyme with high affinity for CO2 and not inhibited by O2.

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 PEP caboxylase

PEP + CO2 oxaloacetate

─ Oxaloacetate is then reduced by NADPH 2 to MALATE.

─ Malate is then shunted through plasmodesm into the bundle sheath cells where they accepted
by RUBP in the normal C3 pathway.

C3 and C4 plants

─ C3 plants have GP and c4 have a four carbon compound oxaloacetate.

─ The enzyme Rubisco is also able to catalyes the combination of Rubp with oxygen.
─ This results in the lose of Rubp which can be used only in the presents of CO2frome the
[Link] this process has the overall effect of taking in O2and giving out CO2 and this is called
photorespiration.
─ However C4 prevent photorespiration by keeping Rubp and Rubisco away from [Link] cells
containing these two compoundes are arranged around the vascular bundle called bundle
sheath.
─ They have no direct contact with the air CO2 is absorbed by the mesophyl cells which are in
contact with air space .
─ The mesoptle cells contain a enzyme called PEP CARBOXYLASE which catalyses the
combination of CO2 with the three carbon molecule phophopyruvate.
─ The opd made frome the reaction is oxaloasetate .
─ Stil inside the the mesopyle cell oxaloacetate is converted to malate and this malate is
shunted into the bundle sheath.
─ Here CO2 is removed from the malate and delivered to Rubp by Rubisco in the usual way .The
calvin cycle then procceds normally.
─ Some of the most productive crop are C4 plants .Sugar cane is is especially efficient converting
around 8percent sunlight to energy in carbohydrates.

Difference between C4 AND C3 Plants

C3 C4

GP present oxaloacetate

High photorespiration Minimum photorespiration

Sheath bundle cells absent Bundle sheath cells present.

Have Rubisco PEP and rubisco are present .

No malate is fromed Malate is formed .

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 Combination of rubisco with CO2 Combination of CO2 with PEP.

Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [6]

─ closely packed -- to absorb more incident light / AW;

─ palisade mesophyll near upper surface of leaf -- to maximize light interception;
─ . arranged at right angles to leaf surface -- to reduce number of light absorbing walls;
─ cylindrical cells -- producing air spaces between cells;
─ air spaces -- act as reservoir of carbon dioxide;
─ large surface area -- for gas exchange;
─ cell walls thin -- so short diffusion pathway;
─ large vacuole -- pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell;
─ chloroplasts on periphery -- to absorb light more efficiently;
─ large number of chloroplasts -- to maximise light absorption;
─ chloroplasts can move within cells -- towards light;

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 ─ chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity -- to avoid damage;

Explain how the physiology of the leaves of a C4 plant, such as maize, is adapted for efficient carbon
fixation at high temperatures. [7]
─ in C3 plants at high temperature
─ rubisco combines with oxygen;
─ less rubisco to combine with CO2;
─ in C4 plant such as maize
─ idea of spatial separation of light-dependent stage from carbon fixation;
─ rubisco/RuBP, in bundle sheath cells;
─ kept away from, oxygen/air;
─ mesophyll cells, absorb CO2;
─ CO2 released to combine with RuBP;
─ avoid/reduce, photorespiration;
─ high optimum temperatures of enzymes involved;
─ Calvin cycle can continue;
─ AVP ; e.g. CO2 reacts with PEP
─ PEP carboxylase

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTORESPIRATION

1. TEMPERATURE
2. CARBON DIOXIDE
3. WATER
4. SUNLIGHT
5. CHLOROPHYLL

TEMPERATURE

─ AS little affect o the rate of photosynthesis since energy required is from sunlight not heat.
─ Calvin cycle is enzyme controlled hence needs optimum temperature to operate a maximum
rate.

LIGHT INTERNSITY

─ As for CO2 concentration light tends to be the rate limiting at low intensities but not at high
intensities.
─ Rate of photosynthesis is measured by the rate of O2 production.
─ Plants respire as well as photosynthesis. At low light intensities the plants tend to respire. As
light intensities increase the rate of photosynthesis.
─ This is called the light compensation point. Above this light intensity the rate of
photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration and so O2 is released from the plant.

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CARBON DIOXIDE

─ When CO2 is the rate limiting increase in the CO2 increases the rate of photosynthesis.
─ This makes a rising straight line on the graph on the rate against CO2 concentration.
─ Concentration point is the point where rate of concentration of CO2 is equal to O2 thus
photosynthesis equal to respiration.
─ When CO2 concentration is not a factor limiting increase in the concentration of CO2 will not
change the rate of photosynthesis. The graph is horizontal.

RESPIRATION
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.6.3 Respiration  Draw detailed - Mitochondrion  Drawing and  ICT tools

structure of annotating  Print media
mitochondrion - Glycolysis mitochondrion.  Braille software/Jaws
 Outlining the
 outline the process - Link reaction
of glycolysis process of
- Krebs Cycle glycolysis.
 describe the  Discussing the
formation of acetyl conversion of
Coenzyme A (CoA) pyruvate to acetyl
from pyruvate - Decarboxylation
CoA.
 outline the Krebs - Dehydrogenation
 Illustrating the steps
Cycle
in the conversion of

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  explain citrate to
decarboxylation and oxaloacetate.
dehydrogenation in  Discussing the
relation to the link - Election transport
processes of
reaction and the chain
Krebs cycle - Role of oxygen decarboxylation and
 describe the - Role of Nicotinamide dehydrogenation
process of oxidative Adenine Dinucleotide  Discussing oxidative  Yeast
phosphorylation (NAD) phosphorylation.  Sucrose/Glucose
in the mitochondrion  Discussing  Food samples
 outline the process anaerobic  Respirometer
of anaerobic - Anaerobic
respiration respiration.  Small animals such
respiration in plant/
yeast and animal  Designing and as beetles, harurwa
cells carrying out caterpillars,
 design experiments - fermentation experiments to amacimbi
to compare rates of - Carbohydrates compare rates of  Water bath
- Proteins
fermentation fermentation.  Incubator
- Lipids
 Performing
experiments to
 explain the relative
energy values of determine energy
carbohydrates, lipids - RQ values.
and proteins as - Effect of temperature  Designing and
respiratory on respiration rates
carrying out
substrates experiments using
define the term
simple
Respiratory Quotient
respirometers to
(RQ)calculate RQ
measure RQ.

 Calculating RQ.

─ The which makes ATP using in organic molecules and is subdivided into glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
─ The glucose is dismantled streadility in a series of reactions known as the metabolic pathway.
─ The metabolic path ways of respiration are divided into three main stages.
I. Firstly, in the cytoplasm of the cell glucose is converted into pyruvate. {glycolysis}
II. . The next inside the mitochondrion is in cycle of reactions called Krebs cycle.
III. Finally, in the mitochondrion the electrons produced in the Krebs cycle are passed to
the electron transport chain producing ATP in a process called oxidative
phosphorylation.
─ Glucose are uncreative so they are activated before glycolysis occurs.
─ This is done by addition of a phosphate to the glucose forming glucose phosphate.
─ The atoms in this molecule are then arranged to form fructose phosphate and another group
added to form fructose biphosphate.
─ Each of these additions of a phosphate group is done by transferring a phosphate group to
the sugar from ATP.
─ Theis split into 3 carbon molecule triose phosphate. Each of these converted into GP then
pyruvate in a series of steps.
─ These steps release energy which is used to ATP from GP. Four molecules of ATP are made
directly there are then in the cytoplasm using energy released as ATP are gradually changed
to pyruvate.
─ The conversion of TP to GP releases hydrogen ions to electrons which are transferred to the
coenzyme NAD to form reduced NAD.

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 ─ These hydrogen and high energy electrons are passed into mitochondria where they can be
used to produce 5ATP molecules in oxidative phosphorylation only in the presents of
oxygen.

The Krebs cycle

─ If oxygen is available, THE PYRUVATE FROMED IN GLYCOLYSIS IS passed into the
mitochondrion through the inner and outer membrane.
─ Once in the matrix of the mitochondrion pyruvate is converted into Acetyl coenzyme A .
─ One hydrogen ion, two electrons and one CO2 molecule is released.
─ The acetyl coenzyme A which contains two carbon molecules is added to oxaloacetate [4CO2].
─ The result Compound a six carbon compound citrate is gradually required than oxaloacetate.
At two stages in the Krebs cycle CO2 plus that was removed from the compound involved.
This is called decarboxylation.

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 ─ This CO2 plus that which was produced when pyruvate was converted into acetyl coenzyme
A diffuses out of the mitochondrion out of the cell then out of the organism.
─ Electrones and hydrogen ion are both picked up by the oxidized form of the coenzyme NAD
and some by FAD.
─ These coenzymes can hold electrons which will which will then be fed into the ETC.
─ When one glucose molecule is respired two pyruvate are produced and they result in the
formation of six reduced NAD and two reduced NAD are produced when pyruvate is
converted to acetyl coenzyme A

Describe what happens to the pyruvate so that the krebs cycle can continue.

─ enters mitochondrion;
─ active uptake / ATP used;
─ into matrix;
─ link reaction;
─ decarboxylation / carbon dioxide released / AW;
─ dehydrogenation / AW;
─ reduced NAD formed;
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 ─ forms acetyl coenzyme A / combines with coenzyme A; A Co A
─ combines with oxaloacetate / forms citrate;

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION [ETC]

─ ATP is made by addition of inorganic phosphate to ADP are phosyphorylation reaction.
─ In the respiration process it requires oxygen and is known as oxidative phosphorylation.
─ The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion.
─ Reduced NAD and FAD provide energy for ATP synthesis as they are passed in the ETC .
─ The electrons are paced along ATP is made.
─ At the end of the ETC oxygen is used to combine with electrons as they off the chain with
hydrogen ions to form water.
─ If there‘s no enough O2 the ETC wont work and hence resulting in the occurrence of
anaerobic respiration .

ANAROBIC RESPIRATION
─ In anaerobic respiration glycolysis takes place as ussul pyruvate a small amount of ATP is formed
.If pyruvate was allowed to form it will inhibit glycolysis so it is converted to something else.
─ The reduced NAD which is produced in glycolysis must be oxidized back to NAD or the cell will run
out of ATP.
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Alcohol fermentation

─ Yeast convents pyruvate to ethanol .CO2 is removed from pyruvate to produce ethanol.

CH3 COCOOH CH3 CHO + CO2

{ETHANOL}

─ The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenate converts the ethanol to ethanol. This requires hydrogen
which is taken from reduced NAD.
─ The overall reaction equation
─ Conversion of pyruvate acetyle CoA [link ring]

Lactase fermentation

─ In the lactase fermentation the pyruvate from glycolysis accepts the hydrogen ions from
reduced NAD directly.

CH3 COCOOH CH3 CHO HCOOH

NADH2 NAD {lactase}

─ If oxygen be made unavailable again lactase can be further broken down to release, it’s
remaining energy or alternatively be resynthesized to carbohydrates or extricated.
─ Lactase fermentation is useful to animals living in in fluctuating levels of oxygen, a baby in
the period just after birth .

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LACTASE FERMATAION ALCOHOL FERMANTAION

Yield 2ATP Yield 2 ATP

NO CO2 PRODUCED CO2 PRODUCEDTION INVOLVED

Pyruvate, decarboxylase ,alcohol used Lactase ,dehydrogenase ,is used .

Yield 180kj Yield 210kj

Under anaerobic conditions, the reduced NAD cannot be oxidised using oxygen.
However. Without it being oxidised glycolysis will stop and no ATP will be formed.

Explain how the reduced NAD is oxidised under anaerobic conditions in mammalian
muscle tissue and in yeast.

Muscle

─ pyruvate converted to lactate; A lactic acid

─ hydrogen combines with pyruvate;
─ lactate dehydrogenase;

Yeast

─ pyruvate converted to ethanal;

─ release of carbon dioxide / decarboxylated;
─ hydrogen combines with ethanal;
─ ethanal converted to ethanol;
─ alcohol dehydrogenase;

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Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]
─ coenzyme;
─ for dehyrogenase;
─ reduced;
─ carries electrons;
─ and protons/H+/H/hydrogen; R H2/hydrogen molecules
─ from Krebs cycle;
─ and from glycolysis;
─ to cytochromes/electron transfer chain;
─ reoxidised/regenerated;
─ ATP produced;
─ 3/2.5 (molecules of ATP) per reduced NAD;

Describe the main features of the Krebs Cycle. [9]

─ matrix;
─ of mitochondrion;
─ acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate;
─ to form citrate;
─ 4C to 6C;
─ decarboxylation/produce CO2;
─ dehydrogenation/oxidation;
─ 2CO2 released;
─ reduced NAD produced; accept reduced coenzyme for one mark - annotate 9/10
─ reduced FAD produced;
─ ATP produced;
─ series of steps/intermediates;
─ enzyme catalysed reactions;
─ oxaloacetate regenerated;
─ AVP;
Describe how, in photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy, in the form of ATP.
[8]
 light energy absorbed by chlorophyll;
A photosystems/pigments
 electron, excited/raised to higher energy level;
 (electron) emitted by chlorophyll;
A photosystems/pigments
 passes to electron, acceptor/carrier;
 passes along, chain of electron carriers/ETC/Electron Transfer Chain;
 energy released used to pump protons;
I ATP production here
 into thylakoid space;
 thylakoid membrane impermeable to protons;
 proton gradient forms;
 protons move down gradient;
 through/using, ATP synthase/ATP synthetase;
R ATPase
 enzyme rotates;
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  ATP produced from ADP and Pi; [max 8]

ALTERNATIVE RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES

RESPIRATION OF FATS

─ The oxidation of fats is proceeded by it’s hydrolysis to glycerol and fatty acids .The glycerol
may then be phosphorylated and converted to TP.
─ This can be incorporated into the glycolysis pathway and subsequently the Krebs cycle.
─ The fatty acid compound is progressively broken down in the matrix of the mitochondrion
into two CO2 compounds which are converted to Actyle coenzyme A.
─ This then enters the krebs cycle with the consequent release of energy .The oxidation of fats
has the advantage of producing large amounts of H+ IONS.
─ These can be transported by hydrogen carries and used to produce ATP in the electron
transported by hydrogen carries for this region fats librerate move and double the the energy
for the same amount of carbohydrates.

RESPIRATION OF PROTEINS

─ Proteins must be hydrolyzed to constituent amino acid which then have the amino [NH2]
group removed in the liver by deamination.
─ The remaining portion of the amino acid then entre the respiratory pathway at a number of
points depending on their carbon content.
─ 5 carbon amino acid and 4 C amino acid are converted to pyruvate ready to be converted to
acetyl coenzyme A
─ Other a, a with longer quantities of carbon undergo transamination reaction to convert them
to 3,4 or 5 amino acid .

REPIRATION QUNTIENTS
─ The respiratory [RQ] is the measure of the CO2 involved by the organisisms to the O2
consumed over a certain period.

─ In the fats ratio of O2 to CO2 is far smaller than on carbohydrate. A fat requires quantity of
O2 for as complete oxidation and thus RQ less than one.

GLYCEROL

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 ─ Is first phosphorylated by ATP into GP and then dehydrogenated by NAD to the sugar
dehydrogenatephosphates.
─ This is next converted into isomer glycerddehyde 3 phosphate
─ The process consume ATP and yield ATP when hydrogen is to along the respiratory chain
─ Glycerated 3 phosphate is subsequently incorporated into the glycolysis pathway and Krebs
cycle liberating a further 17ATP.
─ Therefore a yield per one molecule of glycerol aerobically respires to 20/1 =19 ATP.
─ Respiring Q measures of rotating ATP of CO2 evolved by one organism consumed over a long
period of time.

FATTY ACIDS

─ Each fatty acid molecule is oxdized by a process called oxidation which involves 2C fragments
of acetyl COEZYME A being split off from the acid molecule.
─ Each Acetyl coenzyme formed can entre Krebs cycle as usual to be oxidized to CO2 and H2O
─ A lot of energy is released per one molecule of glycerol. A lot of energy is released when a
fatty acid is oxidized.
─ Fatty acids therefore contribute more than half the normal energy required of heart, resting
skeletal muscle liver and kidney.

PROTEIN

─ Proteins are first hydrolyzed into their constituent aa then delaminated and transmission.

OXDATIVE DEAMINATION

─ Occurs in vertebrates liver cells on ammonium molecules is removed from the amino acids
by dehydrogenation and hydrolysis.
─ The deamination amino acids are an alpha keto acid. It may be respired like a carbohydrate
or via the fatty acid pathway.

TRANSMINATION

─ Is the transfer of an amino acid group

─ An amino acid to a keto acid .One amino acid can be converted to another .
─ This process also produce an alpha keto acid able to enter the normal respiratory pathway.

TOPIC 8: TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

Transport in plants
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED LEARNING SUGGESTED
Learners should (ATTITUDES, SKILLS ACTIVITIES AND NOTES RESOURCES
be able to: AND KNOWLEDGE)

8.7.1 Structure  describe the - Structure and - Examining fresh  microscope

and mechanisms of structures of the adaptations of monocotyledonous
WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
 transport systems xylem vessels, xylem vessels, and dicotyledonous  Slides
in plants sieve tube sieve tube plant roots and stems.  Prepared slides
elements and elements and - Drawing cross  Staining dyes
companion cells companion cells
 explain how the
sectional diagrams of  Microtome
monocot and dicot  ICT tools
xylem vessels and
phloem tubes are - Osmosis plant roots and stems.  Braille
adapted to their - Apoplast software/Jaws
functions - Symplast - Discussing  Print media
 describe, clearly - Vacuolar adaptations of xylem
- Role of the  Scalpel blades
stating the and phloem.
pathways, how Casparian strip  Visking tubing
- Discussing the
water is  Live plants
- Osmosis pathways.
transported from
the soil to the - Root pressure - Observing effect of
xylem - Transpiration pull root pressure by
 explain the - Capillary effect cutting a stem of a
mechanisms by live plant.
which water is - Demonstrating mass
transported from flow hypothesis.
soil to xylem and - Mass flow
from roots to hypothesis
leaves
 explain the
translocation of
sucrose
Father God; remember those I teach; not for my sake but for their sake. That in everything I do it may
be for their gain. That praises may belong only to thee , not me…amen

Xylem
─ The xylem has two major functions: the conductor of water, mineral salts and support.
─ It consists of both physiological and structural importance in plants.
─ It consists of four cell types: tracheids, vessel elements, parenchyma and fibres

Tracheids

─ A single cell elongated and lignified and lapering end and wall that overlap with adjacent
tracheds in the same way as sclerenchyma fibres.
─ They have mechanical strength and give support to the plant.
─ They are dead with empty lumen when mature.

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 ─ Water pass through the lumens without being obstructive by living organisms.
─ It passes from trenched to trached through the pits via the pit membrane or through
unlignified portions of the cell walls

Vessels

─ Are characteristic conducting units of angiosperms xylem.

─ They are very long tubular structures formed by fusion of several cell end to end in a row.
─ Each of the cell forming a xylem is equivalent to a trached and is called a vessel element.
─ A vessel is formed when a neighboring vessel element of a given raw fuse as a result of their
end walls break down.
─ A series of rims is left around the inner side of the vessel marking the remains of the end
wall.

Protoxylem

─ A mature protoxylem can be stretched as surrounding cells elongate because ligning is not
deposited over the entire cell wall but only in rings or spirals
─ There act as reinforcement for the tubes during elongation of stem and roots
─ As growth proceed, more xylem vessel develop and these undergo more extensive
lignifiction completing their development in the mature reigns of the organs and forming
metaxylem
─ Mature xylem cannot grow since they are dead, rigid and fully lignified tubes
─ The long empty tubes of xylem provide an ideal system for translocation of large quantities
of water with minimal obstructions
─ Water can pass through plants from vessel to vessel through unlignified portions of the cell
wall
─ High tensile strength due to lignifications preventing tube collapse when conducting water
under tension
─ In the primary body(plant) the distribution of xylem in the roots is central, helping to with
stand the turging strains of aerial plants as they bend or lean over

Xylem parenchyma

─ Also referred to as filling tissue

─ It has thin cellulose cell wall and living contents
─ Two systems of parenchyma exist in secondary xylem derived from meristems cell-ray initials
and fusiforms
─ Parenchyma is found in the medulcing rays. Its functions are food storage, deposition of tannins
,crystals transport food ,water and gaseous exchange
─ Parenchyma is found in pith and cortex
─ Fusiforms initial give rise to xylem vessel or phloem sieve tubes and companion cells but
occasionally give rise to parenchyma cells-these form vertical rows of parenchyma in the
secondary xylem

Xylem fibres

─ They are shorter and narrow or tracheoids and have much thicker walls
─ They resemble sclerenchyma fibers ,having overlapping end walls
─ Have thicker walls and narrow and lumens hence conifer additional mechanical strength in xylem

The secondary wall of some of the cells is laid down in a variety of patterns. State the patterns that can
be found in cells

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 ─ Ringed/annular
─ Scalariform
─ Reticulate

Describe ways in which the xylem is adapted for its function.

─ (Xylem vessels) are continuous this enables an unbroken column of water;

─ (Xylem vessels )lack contents/hollow/ dead this enables an unrestricted flow of water;
─ (Xylem vessels) walls are lignified for support and strength;
─ Lignin makes vessels water proof/ increases adhesion of water molecules
─ Vessels are narrow for capillarity; pits to allow lateral flow of water

Phloem
─ Sieve tubes & companion
─ Are tube like structure and translocate solution of organic solutes eg sucrose throughout the
plant
─ They are formed by end fusion of the sieve tube or sieve elements
─ The first phloem is to be produced to the photo phloem & is produced in the zone of elongation
of the growing root or stem
─ As the tissues around it grow and elongate it becomes stretched and much of it eventually
collapse & become non-functional
─ More phloem however has ceased to be called metaphloem
─ Sieve tube have cell walls made up of cellulose and pectic substances with the cytoplasm being
confined to a thin layer around the periphery of the cell
─ Although they lack nuclei, sieve elements remain living but they depend on adjacent companion
cells which develops from the same original meristematic cells
─ Sieve plate is derived from two adjacent and walls of neighboring sieve elements
─ Originally plasmodesmata run along the wall but the canal enlarge to form pore allowing flow of
liquid from one element to the next
─ Secondary phloem which develops from the vascular cambium appears similar in structure to
primary phloem except it to be crossed by bound of lignified fibres and medullary rays of
parenchyma

Phloem parenchyma, fibres and sclereids

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 ─ Are thin walls because they full up spaces
─ Companion cells accompanies the sieve plate hence they provide energy to more substance
─ They are living and have dense active cytoplasm. These have a nuclear and a lot of
mitochondrion .

Uptake of water by roots

─ Water moves across the root by pathways similar to these in the leaf i.e apoplast, symplast
& vacuolar pathway
─ The water potential gradient is maintained in two ways ;

1) By water moving up the xylem ,setting up tension in the xylem & lowering the water
potential in its sap

2)the xylem sap has a lower (more –ve )solute potential than the dilute solution

Symplast and vacuolar pathway

─ Symplast from cytoplasm to cytoplasm, vascular pathway from vacuole to vacuole

─ As water moves up the xylem in the root ,it is replaced by water from neighboring cells
(parenchyma) e.g cell A
─ As water leaves cell A the water potential of a cell A lowers & the water enters from cell B by
osmosis
─ The water potential of a cell B then dorses & water enters it from the cell C & soon across
the root of the pulterous layer
─ The soil solution has a higher water potential cells of the pulferous layer which include the
root hair, waters the root to the pulferous layer

Water movement up xylem vessels

─ The removal of water from the top of the xylem vessels reduces hydrostatic pressure
(pressure exerted by liquids)
─ At the top of xylem hydrostatic pressure is lower than pressure at the bottom
─ Pressure differences causes water to move up xylem vessels
─ Water in xylem is under tension, hence xylem walls are lignified to stop them from
collapsing

Mass flow

─ This is the movement of water up xylem

─ All water molecules move together (due to cohesion forces) that attract water molecule
together + adhesive between them +xylem walls) as a body of liquid

NB the cohesion & adhesion help to keep water in a xylem vessel moving as a continuous column

Set backs

o Air bubbles (air lock) which form in the column

o Wercome by the use of pits present in the lignified side walls of the xylem vessel
o Air backs + other blockages break water column
o Difference in presence between water at top of water at bottom cannot be transmitted
through air lock hence water steps moving upwards …* small diameter of xylem vessels
helps to prevent such from occurring

Root pressure
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 1. water pressure at the top of the xylem vessel to reduced by transpiration; this causes water
to flow up the vessel
2. this increases pressure differences from top to bottom by raising water pressure at the base
of vessel
─ How; active secretion of solutes eg mineral ions in the water the xylem vessels in the roots ,this
requires energy
─ Pressure of solutes lowers the water from the cells. This in flow of water increase the water
pressure at the base of xylem vessel

Role of root pressure

─ Help water to move the xylem vessel

─ Water transport in plants in largely passive process tilled by transpiration from leaves
─ Water simply moves a continuous water potential gradient from air

Apoplast pathway

─ Most water travel from cell to cell via cell wall which is made up of cellulose fibres between
which are filled spaces. As the water evaporates into the sub stomal air space from the wall of
one cell ,it creates tension which pulls in water from spaces in the walls of surrounding cells. The
pull is transmitted through the plant by the cohesion forces between the water molecules which
due to hydrogen bonding are particularly strong

Symplast pathway

─ Some water is lost to the sub stomal air spaces from the cytoplasm of the cell surrounding it .
The major potential of this cytoplasm is thereby made more –ve. The plasmodesmata which link
the cytoplasm of one to that of the next. Water may pass along plasmodesma from adjacent cells
with a higher (less –ve) water potential. This loss of water makes the water potential of this
second cell which I have a higher water potential
─ In this water potential gradient is established between the substomatal space & the space & the
xylem vessels of the leaf
─ The symplast pathway carriers less water than the apoplast pathway.

Vacuole pathway

─ A little water passes by osmosis from the vacuole of one cell to the next , through the cell wall
,membrane & cytoplasm of adjacent [Link] the same way s symplast pathway ,a water
potential gradient exist between the xylem & substomal air space .It along gradient that the
water passes
─ NB The apoplast pathway is due to cohesion and adhesion tension & is independent of a water
potential gradient
─ The vacuole and symplast pathways are independent on a water potential gradient

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TRANSPIRATION
─ is the loss water by the stomata of leaves into the atmosphere through cuticle
─ stomata –transpiration
─ lenti cells crack of buck by evaporation

Factors affecting transpiration

(i)External (environmental factors)

 HUMIDITY
─ The humidity/ vapour pressure of the air affect the water potential gradient between the
atmosphere within the leaf of that out. When the external air has high humidity, the
gradient is reduced or less water is transpired. Low humidity high the rate of transpiration
 LIGHT
─ The stoma of most plants open in and close in the dark. The mechanisms are an increase in
volume of a guide causes increased bowing of the cell owing to the greatest expansion
occurring in the outer wall. When this occurs in two guard cells of stoma. The stomal
aperture enlarges. An increase in light intensity increase in transpiration rate and vice versa
 TEMPERATURE
─ A change in temp affects both the kinetic movement of water molecules and relative
humidity of air. A rise in temp increase the kinetic E* of water molecules and so increase
rate of evaporation of water. At the same time it lowers the relative humidity of the air .Both
changes increase the rate of transpiration .A fall in temp has the reverse effect of reducing
the amount of water transpired.

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  WIND SPEED
─ In the absence of any movement, the water vapour which diffuses from stomata
accumulates near the leaf surface. This reduces the water potential gradient between the
most atmosphere in the stomata and the drier air at outside. The transpiration rate is
reduced. Any movement of tends to dispose the humid layer at the surface this increase the
transpiration rate. The faster the wind speed the more rapidly the moist air is removed and
the greater the rate of transpiration.
 WATER AVAILABILITY
─ A reduction in the availability of water to the plant as a result of a dry soil means there is a
reduced water potential gradient between the soil and leaf

(i) INTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION (PLANT FACTORS)

─ Leaf area as a proportion of water loss occurs through the cuticle, the greater the total area
of a plant the greater the rate of transpiration regardless of the number of stomata present.
In addition, any reduction in leaf area invetable involves a reduction in the total number of
the stomata e.g. thin prime leaves.
 Cuticle- the cuticle is the wax coloring over the leaf surface which reduces water loss. The
thicker the cuticle, the lower the rate of cuticular transpiration
 Density of stomata-the greater the number of stomata for a given area the higher the rate of
transpiration rate stomal rate of aboxial epidermis of plant may vary
 Distribution of stomata-in most plants the leaves are positioned at the
adoxial(upper)surface towards the light .The upper surface are subjected to greater temps
rises than lower ones owing warming effect of the sun. Transpiration is there for potentially
greater from upper side

XEROPHITIC PLANTS
─ These are plants that grow in areas which have unfavorable water balance and adapted to
the conditions.
Adaptations of Xerophitic plants
1. Thick cuticle
2. Reduces cuticula transpiration by forming a wax barrier preventing water loss
3. Rolling of leaves
4. Moist air is trapped within the leaf preventing diffusion out through the stomata which
are confined to the inner surface
5. Protective hairs on the leaf(pubescence)
6. Moist air is trapped in the hair layer ,increasing the length of the diffusion path so
reducing transpiration
7. Depression of stomata
Lengthens the diffusion path by trapping still moist air above the stomata so reducing the
transpiration
─ Small and circular leaves
To reduce transpiration rate .The shape also gives structural turgidity to prevent wilting
─ Orientation of leaves
The positions are constantly change(of the leaves)so that the sun strikes them
[Link] reduces their temp and hence the transpiration rate
─ A more positive water potential
The cells accumulates salts which makes their water potential positive. This makes it
difficult for water to be drawn from them
─ Succulent leaves and stems
For water storage

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 ─ Nocturnal opening of stomata
The more efficient use of CO2 by C4 plants allows them to keep stomata closed during much
of the day so reducing transpiration
─ Shallow and extensive root systems
Allow efficient absorption of water over a wide area when the uppers are moistened by rain

TRANSLOCATION
MASS FLOW

─ Photosynthesing cells in the leaf have a lower potential due to accumulation of the sucrose
synthesized
─ Water enters the cells froms the xylem increasing their pressure [Link] the roots,
sucrose is either being utilized as a respiratory substrate / is being converted to starch for
storage
─ The sucrose content of these cells is therefore low giving them a higher water potential and
low pressure potential
─ Therefore, the gradient of pressure potential btwn the cells .the source of sucrose(the
leaves) point of utilization the sink (the root /other tissue)
─ The two are linked by the phloem and as result liquid flows to other tissue along sieve tube
elements
─ Movement of phloem up and down is by [Link] movement in xylem is upward i.e
unidirectional, in translocation there is organic phloem and inorganic xylem. Sucrose moves
to the growing zones and is dependent on concentration
─ Root –growing zone meristematic zone

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─ H+ can move back in companion cells down their conc gradient thru a protein which act as
carrier for both H+ and sucrose at same tym
─ Sucrose carried thru this co-transporter molecule.

DIAGRAM FOR MASS FLOW IN PHLOEM AND THE LABELLING

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(a) With reference to Fig. 4.1,
(i) name an example of a source and a sink? [1]
(ii) name cells C and D. [2]
(b) With reference to Fig. 4.1, explain how sucrose travels from,
(i) the source to cell C
(ii) cell C to the sink [4]
(c) Explain why multicellular plants require transport systems for substances, such as water
and sucrose. [2]

Solutions
(a) (i) source = leaf/mesophyll/palisade/spongy qualified
sink = flower/fruit/seed/stem/bud/root/tuber/storageorgan/young
leaf/meristem/pollen/nectary/AW ; [1]
(ii) C sieve, (tube) element/cell,
D companion/transfer, cell ; [1]

(b) source to cell C

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 - correct ref (sucrose) loaded ;
-H+ pumped out, sucrose moves in through co-transporter ;
-role of companion cells in moving sucrose into sieve tube element ;
- -sucrose diffuses down concentration gradient (anywhere) ;
- -ref to plasmodesmata ; [max. 2]
cell C to sink
-water enters by osmosis/water moves down its Ψ gradient ;
-hydrostatic pressure builds up ;
-(idea that sucrose) unloaded/used at sink ;
-water follows by osmosis ;
-idea there is a difference in pressure/pressure gradient (between source and sink)
;mass flow ; [max. 2]

Qn. Various hypotheses for the mechanism of transport in phloem have been suggested.
One hypothesis proposes that movement between sources and sinks occurs entirely
passively by the process of mass flow.

The diagram below shows a physical model to illustrate the principle of mass flow.

tube water

source sink

sugar rigid partially permeable water

solution membranes

(i) Give an example in plants of:

a source ..........................................................................................................

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 a sink ...............................................................................................................
[2]

Q1

[3]

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2 (a) (i) Name structures A to C. [3]

(ii) State the name given to the region labelled D that separates the two sieve tube

elements. [1]

(iii) Name one assimilate that is transported in the phloem. [1]

(b) Explain how the structure of sieve tube elements helps the translocation of substances in the
phloem. [3]

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(c) Describe the role of companion cells in translocation in the phloem. [2]

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Qn 4

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WRITTEN BY MR. R. GWANZURA WHATSAPP: 0773266377/CALL 0717558917 HOLY CROSS HIGH
TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS
KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
CONCEPT Learners should be able to: (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.11.1  identify arteries, veins - Arteries, veins and  Recognising the  Microscope
Mammalian and capillaries capillaries vessels under  Prepared slides
circulatory  explain the role of - Transportation of the light  Photomicrographs
system haemoglobin in the oxygen and carbon microscope.  ICT tools
transportation of oxygen dioxide  Drawing plan  Print media
and carbon dioxide - Oxygen dissociation diagrams of  Braille software/Jaws
 explain the Bohr effect curves blood vessels.  Heart models
 explain the significance - Difference in oxygen  Discussing the
of the difference in the affinity between: transportation of
affinity for oxygen i. Haemoglobin oxygen and
between: and myoglobin carbon dioxide.  Sphygmomanometer
i. Haemoglobin ii. Maternal and  Analysing  Stethoscope
foetal
and oxygen  Research tools
myoglobin haemoglobin dissociation
ii. Maternal and - Cardiac cycle curves.
foetal - Pacemaker  Discussing the
haemoglobin - Myogenic control differences in
 describe the cardiac - Systolic and oxygen affinity.
cycle diastolic blood  Observing
 explain how heart action pressure cardiac cycle
is initiated and controlled - Hypertension simulations.
 explain the meaning of - Improved cardiac  Observing heart
the terms systolic blood output initiation
pressure, diastolic blood - Normal resting pulse simulations.
pressure and rate
- Efficient
hypertension  Measuring blood
cardiovascular
pressure.
system
 discuss the long term  Analysing the
consequences of results.
exercise on the  Discussing the
cardiovascular system long term
consequences
of exercise.

Father God; remember those I teach; not for my sake but for their sake. That in everything I do it may
be for their gain. That praises may belong only to thee , not me…amen

Arteries

-Arteries transport swiftly and at high pressure to the tissues. Arteries are made up of three layers which
are:-

(i) An inner endothelium

─ (Lining tissue) made up of a layer of flatting cells fitting together. This layer is very smooth,
minimizing friction with the moving blood.

(ii) Tunica media

─ Contain smooth muscle and elastic fibre.

(iii) Tunica extern

─ -Contain elastic fibre and collagen fibre.

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─ -Arteries have narrow lumen maintaining
high pressure facilitate faster movement of
blood.
─ -Elastic walls to allow for expansion when
pressure increases.
─ -Blood moves in pulse, rapidly and in
pulses. Transport blood from the heart.
─ -It carries oxygenated blood except in
pulmonary artery.

Veins

─ Have thin muscular wall with little elastic

tissue.
─ Large lumen relative to diameter. Unable
to constrict and not permeable. Have
valves throughout to prevent backflow of
blood.
─ Transport blood to heart and is under low
pressure (1KPa). No pulses and blood
flows slowly. Deoxygenated blood except
pulmonary vein.
Capillary

─ Routes by which water, dissolved

substances and white blood cells can enter
or leave.
─ Have no muscles or elastic tissue.
Large lumen relative to diameter.
Permeable and unable to constrict. Link
arteries to vein. Blood flows slowly and no
pulses. Have gaps to allow leakage of blood
components. Pressure is 4-1KPa.

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Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries. [8]

([3 max] for information on arteries)

 thick wall / elastic fibres to help withstand the high(er) pressure;
 outer fibrous coat prevents artery from rupturing under the high pressures;
 lumen small compared to wall thickness to maintain high pressure;
 except lumen large near the heart to conduct a large volume of blood;
 valves in aorta and pulmonary artery to prevent back flow into ventricles in diastole;
 layers of (smooth) muscle to allow arteries to contract / elastic recoil;
 allows the pressure to be altered (vasoconstriction and vasodilation);
([3 max] for information on veins)
 lumen always large in relation to diameter;
 thin wall / more collagen and fewer elastic fibres (than arteries) since pressure low(er);
 very little muscle since not needed for constriction;
 valves to prevent back flow between pulses;
([3 max] for information on capillaries)
 no muscle / elastic tissue since pressure very low;
 endothelial layer one cell thick to allow permeability / diffusion of chemicals /
 tissue fluid;
 small diameter leads to exchange;
 some fenestration / pores to allow rapid diffusion;
 no valves since pressure very low;

Haemoglobin
─ Most efficient respiratory pigment is a protein with 4 polypeptide chains, making the globin part
of the molecule.
─ Each of the chains, making the chain is associated with atoms that form a haem group with an
iron at its centre. Each of the iron bonds with oxygen molecule to form oxyhaemoglobin. When
oxygen combine with one haem group then haemoglobin changes shape making it easier for it
to bind with another oxygen molecules, and so on until 4 oxygen molecules have been bonded.

The haemoglobin dissociation curve

─ Haemoglobin is less likely to combine with oxygen if the oxygen concentration is low. As light
increases in oxygen concentration cause a huge increase in a % saturation of haemoglobin.
─ A high oxygen concentration most of the haemoglobin molecules are combined with 4 oxygen
molecules, as oxygen concentration decreases one oxygen molecule may leave hence making it
easier for the other oxygen molecules to leave since the haemoglobin changes shape.
─ Haemoglobin is more likely to bind oxygen at low oxygen concentration.

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 The Bohr Effect
 The presence of carbon dioxide increases acidity, that is, the concentration of H+ ions. When
this happens, the haemoglobin combines with H+ ions and releases oxygen.
 Red blood cells contain an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase, which catalyses the reaction of
carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid:
Carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
 The carbonic acid then dissociates:
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
 The hydrogen ions combine with haemoglobin to form haemoglobinic acid. This causes the
haemoglobin to release oxygen.
 Therefore, in areas of high carbon dioxide concentration, haemoglobin is less saturated with
oxygen than it would be if there was no carbon dioxide present. This is called the Bohr effect.
 It is useful in enabling haemoglobin to unload more of its oxygen in tissues where respiration
(which produces carbon dioxide) is taking place.

Carbon dioxide transport and the Bohr Effect

─ There are three ways in which carbon dioxide are carried from tissue to lungs.
1. 85% as hydrogencarbonate ions, HCO3
2. 10% combined with haemoglobin, to form carbaminohaemoglobin
3. 5% in solution in blood plasma
─ As hydrogen carbonate ions; Carbon dioxide produced by respiring cells diffuses into the plasma
in capillaries and into red blood cells.
─ Inside the red blood cells, carbonic anhydrate catalyses the reaction.

Carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid

─ Carbonic acid is weak and therefore dissociates to produce hydrogen ions.

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 Carbonic acid hydrogen ion + hydrogen carbonate ions

─ Haemoglobin react with hydrogen ion to form haemoglobin acid. Haemoglobin therefore acts a
buffer as it removes hydrogen ion from solution preventing an increase in acidity. As the
haemoglobin combines with hydrogen ion it releases some of the oxygen it carries. With carbon
dioxide present, the haemoglobin is less saturated with oxygen at any given concentration. This is
called the Bohr Effect.

The loading tension is the partial pressure of oxygen at which 95% of the pigment is saturated with
oxygen. The unloading tension is the partial pressure of oxygen at which 50% of the pigment is
saturated with oxygen.

(i) From the graph, determine the difference between loading and unloading tensions
of haemoglobin. Show your working. [2]
(ii) State the location in the human body where partial pressure, lower than the
unloading tension may be reached. [1]
─ Muscle cells which are actively respiring
b) State and explain the effect of increasing carbon dioxide concentration in blood on the
loading and unloading tensions of human haemoglobin.
─ Curve shifts to the right due to the bohr effect
Reasons
o With increase in carbon dioxide; more hydrogen ions are produced causing ore
oxygen to be released from hemoglobin;
o High carbon dioxide reduces the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen;
o Both loading and unloading tension are higher.

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 Myoglobin
─ Is a dark red pigment found in muscle cells.
─ Each myoglobin is made up of 1 polypeptide chain and can combine with one oxygen molecule to
form oxymyoglobin.
─ Once combine the oxymyoglobin is stable and will not release oxygen unless the partial pressure of
oxygen around is very low.
─ It therefore acts as storage device for oxygen. At the normal partial pressures of oxygen in a
respiring muscle cells, some of the oxygen is picked up by the myoglobin from the haemoglobin.
Only to release it when the oxygen concentration in the muscle drops very low.

Myoglobin Haemoglobin

Fetal haemoglobin
─ Fetal haemoglobin is more likely to combine with oxygen and therefore has a higher affinity
for oxygen than the adult haemoglobin.
─ A fetus obtains all its oxygen through the placenta from its mother blood where it is being
carried at oxyhaemoglobin.
─ The difference in affinity means that enough oxygen will leave the mothers haemoglobin
and combine with the fetus to supply the fetus with all its oxygen requirements.

Activity

1 (a) Oxygen is carried around the bodies of mammals, bound reversibly to the
pigment haemoglobin. The pigment is found in both adult and fetal red blood
[Link] graph below shows the dissociation curves for maternal and fetal
oxyhaemoglobin.

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 100

80
fetal

60
saturation of maternal
haemoglobin
with oxygen / %
40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
partial pressure of oxygen / kPa

(i) State the difference in the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with

oxygen between the fetal and the maternal blood at an oxygen partial
pressure of 3 kPa. [1]

(ii) Explain why the difference between the two curves is essential for the
survival of the fetus . [4]

(b) After birth, the adult form of haemoglobin gradually replaces the fetal form of
haemoglobin.

Suggest why this is necessary. [2]

[Total 7 marks]

The cardiac cycle

─ Is the complete sequence of contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle.
─ The cycle can be divided into two stages, the systole and diastole.
─ During systole the muscle contract and diastole relaxes.
─ As the heart muscle contract it squeeze the blood in the chambers inward, decreasing the
volume and increase the pressure which forces the blood out towards region where
pressure is lower.
─ The muscle then relaxes allowing the volume of the chamber to increase again and pressure
drops. Blood then flows in from regions where pressure is higher.
─ There are four stage which are
 Arterial diastole
 Arterial systole
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  Ventricular systole
 Ventricular diastole.

Initiation and control of cardiac

─ Cardiac muscle is known to be myogenic meaning that they naturally contract and relax.
The heart has a Sino atria node (SAN) which stimulate the contraction of heart found in the
right atrium. The SAN initiates the heart beat but the rate at which it beats can be varied by
stimulation from the automatic nervous system.
─ The muscle cells of the SAN set the rhythm for all other cardiac muscles cells.
─ They have an inbuut rhythm of contraction which is slightly faster than the rest of the heart
muscle.
─ Each time they contract they set up an excitation wave and the wave of polarization which
speeds out rapidly over the whole of the atrial walls. The cardiac muscles in the arterial wall
respond to the excitation wave contracting at the same rhythm as SAN thus all the muscle in
both atria contracts almost simultaneously.
─ There is a delay before the excitation wave can pass from the atria to the ventricles the
delay is caused by a bond of fibres (non conducting fibre) which do not conduct the
excitation wane.
─ These transmit the excitation wave very rapidly down to the base of septum, from where it
spreads outwards and upwards through the ventricle walls. As it does so it causes the
cardiac muscle in these walls to contract from the bottom up, so squeezing blood upward
into the arteries.

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Regulation of cardiac output
─ If an increased volume of blood returns to the heart in the veins, the heart pumps fast and
harder to push out.
─ The incoming blood stretches the muscles of the heart cell and the muscles responding by
contracting harder than usual increasing the stroke volume.
─ The SAN is therefore directly faster than usual, slightly increasing the heart rate therefore
cardiac output is increased.
─ The heart has 2 nerves running into the VAGUS (Doras sympathetic and sympathetic).
─ The VAGUS nerves bring impulses from the brain to the SAN and AVN while the sympathetic
nerve brings impulses to many areas of the muscle wall in the heart.
─ If action arrives on a sympathetic, nerve, they speed up the heart rate and increase stroke
volume.
─ The parasympathetic (VEGUS) slows down the heart for decrease stroke volume.
─ Blood pressure inside the aorta and also in the walls of the carotid arteries are nerve
endings sensitive to stretching i.e. the baroreceptor of the stretch receptors. if blood
pressure rises, the artery walls are stretched stimulating the nerve ending, which send
impulses to the brain which sends impulses to the vagus nerve to the heart. This slows the
heart rate and stokes volume which can help to reduce pressure.

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 ─ Low blood pressure has the opposite effect. The baroreceptors are not stretched and do not
send impulses to the brain.
─ The cardiac vascular centre in the brain the sends massages along the sympathetic nerve
which increases cardiac output and thus blood pressure. Massages are also sending to
muscles in the atria walls which contrast a narrow the atrioles vasoconstriction so
increasing blood pressure.
─ Increased blood flow into heart stretches cardiac muscle fibers and they respond by
contracting more strongly during systole. Therefore increased volume of blood is pumped
out. This gives direct relationship between degree of stretching of cardiac muscle and
power of cardiac contraction.

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 Explain why the blood pressure in the left ventricles falls to zero in the cardiac cycle; but the
lowest pressure recorded in the arteries is about 10kpa?
─ Pressure falls to zero because all blood is expelled from ventricles;
─ Pressure falls to 10kpain arteries because of elastic recoil of the smooth muscles
─ And the narrow diameter of the capillaries and arterioles
─ This gives resistance to flow

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Endocrine control
─ Stress need for action. Adrenalin is produced, causes increase in heart rate and stroke volume
hence cardiac output increased.
─ Thyroxin increase metabolism and therefore, there is need to pump blood faster to the respiring
tissue to supply sufficient oxygen for the tissue metabolically.
─ Active hence there is an increase in cardiac output.

Change in blood composition

High pH decelerates heart rate

Low pH accelerates heart rate

(High carbon dioxide levels as in the case during active exercise)

Low temperature decelerates (because there is vasoconstriction)

High temperature accelerates due to vasodilatation.

Qn. Carbon dioxide is produced in tissues as a waste product of respiration.

The majority of carbon dioxide is carried as hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO 3–) in the
plasma.
The figure below shows the chemical pathway in which carbon dioxide is converted into HCO 3– in a
red blood cell.

red blood cell

capillary
wall
CO2 + H2O

CO2 in X
tissue
Y

HCO3– in
Z + HCO3–
plasma

Identify the following:

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 enzyme X ......................................................................................................

substance Y ......................................................................................................

ion Z .......................................................................................................
[Total 3 marks]

QN. Below is a simple diagram of a mammalian heart and associated blood vessels as seen
in front (ventral) view.

P Q

A B

D C
Y

right left

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 (a) (i) Draw arrows on the diagram to show the direction of blood flow through
the left side of the heart.
[1]

(ii) State the name of vessel X and valve Y.

vessel X .................................................................................................

valve Y ...................................................................................................
[2]

(iii) Explain why there are valves at P and Q. [2]

(b) The maximum thickness of the external wall of each of the four chambers was
measured. The measurements made are shown below.

2 mm 9 mm 16mm 2 mm

(i) From the list of measurements, select the one most likely to correspond to
each of the chambers, A, C and D. Write your answers in the table.

chamber thickness/mm

[3]

(ii) Explain the differences in the wall thickness of chambers A, C and D.

[3]

(c) In this question, one mark is available for the quality of written communication.

Describe how the heart beat is initiated and how the contractions of the four
chambers are coordinated.

(Allow one and a half lined pages).

[7]
[Total 18 marks]

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 FORM 6 TERM 1

TOPIC 9: NERVOUS CONTROL

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.12.1 Need for  recognise the need - Neurones  Drawing neurones  Prepared slides
communication for communication - Need for from prepared slides
systems within communication  Discussing the need
living organisms for communication
in living organisms.

Homeostasis.
─ It is the maintenance of a constant body environment.

Control mechanism of feedback.

─ Reference point-the set level where the system operates.

─ Detector –signals the extent of any deviation from the reference point.
─ Controller-coordinates the information from various detectors and sends out instructions
which will correct the deviation.
─ Effector.- brings about the necessary change needed to return the system to the reference
point
─ Feedback loop- informs the detector of any in the system as a result of action by the effector.

Input detector effector output

Feedback loop

Negative feedback.
─ The detectors pick up the connected change and this causes them to send impulses to the
controller which bin turn sends an impulse to the effector instructing it to stop correcting the
changes. This causes the system to be turned off.

Explain the role of negative feedback in homeostasis in mammals. [4]

 maintains, constant / stable, internal environment ; R normal

 a change in, some parameter / example of parameter ; (like blood glucose or
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  temperature)
 detected by a, sensor / receptor ;
 brings about response via an effector / [Link] mechanism ;
 ref. return to, norm / set point ;
 named, receptor / effector ;

In mammals, changes in both the internal and external environment are detected by
receptors.

(a) State the general name given to changes in the environment that can be detected by
receptors.
─ stimuli; A stimulus
(b) Explain why it is important for mammals to be able to detect changes in their internal
environment.
─ need to keep internal conditions constant / homeostasis occurs / ora;
─ so enzymes / biochemical pathways / cells/ tissues / organs work (efficiently) / ora;
─ corrective mechanism switched on / AW;
─ named mechanism;

Positive feedback.
─ It is when a disturbance occurs in a system which set in motion events which will increase the
disturbance even further.E.g. During labor, oxytocin is secreted causing contractions to
increase.

Transmission of action potential along a myelinated neuron

Active ion transport.

─ A model of the sodium and potassium pump a special protein in the membrane activated by
reaction with ATP postulates flip-flop movements transferring sodium ions out across the
the membrane and potassium in.

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Facilitated diffusion: diffusion occurs because of the concentration differences generated by active
transport of `ions and cause the membrane to be permeable to Na and K more, K diffuse out than Na
does in.

─ The inside of the cell is negative with respect to the exterior and the membrane is said to be
polarized
─ The potential difference s the resting potential.
─ The K+ are actively transported into the cell i.e. 2K+ into the cell to every 3Na+ transported
out.
─ The cytoplasm has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of
sodium ions.
─ These gradients are known as electrochemical gradients.
 Because of their electrochemical gradients, sodium ions tend to diffuse back and potassium
ions tend to diffuse out.
 The channel proteins through which diffusion occurs are much more permeable to
potassium ions than sodium ions.
 Due to this and that immobilized very charged protein ions retained inside the cell , the
outside of the cell, contains many more positive ions from inside compared to outside.
 Resting potential does not usually change but change when there is a stimuli and an
impulse is promoted
 The ATP used in setting up the resting potential provides the energy for the generation of
an impulse.

The impulse OR Action potential

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.12.2 Action  describe the - Action potential  Illustrating the  ICT tools
potential generation of an - Resting potential generation of an  Braille
action potential - Myelinated neurone action potential. software/Jaws
 explain the (importance of  Watching  Print media
transmission of an sodium and simulations on
action potential potassium ions in transmission of an
along a the impulse action potential.
myelinated transmission to be  Demonstrating
neurone emphasised). saltatory conduction
 explain the - Myelin sheath in myelinated
importance of - Saltatory neurones
myelin sheath and conduction

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 KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

the refractory - Refractory period

period in
determining speed
of impulse
transmission

─ An impulse or action potential is and local reversal of the resting potential, arising when an
axon is stimulated.
─ During an action potential, the membrane potential falls until the inside of the membrane
becomes positively charged with respect to the exterior.
─ It changes from about -70mV to + 40Mv at the point of stimulation.
─ At the first point the membrane is said to be depolarized.
─ The change in potential across a membrane come about causing one of the Na+ and K+
channels to have a voltage sensitive gate.
─ The channel open and close with respect to the change in the membrane potential
difference.
─ When the gates are closed, there is little ion movement but when open, ions flow through by
diffusion.
─ One type of gated channel protein is permeable to Na+ and the other to K= ions.
─ During resting potential all gates close.
─ As stimulus depolarizes a neuron’s plasma membrane by causing a local increase in
permeability of the membrane, to sodium ions.
─ This local depolarization opens the gated sodium channels allowing a large number of
sodium ions to flow down their electrochemical diffusion gradient.
─ This causes the interior to be progressively more positive with respect to the outside and
sodium gates are almost instantly closed.
─ The gated potassium channels open and potassium flow ions flow out from their
electrochemical diffusion gradient.
─ The interior of the membrane starts to become less positive again and the process i.e.
establishing the resting potential.
─ The impulse in form of this reversal of charges runs the length of the neuron fibre as a wave
of depolarization.
─ The impulse is propagated (self-generated) by the effect of sodium ions entering. they
create an area of positive charge causing a local current to be set up with the positively
charged region. the impulse lusts for 2 milliseconds at each K+ along the fibre before the
resting potential is negatively established.

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1. During the resting potential, sodium channels and potassium channels are closed

2. Sodium channels open and Na+ rush in.

3. Interior of the membrane becomes increasingly more positively charged with respect to the
outside.

4. Equally suddenly, sodium channels close and K+ channels open causing K+ to flow out.

5. Interior of the membrane now starts to become less negative again.

6. Slight overshoot (more –ve) than the resting potential (hyper polarization)

7. Na+/K= pump working with facilitated diffusion and resting potential is reestablished.

Transmission of nerve impulse

─ Once action potential has been set up, it moves rapidly from one end of the neuron to the
other.
─ Two factors are important in determining the speed of conduction.
 Diameter of the axon: the greater the diameter the faster the speed of transmission.
 The myelin sheath: Mylenated neurons conduct impulses faster than non
myelinated ones.
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 ─ The myelinated sheath which is produced by the Schwann cells is not continuous along the
axon but is absent I points called nodes (salutatory conduction) increasing the speed with
which they are transmitted.

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.12.3 Cholinergic  describe the - Cholinergic  Demonstrating the  ICT tools

synapse structure and synapse (Role of function of  Braille
function of a calcium ions to be cholinergic synapse software/Jaws
cholinergic emphasized) using animations.  Pain killers
synapse - Effects of  Discussing the effect
 explain the effects analgesics on the of analgesics on the
of analgesic drugs nervous system nervous system.
on the nervous
system

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Transmission of action potential along a myelinated neuron

─ The arrival of an impulse at the synaptic knob opens the calcium channels in the
presynaptic membrane briefly and calcium ions flow in from the synaptic depth.
─ The calcium induces a few residues containing transmitter substance to fuse with the
presynaptic membrane and release their contents in the synaptic depth.
─ Once released, the transmitter diffuses across the synaptic depth where t binds with a
receptor protein on the membrane of the post synaptic neuron. The receptor protein
controls a channel in the membrane which when open allows more types of (Na+ & K+) to
pass.
─ When the transmitter substance binds to the receptor it causes the opening of Na+ and Na+
flows in, (an excitatory synapse). The entry of Na+ depolarizes the post synaptic membrane.
If depolarization reaches the threshold level < an action potential is generated in the post
synaptic neuron and travels down the axon to the next synapse or to an end plate.
─ The action of the neurotransmitter does not persist, renewal of neurotransmitter substance
from the synaptic debt (by enzyme action) prevents the continuous firing of the post
synaptic neuron e.g. enzyme choline sterase hydrolyses ACH to choline and ethanoic acid
which are:

Hormones; chemical messenger with following properties.

─ Travel in blood.
─ Has effect on site other than manufacture called target site / cell.
─ Fit precisely into receptor (protein) molecule sites in their target cells through lock & key
hypothesis mechanism.
 Hormones are specific to a particular target.
 Small soluble organic molecules (steroids).
 Effective I low concentration.

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Receptors are often described as biological transducers, structures which convert
energy from one form into another.

Explain how receptors in mammals convert energy into action potentials. Use named
examples of receptors in your answers.

─ rods / cones / retina / photoreceptors, detect light;

─ taste buds / olfactory cells / chemoreceptors, detect chemicals;
─ Pacinian / Meissner’s corpuscle / mechanoreceptors, detects pressure / touch;
─ Ruffini’s endings in skin / thermoreceptors, detect temperature changes;
─ proprioreceptors / stretch receptors in muscle, detect mechanical displacement / AW;
─ hair cells / AW, in semicircular canals detect movement;
─ hair cells / stereocilia, in cochlea detect sound;
─ baroreceptors detect blood pressure changes;
─ osmoreceptors detect changes in blood water potential;
─ stimulus causes sodium channels to open;
─ sodium ions enter cell;
─ depolarisation;
─ receptor potential / generator potential;
─ greater than threshold / all or nothing principle;
─ increased stimulus leads to increased frequency of action potentials;
─ AVP; e.g. hyperpolarisation in rod cell
─ deformity of capsule in Pacinian corpuscle

Describe the structure of a myelin sheath and explain its role in the speed of transmission of a nerve
impulse. [8]
─ Schwann cells;
─ wrap around axon;
─ sheath mainly lipid;
─ (sheath) insulates axon (membrane);
─ Na+ / K+, cannot pass through sheath / can only pass through
─ membrane at nodes;
─ depolarisation (of axon membrane) cannot occur where there is
─ sheath / only at nodes of Ranvier;
─ local circuits between nodes;
─ action potentials ‘jump’ between nodes;
─ saltatory conduction;
─ increases speed / reduces time, of impulse transmission;
─ up to 100 ms-1;
─ speed in non-myelinated neurones about 0.5 ms-1

Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse. [9]

─ action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane;

─ calcium (ion) channels open / presynaptic membrane becomes more permeable to Ca2+ ;
─ Ca2+ flood into presynaptic neurone ; R membrane
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 ─ this causes vesicles of (neuro)transmitter to move towards presynaptic membrane;
─ ref. acetylcholine / ACh ;
─ vesicle fuses with presynaptic membrane / exocytosis;
─ ACh released into synaptic cleft;
─ ACh diffuses across (cleft);
─ ACh binds to receptor (proteins) / AW;
─ on postsynaptic membrane; R neurone
─ proteins change shape / channels open;
─ sodium ions rush into postsynaptic neurone; R membrane
─ postsynaptic membrane depolarised;
─ action potential / nerve impulse ;
─ AVP ; e.g. action of acetylcholinesterase

Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system. [6]

─ ensure one-way transmission ;

─ receptor (proteins) only in postsynaptic, membrane / neurone ; ora
─ vesicles only in presynaptic neurone ; ora
─ ref. adaptation ;
─ increased range of actions ;
─ due to interconnection of many nerve pathways ;
─ ref. inhibitory synapses ;
─ involved in memory / learning ;
─ due to new synapses being formed ;
─ AVP; e.g. summation / discrimination

Qn. Fig. 2.1 shows the changes in membrane potential in an axon during the passage of a single
impulse.

(a) Outline how the resting potential from A to B is maintained. [3]

(b) Describe how the changes in the membrane bring about depolarization from B to C. [3]
(c) Explain how the membrane is repolarised from C to D.
[3]
(d) State three differences between nervous and hormonal communication in mammals. [3]

Solution
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(a) 1 reference to Na+/K+ pump;
2 active process/ATP used;
3 Na+ (pumped) out and K+ (pumped) in;
4 high Na+ outside and high K+ inside axon;
5 membrane slightly more leaky to K+/more K+ leaks out than Na+ leaks in/
reference to some K+ channels open;
6 inside more negative than outside; 3 max
(b) 1 reference stimulation;
2 opening of Na+ channels;
3 Na+ diffuses in (across axon membrane);
4 inside more positive than outside/outside more negative than inside;
potential across the membrane changes; 3 max
(c) 1 reference to closing Na+ channels;
2 opening of K+ channels;
3 K+ diffuses out (across axon membrane);
4 (charge on the K+) restores the membrane/resting potential;
5 reference to slight overshoot/hyperpolarisation;
6 reference K+ channels close; 3 max
(d) 1 electrical vs chemical;
2 (impulses) along nerve cells vs (hormones) through blood;
3 rapid vs slow;
4 response immediate vs relatively slow;
5 responses short lived vs long lived; 3 max

Describe the role of sodium ion channels in the transmission of a nerve impulse.[3]

─ ref. to voltage-gated sodium ion channels / ref. ligand gated channels ;

─ channels change shape (when, pd / voltage, changes) ;
─ open when, membrane depolarises / action potential arrives / neurotransmitter
─ binds to receptors ;
─ sodium ions flood in ;
─ diffuses / down concentration gradient ;
─ channels close when membrane, repolarises / potential reaches +30mV ;
─ ref. to sodium-potassium pump ;

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TOPIC 10 : Sexual Reproduction
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED RESOURCES
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, LEARNING
able to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND
KNOWLEDGE) NOTES

8.13.1 Sexual  describe anther - Anther structure  Discussing anther  ICT tools
Reproduction in structure and - Pollen formation structure and pollen  Braille software/Jaws
Plants pollen formation - Ovule formation.  Flowers
 describe ovule development  Observing and  Microscope
development drawing anther  Slides
 describe double structure and pollen  Scalpels
fertilization grains.
 Dissecting flowers.
 explain the  Observing and
- Double
significance of drawing the cross
fertilisation
double section of the
fertilisation in the ovary.
embryo sac  Discussing ovule
development.
 Discussing double
fertilisation and its
significance.
 Conducting
educational tours to
plant breeders.
8.13.2 Sexual  recognise the - Structure of the  Observing the  Mammalian
Reproduction in microscopic ovary and testis microscopic specimens
Humans structure of the - Gametogenesis structures of ovary  Models
ovary and testis - Hormonal control and testis from  Microscope
 describe of gametogenesis photomicrographs  Prepared slides
gametogenesis - Menstrual cycle and prepared  Photomicrographs
 explain how and hormones slides.  ICT
gametogenesis is - Capacitation  Observing  Braille
controlled by - Acrosome gametogenesis software/Jaws
hormones reaction simulations.  Print media
 explain in detail - Cortical reaction  Outlining the
the role of - Fertilization processes of
hormones in the - Structure of the gametogenesis.
menstrual cycle placenta  Discussing
 describe - Transport homornal control of
fertilisation - Hormonal gametogenesis.
 describe the production  Interpreting
structure of the - Contraception graphical
placenta - Invitro fertilization representation of
 explain the roles - Abortion the menstrual cycle.
of the placenta - Role of hormones  Observing
 discuss simulation of
contraception fertilization.
and abortion from  Observing and
biological and drawing the
ethical view structure of the
points placenta.
 Observing
 outline the role of simulation of the
hormones in pre- mechanisms in
menstrual placental transfer.
tension,

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 KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED RESOURCES
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, LEARNING
able to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND
KNOWLEDGE) NOTES

replacement  Debating on
therapy and biological and
menopause ethical viewpoints.
 Discussing the role
of hormones.

outline the role of hormones in Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)

See Reproduction hand out

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Explain the role of the following hormones in the menstrual cycle: estrogen, progesterone, follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). [8]

 FSH stimulates (in first few/five days) follicle development (in ovary);
 (FSH stimulates) follicles to secrete estrogen, (positive feedback);
 low levels of estrogen initially inhibit FSH (and LH) secretion;
 rapid increase in estrogen stimulates FSH / LH production, (positive feedback);
 estrogen also starts to repair / thicken endometrium/uterine lining;
 LH stimulates ovulation;
 LH causes follicle to produce less estrogen (negative feedback) / more progesterone
 (positive feedback);
 LH stimulates follicle to become corpus luteum;
 corpus luteum secretes (more estrogen and) large level of progesterone (positive
 feedback);
 estrogen and/or progesterone stimulate thickening of endometrium / uterus lining;
 estrogen and/or progesterone inhibit FSH and LH secretion (by negative feedback);
 estrogen and/or progesterone levels fall after day 21-24 if no embryo / fertilization;
 lower concentrations of estrogen and/or progesterone allow disintegration of
 endometrium / menstruation occurs;
 FSH secretion begins a new cycle; [8 max]
Award [6 max] if only three hormones are explained.

TOPIC 11: ECOLOGY

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.14.1 Levels of  define the terms - Species  Explaining the  print media
Ecological used to describe - Habitat terms.
Organisation levels of ecological - Population  Stating examples
organisation - Niche of each of the
- Community terms.
- ecosystem

─ Is the study of organism within their environment, including the way in which organisms
interact with each other & the non living part of the environment

Terms used in ecology

1. Habitant
─ The place where organism live e.g. a pond.
─ The term habitant is often used to mean the kind of place in which a particular species of
organism can live, such as the range of pH of the water & the range of dissolved oxygen
concentration in which it is found.

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 2. Population
─ Refers to all the organism of one species that live in the same place at the same time, make
up a population on that species.
─ A population is a breeding group or it includes all the individuals of that species which can
interbreed with each other.
─ The population of dark weed is made up of the entire dark weed found in the pond.
─ A group of organisms of one species occupying defined area & usually isolated to some
degree from other similar to groups.
3. Community
─ All organisms of every species in a habitant. Communities may remain fairly stable over a
period of time or may be in a progress of gradual change (succession).
─ Eventually, succession may result in the formation of a stable community known as climax
community.
─ Any group of organism belonging to a number of different species that co- exist in the same
habitant/ area & interact through trophic & spatial relations.
4. Ecosystem.
─ The inter-relationship of the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) elements in any
biological system.
─ It is a self-contained unit.
─ A community of organisms & their physical environment interact as an ecological unity.
5. Niche
─ Is a place which is occupied by particular organisms in an environment &its role in that
environment?
─ Within an ecosystem each species of organisms plays a particular role.
─ The term niche is used to describe this role.
─ An organism niche has many aspects.
─ It includes what the organism eats, how it captures its food, what eat it, the secretory
material produces & so on behavior.
─ Within a community, each species has a niche which differs in at least some ways from the
niches of all the other species in the same community. They will be competition for
available resources.

A major goal in the study of ecosystems is to examine the production and utilization of energy. To
assist in this goal, plants and animals are organized into groups called trophic levels that reflect
their main energy source, as follows:

1. Primary producers are autotrophs that convert sun energy into chemical energy. They
include plants, photosynthetic protists, cyanobacteria, and chemosynthetic bacteria.

2. Primary consumers, or herbivores, eat the primary producers.

3. Secondary consumers, or primary carnivores, eat the primary consumers.

4. Tertiary consumers, or secondary carnivores, eat the secondary consumers.

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 5. Detritivores are consumers that obtain their energy by consuming dead plants and
animals (detritus). The smallest detritivores, called decomposers, include fungi and
bacteria. Other detritivores include nematodes, earthworms, insects, and scavengers such as
crabs, vultures, and jackals.

Flow of energy

─ Living cells require energy for many purposes which are locomotion, growth& e.t.c
─ The immediate source of energy is almost ATP which is produced for respiration.
─ Respiration transfers energy from other organic molecules such as glucose to ATP
molecules.
─ The energy in these organic molecules can be thought as organic chemical energy.
─ There are 3 types of chains.
─ A food chain is a sequence of series of organisms feeding on one another.

Grazing food chain

-this is based on living plants

Grass cow lion decomposition.

─ Produces of the first level, they receive max energy which is able to sustain a large number
of organisms.
─ They are autotrophic organism, e.g. grass, leaves
─ Primary consumers: food directly on producers, these are herbivores
─ Secondary consumers: feed on herbivores usually carnivores.
─ Tertiary consumers: can be omnivores, herbivores or carnivores.
─ Decomposers: they feed on saprophytic organisms

Detrital food chain

This is based on dead plants materials

Grass earth worms shrew.

Food web
─ Is a group of interconnected food chains because there are sustaining organisms which do not
depend on one type after food?

Parasitic food chain

Rose bush aphids spider insect bird lawks.

─ At each stage in the food chin energy containing materials are transformed.
─ The stage of the food chain is reorganized as feeding levels or trophic levels.
─ Most food chain with other chains, since most organisms are the prey of more than one predator.
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─ Only a small portion of the energy containing materials obtained by a consumer as it feed
becomes built into the organism itself.
─ This is partly because most of the food is undigested & partly because most of the remainder is
used to provide energy for processes e.g. movement, digestion, excretion & reproduction.
─ More energy is lost & the last receive a small amount of energy.
─ Shorter food chain – more energy is required by the last feeding level.

Explain how energy is lost from producers to secondary consumers?

─ Respiration
─ Waste/urine/faeces/dead plants/exreta/excreation
─ Plant are swept/ away migrate
─ Not all parts of the plant / primary consumers are digestible
─ Energy losses to decomposers

Outline how bacteria convert Nitrogen in the proteins to a form that may be taken up living
plants. [2]

─ protein amino acids

─ Deamination
─ Ammonification/ ammonia
─ Ammonia to nitrates
─ oxidation

Qn. Describe how energy flows in an ecosystem. [8]

-source of energy, the sun

-sun to plants/producers

-conversion of light to chemical energy

-from plants/ producers to primary consumers

-examples of a food chain

-secondary to tertiary consumers

-loss of energy at each tropic level/loss as heat/ respiration /excretion/egestion to the atmosphere

-dead and waste material to decomposers/destritus feeders to the atmosphere

-unidirectional flow of energy.

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The Nitrogen cycle
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.14.2 Nitrogen  outline the - Nitrogen cycle  Illustrating the  Print media
Cycle nitrogen cycle - Roles of: nitrogen cycle.  ICT tools
- nitrogen – fixing  Observing  Braille software/Jaws
bacteria leguminous root  legumes
(Rhizobium) nodules.
- nitrifying bacteria
(Nitrosomonas and
Nitrobacter)
- denitrifying bacteria
(Pseudomonas and
Clostridium)

─ Nitrogen in the atmosphere is very insert & it takes place a lot of energy to split it, the bonds in
the molecule so that it can form other compounds such as nitrates & nitrites.
─ Nitrogen is an essential component of biological molecules such as protein & DNA
─ The only organism capable of splitting nitrogen are few bacteria & algae .they use it form nitrites
& nitrates, a process known s nitrification
─ This is the major way in which nitrogen enters the biotic component of the ecosystem.

Nitrogen fixation.
─ Is energy consuming process (endothermic reaction) because the two nitrogen atoms of the
nitrogen molecules must be separated?
─ Nitrogen fixers achieve this by using the enzyme nitrogenase & energy from ATP.
─ Non enzymatic separation requires the much greater energy of industrial process / of ionizing
radiation
─ There is no counter balancing removal mechanism taking industrial / fixed nitrogen back to
the atmospheric reserver pool.
─ A regulation n small amount of nitrogen ( 5- 10 %) is formed by ionizing events in the
atmosphere , the resulting nitrogen oxides dissolve in the rain forming nitrites
─ The legumes such as clover, soya beans & peas are probably the greatest natural sources of
fixed nitrogen.
─ Their roots possess character swellings called nodules which caused by colonies of nitrogen
fixing bacteria living within the soils.
─ The relationship is mutualistic because the plant gain fixed nitrogen in the form of ammonia
from the bacteria & in return the bacteria gains energy and certain nutrients such as
carbohydrates from the plant.
─ Legumes can contribute as much as 100 times more fixed nitrogen than free living bacteria.
─ All nitrogen fixers Inco-operate nitrogen into ammonia but this is immediately used to make
organic compounds mainly proteins.

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Qn. Describe the role played by microorganisms in the Nitrogen cycle [6]

Emphasis should have been placed on specific organisms and the part they play in the Nitrogen cycle.
The following points are expected:

─ saphrophytic bacteria/ fungi feed on dead organisms or waste/ decompose dead organisms or
waste
─ -releasing ammonium compounds /ammonia
─ -nitrifying bacteria/ nitrosomonas
─ -oxidize ammonia or ammonium compounds to nitrates.
─ -oxidation of nitrates to nitrates by free-living bacteria/ nitrobacter/ nitrococcus
─ -nitrigen fixing bacteria/ rhizobium/ mutualistic bluegreen bacteria/ nostoc/ free- living green
bacteria/ Azotobacter/ clostridium
─ -convert (gaseous) nitrogen into ammonia/nitrates
─ -denitrificans
─ -converts nitrates (in the soil)into gaseous nitrogen.

Explain the role of nitrifying bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle.

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 ─ convert , ammonium / NH4+ , to , nitrate III / nitrite / NO2- ; A ammonia / NH3
─ nitrite , converted to , nitrate (V) / NO3- ;
─ A one mark for single step ‘ammonium to nitrate (V)’
─ requires , aerobic conditions / oxygen / aerated soil ;
─ (nitrate (V) ions) can be , taken up / used , by plants ;

Explain the role denitrifying bacteria in the Nitrogen cycle.

─ remove nitrate (V) (ions) / convert nitrate (V) (ions) to nitrogen (gas) ;
─ in , anaerobic conditions / oxygen poor soil / non-aerated soil ;
─ recycles nitrogen / further use of nitrogen (by fixing) ;
─ prevents nitrogen being trapped / AW ;

Pyramid of numbers
It presents the number of organisms in each trophic level.

Inverted pyramid of numbers

─ The producer is a single plant e.g. sycamore which is affected by parasites such as caterpillars
which are parasitized by protozoa.

Pyramids of biomass
─ Fresh mass of all the organism in that trophic level is called biomass.
─ We can have inverted pyramids in specific seasons.
─ At certain times of the year the biomass of the timing herbivores that floats in lakes oceans
may exceed the biomass of tiny photosynthetic phytoplankton on which they feed.
─ Total mass of organisms (biomass) is estimated
─ For each tropic level
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 ─ Estimates involve weighing of representatives individuals; recordingmembers labourous
and expensive in terms of time and equipment
─ Ideally dry masses should be compared
─ These can be estimated from wet masses or can be determined by destructive methods
─ Rectangles used in constructing the pyramids represent masses of organisms at each
tropic level per unit area or volume
─ Pyramid become a typical shape above this level

Pyramid of energy
─ Most ideal and fundamental way of representing relationship between organisms in
different tropic levels.
─ Takes into account the rate of production contast to pyramid of biomass
─ Each bar of pyramid represents the amount of energy per unit area
─ Allows different ecosystems to be compared , i.e the relative importance of populations
within one ecosystem can be compared and inverted pyramids can no be obtained
─ Input of solar energy can be added as an extra rectangle at the base of pyramid
─ There is energy loss at each feeding level such that there is no inverted pyramid of energy.
─ Some of the energy is lost through respiration & excretion & egestion.

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Ecological efficiency describes the proportion of energy represented at one trophic level that is
transferred to the next level. The relative sizes of tiers in an energy pyramid (or pyramid of
productivity) indicate the ecological efficiency of the ecosystem. On average, the efficiency is only
about 10 percent, that is, about 10 percent of the productivity of one trophic level is transferred to
the next level. The remaining 90 percent is consumed by the individual metabolic activities of each
plant or animal, or is transferred to detritivores when they die.

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEMS

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.14.3 Anthropogenic  describe the - Human settlement  Discussing the  Ecosystems

Impact on effects of human - Deforestation human activities  ICT tools
Ecosystems activities on - Industrial activities that affect the  Braille software/Jaws
ecosystems - Agricultural ecosystems.
activities  Carrying out case
- Mining studies.
- Global warming
- Invasive plant
species

How fossil fuels may affect the environment

─ Almost all air pollutants are gases from burning of fossil fuel.

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Smoke

─ Is tiny particles of sooth (carbon) suspended in the air, which are produced from fossil fuels,
particularly coal & oil.

It has a number of harmful effects.

1. When breathed in, smoke may blacken the alveoli, causing damage to their delicate
epithelical lining, it also aggravates respiratory aliments e.g. bronchitis.
2. While it remains suspended in the air, it can reduce the light intensity at ground level. This
may lower the overall rate of photosynthesis.
3. Deposits of smoke / more particularly soot may coat plant leaves, reducing photosynthesis
by preventing the light penetrating, by blocking the stomata.
4. Smoke, soot & ash become deposited on clothes, cars & buildings. These are costly to clan.

Sulphur dioxide

─ It may increase soil fertility in areas where sulphates are deficient / even help to control
diseases such as black spot of roses by acting as a fungicides , it’s affect concentration are
largely harmful.
1. It causes irritation of the respiratory system & damage to the epithelical lining the alveoli; it
can also irritate the conjunctiva of the eye.
2. It reduces the growth of many plants e.g. barley, wheat, lettuce, while other such as lichens
may be killed, sulphur is soluble in water. The sulphurous & sulphuric acid. The rainfall
therefore has a low pH & is known as acid rain, lakes in the region affected by acid rain are
extremely acidic & many species with in them have been killed.

Carbon dioxide

─ Carbon dioxide is transparent to incoming short wave radiation from the sun but absorbs
strongly long wave radiation which the air re- radiates into space therefore traps going
radiation warming the lower atmosphere which in turn radiates energy back to the surface
of the earth .
─ The rise in temperature i.e. so called greenhouse effect will cause the expansion of the
oceans & gradual melting of the polar ice caps, with consequent rise in sea level.
─ This would in turn cause flooding in low lying land, upon which it happens, many of the
world’s capital cities lie.

Carbon monoxide.

─ (Co) occurs in exhaust emission from cars & other vehicles.

─ It is poisonous on account of having an affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen.
─ Upon combining with hemoglobin, it forms a stable compound which is prevents oxygen
combining with it.

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 ─ Continued inhalation leads to death as all hemoglobin combine with carbon monoxide,
leaving non transport oxygen.
─ In small concentration it may cause headaches.

Nitrogen oxides

─ Nitrogen oxides e.g. nitrogen dioxide are produced by the burning of fuels in car engines &
emitted as exhaust.
─ In themselves, they are poisonous, but importantly, they contribute to the formation of the
photochemical smog.
─ Under certain climatic conditions pollutants become trapped close to the ground.
─ The action of sunlight on the nitrogen oxides in these pollutants cause them to be converted
to peroxacyl nitrate (PAN).
─ The compounds are much more dangerous causing much more damage to vegetation & eye
lung irritation in man.

Discuss the use and effects of nitrogen containing fertisers in agriculture. [8]
─ Nitrogen containing fertilizers increase yields
─ When a farmer rotate crops nitrogen containing fertilizers do not cause much harm
─ When a farmer applies the correct amount of fertilizer no harm occurs;
─ Problem arises when excess fertilizer are applied;
─ Excess application of fertilizer causes eutrophication of water bodies
─ Eutrophication of water bodies cause algal blooms;
─ Algal blooms decompose and reduce the amount of oxygen in water bodies;
─ Cause death of aquatic organisms;
─ Due to lack of oxygen;
─ Fertilizer apply no harm occurs when fert application crop is actively growing /correct time
─ Soil becomes acidic and this affects the crumb structure of the soil;

Lead

─ Most lead in the air is emitted from car exhaust.

─ Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is added to petrol as anti knock agent to help it to burn more evenly
in car engine.
─ The lead absorbed by the lung could have the following adverse effects.
1. Digestive problem e.g. intestinal colic.
2. Impering the functions of the kidney.
3. Nervous problem including convulsion.
4. Brain damage & mental retardation in children.
─ Anti-knock agent which do not contain lead exist & in some countries legislation permits
only this time.
─ They are however, most expensive & cause an increase in the actual cost of petrol.

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Methods of controlling air pollution.
1. Use of non lead & anti knock & the removal of pollution such as sulphur before smoke is
emitted from the chimney by passing the smoke through a spray of water at which much of
the sulphur dissolves.
2. Use of electric cars is a further means of limiting air pollution.
3. Using catalytic converters to make sure that there is complete combustion.
4. Using other forms of fuel which do produce the gases e.g. methane

How deforestation may affect the environment.

1. There is lost of traditionally harvested products such as timber, poles fire wood, twine,
fruits, honey game animals & herbs that at one time supplied local people with their need.
2. The demand for soft wood for building, pulp wood & tropical hard wood is rising globally
.long term suppliers are threatened.
3. If forest canopy is removed, the tropical soil surface backs hard in the intense heat;
4. More rapid run off
5. rainfall cannot easily penetrate the surface runoff.
6. More rapid runoff of water results in soil erosion. This can remove the topsoil & leave the
ground unsuitable for growing crops.
7. It can also lead to silting of reservoirs which reduces their useful life , whilst habbers
8. Deforestation increase global warming carbon dioxide which may have long term effect on
the global climate (green effect).
9. This may result in seasonal drift & flooding in some area.
10. Reduces transpiration
11. Leads to less rainfall, atmospheric moisture/ droughts/ desertification
12. Forest have species rich & diverse wild life communities, their destruction will lead to
enumerable extinctions of little known forms of life with the consequent loss of genetic
variety & potential resources.

Measures
1. Practicing re- forestation & afforestation.
2. Using other sources of fuel instead of wood e.g. nuclear fuel, wind & water.
3. Electrify rural areas.

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Conservation
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.14.4 Conservation  explain, using - conservation  Discussing the  ICT tools

specific examples, - role of concept of  Braille software/Jaws
how conservation Environmental conservation.  Environmental
may involve Management  Evaluating trends Management Act
preservation, Agency (EMA) and in the population
management and CAMPFIRE numbers of the
reclamation - The African African Elephant
 discuss the Elephantand White and White
conservation of the Rhinoceros rhinoceros.
African Elephant - Population  Researching on
(Loxodonta numbers other endandered
africana) and the - Reasons for species.
White Rhinoceros concern, measures  Discussing
(Ceratotherium introduced economic
simum) - International co- implications to
operation, conflict Zimbabwe.
of interests  Conducting
Educational Tours.

Qn. Discuss the Conservation of the African elephant, L. Africana and African cyclotis, with
regard to population numbers, reasons of concern, measures introduced and international
co-operation. [8]

On population

 no serious predators except man

 poaching main problem
 dropped (from +1.0 million to +500 000)

Reasons for concern

 elephant complete with man for land used in agriculture/forestry/settlement/ destruction

of vegetation by elephants
 elephant killed for ivory
 mostly males for bigger tasks

Measures introduced

 ban elephant poaching

 sustainable management programme
 culling
 ref to camfire
 ban on illegal trade of elephant products (by CITES)

International co-operation
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  ref CITES difficult for all countries to agree on total ban/ culling measures/ sale and
marketing of animal products
 ref to tourism and conservation agreements between countries.

outline the reasons why conservationists are concerned about the population of the African
elephant, loxodonta Africana. [8]
─ low population of elephants/ref to extinction
─ population falling rapidly
─ loss of genetic diversity
─ conversion of suitable areas of habitat to agricultural use/AW/Human population rising
rapidly
─ high value of ivory/porverty makes poaching of ivory attractive
─ disruption of elephant families/ elephants have a matriachical family system; elephants
threaten human life
─ elephants destoy trees/crops/water installations
─ AVP

Endangered species – any species whose numbers have become so low that they are unlikely to be
maintained by normal rates of reproduction and are in danger of becoming extinct.

Biodiversity
─ The biodiversity of the planet is the result of evolution. In any ecosystem, there is a huge
interdependence between species and it is clear that biodiversity is essential to maintain
ecological balance and stability.
─ Another part of biodiversity is the extent of genetic diversity with species and populations. Such
genetic diversity is also essential for the stability and survival of a species.
The Need to maintain Biodiversity
─ Biodiversity is in decline – mostly as a result of a variety of man’s activities. It is now well
understood that it is important to try and halt this decline – indeed, conservation measures are
needed, not only to halt the decline, but to try and restore as much biodiversity as possible.
─ The need to maintain biodiversity may be considered in terms of biological reasons or reasons
from a human perspective:
Biological reasons
─ As mentioned above, it is essential that biodiversity is maintained if ecosystems (and the
whole planet) are to remain ecologically balanced and stable.
─ In addition, evolution has resulted in diverse gene pools within populations – the
maintenance of these gene pools and the genetic diversity of species is extremely important
if species are to be prevented from becoming extinct.
Human reasons
─ Other species of animals and plants provide an important resource for humans.
─ These may be
i. For use in agriculture, either as potential food supplies or to be crossed with
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 ii. existing agricultural species to improve features, such as yield, hardiness or
iii. disease resistance.
iv. To provide possible medicines
v. To encourage tourism in some countries - ecotourism
vi. From an ethical point of view, if human activity has been largely responsible for the decline
in biodiversity, then humans have an obligation to reverse this decline. Equally, it is
important to try and maintain the current level of biodiversity for future generations.

Reasons why species have become endangered

─ In African ecology, the elephant is regarded as a keystone species. In 1930 there were
estimated to be 5 – 10 million African elephants. By 1979 the number was reduced to 1.3
million and when it was officially added to the endangered list in 1989, the numbers had
fallen to around 600,000 - less than 10% of its numbers earlier in the twentieth century.
─ A number of factors contributed to this dramatic decline in numbers:
Habitat loss – elephants eat a great deal and need a large amount of habitat.
─ During the twentieth century, the human population of Africa has increased massively and,
as a result, humans and elephants have become competitors for living space. The forest and
savannah habitats of the elephant have been reduced as humans have used timber for fuel
and building and land for growing crops and grazing livestock.
─ When humans and elephants live in close proximity, various problems arise – elephants raid
crops and, on occasion, will rampage through villages. Farmers and other residents regard
them as something of a pest and shoot them.
Hunting – this has been a major cause of the decline in elephant numbers.
─ Elephants became prized trophies for big-game hunters and, more recently, they have been
killed for their ivory tusks. Ivory is easily caved and regarded as a beautiful material
─ most of the ivory carving in the world takes place in Japan and other countries in Asia. At one
stage, ivory was more expensive than gold – indeed, it became known as ‘white gold’.
─ Hunting continues for the global ‘bushmeat’ trade
Poaching – it is no longer legal to hunt elephants in most African countries. However, the high prices
paid for ivory meant that elephants continued to be killed by poachers.
─ At its peak, the poachers became highly organised, using automatic weapons, vehicles and
even planes to herd and kill huge numbers at a time. The biggest elephants were usually
targeted (because they have the largest tusks) which meant that it was generally the adults
that were killed, leaving young elephants without any adults to learn from. As a result,
─ the social structure of the elephant populations broke down and many of the elephant groups
left were leaderless juveniles.
─ Habitat loss – competition between humans and elephants for space, treesand grazing leading
to loss and fragmentation of the elephant habitat
─ Hunting and poaching – for trophies, ivory, protection of villages and forBushmeat
Methods of protecting endangered species
─ There are a variety of ways in which attempts are being made to protect endangered species
and prevent them becoming extinct.
─ The extent to which these attempts are successful is somewhat variable.
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Zoos
─ One way of protecting endangered species of animals is to capture some from the wild and
place them in captivity.
─ In this way, it is possible to make sure that they are well fed, protected from predators and
disease and isolated from other potential problems which might be encountered in their
natural habitat.
─ If such animals are simply placed in zoos, the zoo is really acting as an ‘ark’ and little is actually
being achieved in terms of maintaining or increasing populations in the wild.
─ If the animals will breed in captivity, then it is possible to maintain or even increase numbers.
─ If such captive-bred individuals can be returned to their natural habitat, then it might be
possible to increase numbers in the wild, thereby preventing the endangered from becoming
extinct.

Captive breeding has a number of advantages:

─ it is possible to monitor the health of the mother and the development of the
─ fetus during the pregnancy.
─ sperm and eggs can be obtained from the captive individuals
─ these can be stored in a frozen form
─ it allows the possibility of artificial insemination
─ also in-vitro fertilisation
─ fertilised embryos may be implanted in surrogate mothers (which might even
─ be of different species)
─ there is the possibility of international co-operation and the transfer of breeding individuals
between different zoos
─ it allows the keeping of breeding records and the genetic relatedness of captive individuals

Although some species of animals have been bred successfully in captivity and released back into the
wild, with other species this has not been straightforward and a number of problems have been
encountered. It has been found that some species simply do not breed successfully in captivity, whilst,
in some cases, there have been problems in releasing animals that have bred in captivity.

Captive Breeding
There are a number of reasons why animals do not always breed successfully when in captivity:
1 They are no longer living in their natural habitat

2 The conditions experienced in captivity can cause stress and behavioural changes

3 The stress can disrupt normal reproductive cycles and breeding behaviour

4 They often have little choice of mate and may reject the chosen mate

Release of captive-bred individuals into the wild

Problems which reduce the success rate of releasing captive-bred individuals include:

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 1. Habitat destruction (usually as a result of man’s activities) might mean that there is very little
suitable habitat available in which to release the animals
2. Having been in captivity, animals might not find it easy to move around in their natural
habitat
3. It may not be easy for them to find enough food – especially if they have been used to being
fed in captivity
4. They may not be able to communicate with other members of their species in the wild and
may not integrate into social groups
5. They may be susceptible to diseases in the wild Some of these problems are being overcome
by making sure that conditions within zoos are as close to the natural habitat of the species
as possible. Contact with humans is kept to an absolute minimum and individuals can be
‘acclimatised’ in cages before they are actually released into their natural habitat.

Botanic gardens
─ Endangered species of plants can be grown in botanic gardens. Clearly, it is possible to create
ideal growing conditions – either outdoors or in glasshouses, when it is possible to control
very carefully the growing conditions.
─ This applies to the availability of light, nutrients, water and the atmospheric conditions.
Within such botanic gardens,
─ it is also possible to propagate endangered species
– either by growing from seed or by some means of vegetative propagation, such as cuttings.
Techniques of tissue culture also allow large numbers to be produced very quickly.
─ This allows the possibility of re-introducing endangered species of plants into their natural
habitat.

Seed banks
─ Many plants produce seeds which are very long-lived and large numbers can be stored in a
relatively small space. Such a collection of seeds is referred to as a seed bank. The life span of
such seeds can be extended if they are kept in carefully controlled conditions – especially in
an atmosphere of low oxygen levels, moisture and temperature.
─ Given that the seeds will contain all the genetic material of any given species, it also means
that the gene pool of that species is being maintained.
─ Clearly, if the seeds of endangered species are stored in this way, such seeds can be
germinated at any time and plants can be grown in Botanic gardens or restored to the wild.
─ Some species produce seeds which have a limited longevity (e.g. cocoa, rubber,coconut) –
keeping their seeds in seed banks is not possible. Such plants would need to be maintained in
botanic gardens.
National Parks (and other protected areas)
• Many countries have designated areas, such as National Parks, which are set up to conserve
rare / endangered species and maintain important habitats.
• Often, legislation is passed to ensure that such areas are protected under the law.
• The ways in which National Parks protect their resident species include :
1. Wardens, rangers and volunteers can be used to patrol the parks
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2. Access by humans can be restricted – often footpaths are created and maintained to avoid
interference with wildlife habitats
3. Agricultural activities can be strictly controlled – traditional farming methods can be encouraged
4. Industrial activities and mining can be limited and controlled
5. The building of roads, dwellings and other developments can be strictly controlled
6. Visitor Centres can be established to educate the general public in the importance of conservation
within the Park – and elsewhere
7. Wildlife can be protected directly e.g. 24 hour surveillance of nests /breeding sites
In addition to National Parks (which usually occupy large areas of land), different countries can also
create other categories of conservation areas if they contain species or habitats which need some
form of protection

Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle. [5]

Award [1] for any of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
 plants taking in 2 CO (making carbohydrates) in photosynthesis;
 animals eating plants;
 animals / plants giving off 2 CO by (cell) respiration;
 decomposers / micro-organisms giving off 2 CO by (cell) respiration;
 fossilization of plant / animal parts / store carbon as fossil fuels;
 factories/cars giving off 2 CO through combustion of fossil fuels;
 (dead) plants/animals to decomposers/saprotrophs; [5 max]

Discuss the causes and effects of the greenhouse effect and ways to control it. [8]

causes: [2 max]
 increased 2 CO levels (from combustion of fossil fuels by cars/transport);
 increased methane levels (from intensified animal farming / rice (paddy/padi) fields);
 increased CFCs levels (from sprays / industrial processes);
 increased burning of forests / urbanization;
 reduced use of N-fertilizers ( 3 NO− etc.);
effects: [3 max]
 higher levels of greenhouse gases increase the retention of heat reflected from earth;
 cause increased temperatures of atmosphere / global warming;
 increase water evaporation / droughts / crop losses;
 increase melting of polar ice / glaciers / release of trapped methane;
 increased levels of sea / possible flooding of coastal areas;
 changing weather patterns / climatic extremes;
controls: [3 max]
 international measures to reduce combustion of fossil fuels (e.g. Kyoto convention);
 reduce use of cars / combustion motors / smaller cars / drive less / lower speed limits
 / mass transit;
 reduce energy consumption / use low energy light bulbs / use better insulation in houses /
 increase use of electric cars;
 increased protection / restoration of ecosystems / reforestation;
 alternative energy sources (e.g. wind, solar, waves, nuclear);
 eat local food;
 feasible suggestion to increase photosynthesis/reduce 2 CO (e.g. spreading of nutrients in
 ocean to induce algae growth); [8 max]

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 FORM 6 TERM 2

TOPIC 12: DIVERSITY OF ORGANISMS

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.15.1 Classification  identify organisms - Diagnostic features  Observing  ICT tools

using diagnostic of the five Kingdom organisms.  Braille
features of the five - Diagnostic features  Classifying software/Jaws
Kingdoms of phyla organisms into the  Samples of
 use diagnostic - Kingdom five Kingdoms. organisms
features to divide - Phyla  Collecting and  Dichotomous key
kingdoms into - Class classifying
phyla - Order organisms.
 state the taxonomic - Family  Outlining the
hierarchy - Genus taxonomic
 observe the rules - Species hierarchy.
of binomial - Binomial  Discussing the rules
nomenclature nomenclature of binomial
- Genus and nomenclature.
species names

Introduction
─ Diversity is the variety of living organisms

─ Organisms have been grouped together for studies of their characteristics

─ The grouping of organisms is called classification

─ classification is based on agreed name of each organism

Hierarchy of classification

─ Systems of classification are hierchial i.e each successive group contains more and more different kind
s of organisms

─ Taxon is the general name given to each classification grouping

─ Taxonomy is the science of classification of organisms into groups called taxons

─ The longest taxon is the species and the most increasive or highest taxon is the kingdom

─ Phylogeny is the study of evolutionary traits

─ Natural classification of organisms is based on evolutionary relationships

DEFINITION OF TERMS

─ Kingdom is the largest grouping of organisms’ e.g animalia

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─ Phylum consists of organisms with many similarities e.g bryophyte, cnidarians etc.

─ Class consists of organisms which are grouped into several orders with few similarities

─ Order is a group of apparently related families

─ Family is a group of apparently related genera

─ Genus is a group of similar and closely related species

─ Species is a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile off springs

BINOMIAL CLASSIFICATION
─ In the 18th century a scientist called Carolus Linnaeus introduced a binomial system of classifying org
anisms.

─ it names each organism as a member of genus and species and is used on international agreement

─ This was in Latin a language that could be understood by all scientists around the world.

─ The scientific name is two parts the first denotes the genus which starts with a capital letter and the se
cond denotes species starts with a small letter.

─ e.g Homo sapiens

─ The generic name is shared with other related species considered to be sufficiently similar to be grou
ped in the same genus e.g Homo erectus, Homo habilis

Kingdoms
─ Organisms were once classified into two kingdoms i.e Animalia and Plantae in which all organisms tha
t were not animals were placed in Plantae kingdom e.g Fungi, spirogyra/protoctists

─ This was known as two kingdom classification

─ This had an advantage that it was easy to classify the organisms into appropriate kingdom; it was also c
onsistent with the traditional literature

─ However it had drawbacks such as problems with protoctists e.g Euglena is photosynthetic-plant like a
nd motile-animal like

─ It was not very late that Margulis and Perutz introduced the five kingdom classification in which organ
isms were classified as Plants, Fungi, Prokaryote, Protoctists and Animalia

(a)Kingdom Plantae
Diagnostic features of the Kingdom Plantae

─ Eukaryotic

─ Multicellular

─ Photosynthetic/autotrophic

─ Have cellulose cell walls

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 ─ Non-motile

─ Have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll a and b

─ store carbohydrate as starch

─ reproduce sexually and asexually

─ Have vascular system or undeveloped vascular tissue

─ mainly terrestrial

─ some have true roots, leaves and roots

─ alteration of generations

Kingdom Animaliae
Diagnostic features of the kingdom Animaliae

─ Eukaryotic

─ Multicellular

─ Non photosynthetic

─ Heterotrophic

─ no cellulose cell walls

─ store carbohydrate as glycogen

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 ─ no chlorophyll

─ motile

─ have nervous system (C.N.S)

─ have endocrine system for homeostasis

─ reproduce sexually or asexually

─ body divided into head, abdomen and limbs

─ all have an alimentary canal

─ have muscles and skeletal systems for maintaining body shape, protection and to provide support f
or inner structures

─ have a transport system with a transport medium usually blood pumped around the body in vessel
s by the heart

─ bilateral symmetry except cnidarians and echinoderms

─ triploblastic except cnidarians

─ some are segmented e.g annelids and arthropods

Here is a picture showing the increasing complexity of the three main body plans:

 Diploblastic acoelomate
 Triploblastic acoelomate
 Triploblastic coelomate

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All phyla fit into one of the three body plans shown in the diagram above.

When we talk about complexity in phyla, we refer to the number of tissue layers and whether it has a
coelom (see below).

The more tissue layers, and the presence of a coelom the more complex the animal. Humans, for example,
have a coelom and are triploblastic (see below), making them one of the most complex organisms in
terms of their body plan.

Diploblastic: An animal possessing 2 major tissue layers. These include the outer layer (the ectoderm)
and the inner layer (the endoderm).

Triploblastic: An animal possessing 3 major tissue layers. It has a middle layer (the mesoderm), between
the endoderm and the ectoderm.

Radial Symmetry: Animals having symmetry around a central axis. Animals with radial symmetry are
diploblastic.

Bilateral Symmetry: Symmetry in which the body can be divided into 2 mirror-image halves.

Coelom: Fluid-filled cavity within the mesoderm. It is not the gut. Having a coelom gives the animal
certain advantages:

 It enables independent movement of the gut wall and the body wall.

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  It provides space of the enlargement and development of internal organs.
 It may act as a circulatory medium for transport of materials or a storage area of excess or waste
materials.

Metamerism (segmentation)

• The serial repetition of similar body segments • Somite (or metamere) = each segment
• True metamerism is found in only three phyla:
Annelida, Arthropoda and Chordata

Cephalization

• The differentiation of a head end with concentrated sensory organs

• Found chiefly in bilaterally symmetrical animals
• Polarity: differentiation along a anterior/posterior axis accompanying cephalization

Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)

- Hydroids, sea anemones, jellyfishes, hard and soft corals

Characteristics:
• Entirely aquatic
• Radial symmetry
• Two basic body types: polyps and medusae
• Exoskeleton or endoskeleton of chitin, calcium carbonate or protein possible
• Body composed of two tissue layers with mesoglea
• Gastrovascular cavity with only one opening
• Special stinging cell organelles called nematocysts
• Muscular system of an outer layer of longitudinal fibers and an inner layer of circular fibers
• Reproduction may be asexual, sexual or both
• No excretory or respiratory tissues or organs
• No coelomic, or body, cavity

Phylum Platyhelminthes
Characteristics:
• Acoelomate = no true internal body space
• Triploblastic = three well defined tissue or germ layers
• Bilateral symmetry
• Body dorsoventrally flattened
• No respiratory, circulatory, or skeletal systems

Phylum Mollusca:
- Mollusks, snails, clams, octopi, etc.

Characteristics:
• Body bilaterally symmetrical; unsegmented; usually with definite head
• Ventral body wall specialized as a muscular foot
• Dorsal body wall forms the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity, is modified into gills or a lu
ng, and secretes the shell
• Coelom present
• Complex digestive system; rasping organ called radula usually present; anus usually emptying int
o mantle cavity close to mouth
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 • Open circulatory system
• Gas exchange by gills, lung, mantle or body surface
• One or two metanephridia (kidneys) present
• Complex nervous system
• Sensory organs of touch, smell, taste, equilibrium and vision

Phylum Annelida:
- The annelids, segmented worms

Characteristics:
• Metamerism
• Chitinous setae on parapodia
• Schizocoel coelom
• Closed blood system
• Complete digestive tract
• Respiration through gills, skin, or parapodia
• Pair nephridia per segment for excretion
• Body wall of circular and longitudinal muscles covered by cuticle
• Nervous system of brain and two nerve cords
• Sensory system of tactile, taste, sight (eyes in some)
• Hermaphroditic or separate sexes

Phylum Arthropods:
The arthropods, largest phylum of animals in the world. Includes: spiders, mites, scorpions, ticks, crustac
eans, millipedes, centipedes and insects.

Characteristics:
• Bilateral symmetry, metamerism, some somites
• (segments) fused to form tagmata
• Three body regions: head, thorax, abdomen
• Appendages jointed and often specialized
• Exoskeleton (cuticle) made chiefly of chitin; some proteins and lipids also
• Muscular system complex, no cilia
• Coelom reduced and filled with blood to form hemocoel
• Open circulatory system
• Respiration by gills, trachea, or book-lungs
• Excretory system of Malpighian tubules in some; coxal, maxillary or antennal glands in others
• Nervous system of annelid plan with highly developed sensory organs
• Sexes usually separate, metamorphosis in some, internal fertilization, growth with ecdysis (moltin
g)

KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE
Diagnostic features of the kingdom Prokaryotae

─ lack true nucleus

─ circular D.N.A lies free in the cytoplasm

─ unicellular

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 ─ no membrane bound organelles

─ mesosomes for respiration (instead of mitochondria)

─ have 70s ribosomes

─ cell walls of murein (peptidoglycan)

─ average diameter 0.5-5 micrometres

─ reproduce asexually by binary fission

Kingdom Fungi
Diagnostic features of the Kingdom Fungi

─ some are unicellular e.g yeast and some are multicellular e.g mushroom

─ non photosynthetic

─ heterotrophic/saprotrophic/parasitic/mutualistic

─ nutrition is absorptive-digestion takes place outside the body and nutrients are absorbed

─ cell walls made of chitin as the main fibrilar material

─ body is a mycelium a network of fine tubular filaments called hyphae growing from horizontal hy
phae the stolon

─ end of hyphae bears sporangia which are a reproductive organ for spore formation

─ eukaryotic

─ store carbohydrate as glycogen

─ asexual reproduction by spore formation

─ non-motile

Kingdom Protoctista
-Made up of eukaryotes no longer classified as animals, plants or Fungi e.g algae and protozoa.

PROTOZOA ALGAE
Non-photosynthetic photosynthetic
Parasitic and some free living Free living/non parasitic
No cell walls Have cellulose cell walls
Small and temporary food vacuoles Large permanent vacuoles
Some motile and some non -Non motile
motile
Unicellular Multicellular or unicellular
No tissues formed No tissues
Some have differentiated anterior and posterior No distinct anterior and posterior

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 No transport system No transport/vascular system

-filamentous

-no leaf structure

-no roots

-no stems

-contain chlorophyll a and b

-unicellular algae

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS AND LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.15.2 Importance  describe the - socio-economic importance  Discussing the  ICT tools
of Biodiversity socio-economic of socio-economic  Brail software/Jaws
importance of I. Kingdom Prokaryotae importance of
the five o fermentation the five
Kingdoms o bio-technology kingdoms.
o food spoilage
o decomposition
II. Kingdom Protista
o Plasmodium sp
malaria
o Schistosoma sp –
schistosomiasis
o Trypanosoma sp -
Trypanosomiasis
III. Kingdom Fungi
o Fermentation
o Penicillin production
o Decomposition
o Food spoilage
o Food
IV. Kingdom Plantae
o Producers
o Carbon sink
o Timber
o Medicinal use
o Tourism
V. Kingdom Animalia

o Tourism
o Food
o Hunting
o Leather
o Fishing

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TOPIC 13: HEALTH AND DISEASES

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

Learners should (ATTITUDES, LEARNING RESOURCES
be able to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND
KNOWLEDGE) NOTES

8.8.2 Global  discuss the global - Malaria  Discussing and  Resource person
distribution of distribution of - Tuberculosis evaluating  Print media
diseases diseases - Ebola epidemiological  ICT tools
- HIV/AIDS
evidence of  Braille
- Cholera
- Coronary heart diseases. software/Jaws
disease  Visiting clinics.
- Sickle cell
anaemia

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PATTERNS OF DISEASES

Epidemic

- a disease that suddenly spreads to affect many people e.g. cholera

- an outbreak of disease in a population

Endemic

- an infectious disease which is always present in a population

e.g. TB - this describes diseases that are always in a population

Pandemic

- a disease that spreads over a large area e.g. continent/worldwide

- an outbreak of disease that occurs across the world or across continents.

Prevalence

- the number of people in a population with a disease within any given time

Incidence

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 - number of new cases within a population occurring for a given time e.g. week/month/year

Epidemiology

- the study of patterns of disease and the various factors that affect the spread/distribution of
the disease
- data collected on disease (morbidity) and death (mortality) reveal patterns that can indicate
how diseases are spread and their likely cause or causes

Discuss the possible reasons for the global distribution of coronary heart diseases

- mainly confined to developed/affluent countries

- mainly due to lifestyle/sedentary
- fatty diets
- high in saturated fats
- cigarette smoking
- alcohol intake
- obesity
- high blood pressure
- lack of exercise
- fast foods

Explain the possible reasons for the global distribution of TB

- it is a pandemic disease (globally distributed)

- it is an endemic disease (always present)
- most prevalent in developing countries
- some of the TB strains becoming more resistant
- AIDS pandemic
- poor housing – overcrowding
- breakdown of TB control programme
- partial treatment of TB
- poor sanitation
- poor medical facilities
- TB spread in meat and milk
- high rate of transmission

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 - droplet infection

Explain the possible reasons for the global distribution of measles

- most commonly affects developing countries;

- in places where conditions are overcrowded and insanitary;
- measles requires several booster shots to develop full immunity;
- in large cities with high birth rates, it can be difficult to give boosters or even follow up cases
of measles;
- refugees from these areas can spread the disease around, which makes it much more difficult
to treat than smallpox;
- measles is highly infectious;
- poor response to vaccine (children do not respond well to one dose of vaccine);
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 - deficiency immune system;
- or protein energy malnutrition;
- need several boosters which are expensive;
- high birth rates and flighting populations make it difficult for boosters; - follow up cases
and trace contacts also impossible;

Explain the possible reasons for the global distribution of HIV/AIDS

- is a pandemic disease (globally distributed)

- an epidemic (always present)
- most prevalent in developing countries
- linked to TB
- some of the TB strains becoming more resistant
- AIDS pandemic
- partial treatment of due to inability to purchase ARVs
- poor medical facilities

- Highly confined in sub-Saharan Africa

- Rates of infection are lower in other parts of the world, but different subtypes of the virus
have spread to Europe, India, South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
Rates of infection have leveled off somewhat in the United States and Europe.
- In Asia the sharpest increases in HIV infections are found in China, Indonesia, and Vietnam.
- Both the cost of these therapies and the poor health care delivery systems in many affected
countries need to be addressed before antiretrovirals can benefit the majority of people
living with HIV/AIDS.
- ‗Botswana, with the highest rate of infection, has experienced stable, democratic
government and a strong economy since independence in 1966.
- Mozambique, with the lowest rate of infection, experienced sixteen years of devastating civil
war from which it only emerged in 1992.
- While South Africa and Botswana are the two richest countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (as
measured in per capita gross domestic product),
- They include poverty and economic marginalization, poor nutrition, opportunistic infection,
migration, sexual networking and patterns of sexual contact, armed conflict, and gender
inequality. Some of these will be discussed in more detail below.
- HIV/AIDS, like all communicable diseases, is linked to poverty. The relationship is bi-
directional in that poverty is a key factor in transmission and HIV/AIDS can impoverish
people in such a way as to intensify the epidemic itself.
- poverty does seem to be a crucial factor in the spread of HIV/AIDS. It should be emphasised
that poor people infected with HIV are considerably more likely to become sick and die faster
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 than the non-poor since they are likely to be malnourished, in poor health, and lacking in
health attention and medications.
- In effect, all factors, which predispose people to HIV infection, are aggravated by
poverty, which creates an environment of risk‖.
- Deep-rooted structural poverty, arising from such things as gender imbalance, land
ownership inequality, ethnic and geographical isolation, and lack of access to services.
- Developmental poverty, created by unregulated socio-economic and demographic changes
such as rapid population growth, environmental degradation, rural-urban migration,
community dislocation, slums and marginal agriculture.
- Poverty created by war, civil unrest, social disruption and refugees. High levels of rape and
the breakdown of traditional sexual mores are associated with military destabilisation,
refugee crisis and civil war (Walker, 2002: 7).
- closely associated with patterns of human mobility
- Large-scale economic migration has been a feature particularly of the southern African
region Massive migration of young, unmarried adults from presumably ―conservative‖ rural
environments to more sexually permissive African cities in recent years has been regarded
as partly responsible for the much higher infection levels observed in urban than in rural
areas.

Values of Procreation:

- In Africa fertility is seen as demonstrating the masculinity and manliness of men, as well as
proving the significance of women as good wives. Because procreation is highly valued in
African society, both men and women are refusing to use condoms. Even though condoms
are successful in preventing the spread of AIDS, they also prevent reproduction. Thus, many
individuals are willing to risk contracting AIDS and have unprotected sex because fertility is
so important to social status.

Myths:

- Myths influence the spread of HIV/AIDS in many ways. One strong belief held by a number
of Africans is that the West wants to control the population growth of Africa, and that the
West is trying to do this by convincing Africans to use condoms. The West is encouraging
African nations to use condoms as protection against AIDS, but many Africans believe that
this is just a ploy to curb reproduction rates. Many Christians in Africa believe that God is
using AIDS as a weapon to punish sinners. Since AIDS is often associated with promiscuity,
many followers believe that God will protect the innocent spouse from contracting AIDS, but

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 use AIDS to punish the spouse that was involved in sexual practices outside of her/his
marriage. Two other popular myths are that some Africans believe that regular infusions of
sperm is required if a woman is to grow up to be beautiful, and that sleeping with a virgin
will rid an infected person from the disease.

Link between TB and HIV/AIDS

- TB is often the first opportunistic infection to strike HIV+ people;

- HIV infection may reactivate dormant infections of Mycobacterium tuberculosis;
- TB is now the leading cause of death of HIV+ people;
- The HIV pandemic has been followed very closely by a TB pandemic;
- There are high rates of incidence of all across the developed world and in the countries of the
former Soviet Union;
- Very high rates are also found in areas of destitution in developed countries;
Social factors such as homelessness, neglect of primary health care and urban decay,
contribute to the spread of TB and these need to be addressed if the pandemic I to be curbed

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 DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

CONCEPT Learners should (ATTITUDES, LEARNING RESOURCES
be able to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND
KNOWLEDGE) NOTES

8.8.1 Drug  explain the - Drug  Discussing  Adverts

and meanings of dependence effects of drug  Resource
substance the terms drug - Drug tolerance abuse. persons
dependence - Addiction
abuse  Print media
and drug - (with reference
tolerance to alcohol,  ICT tools
tobacco,  Braille
 distinguish heroin, cough software/Jaws
between mixtures,
psychological marijuana
and physical {mbanje})
dependence
- Psychological  Visiting
dependence psychiatric
 describe the - Physical hospitals and
effects of dependence
rehabilitation
tobacco  Resource
- Atherosclerosis centres.
smoking in the persons
gaseous - Coronary heart  Observing
exchange and disease video clips of
cardiovascular - Strokes evidence of
systems - Cancer drug abuse.
 Carrying out
 describe the  Fresh liver
surveys on
immediate and tissue
long term - Social effects statistics on
 Alcohol
consequences drug abuse.
of alcohol - Long and short
consumption term effects of
on the brain, on alcohol
the peripheral
nervous system
 Debating on
and on the liver
effects of
tobacco
smoking and
alcohol.

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  Illustrating the
effects of
alcohol on
liver tissue in
the laboratory.

Drug
- difficult to define;
- any man-made chemical taken into the body;
- (broadly) any chemical substance taken into the body;
- but this would include nutrients;
- chemicals which interfere with metabolism/physiology;
- ours or that of the pathogen;
- (narrowly) chemicals which interfere with nervous
system/behaviour/brain/.perception/mental function;
- these are described as psychoactive;
- any chemical used in medicine;
- may be restricted to chemicals that cause harm/illicit chemicals/abused chemicals;

Distinguish between physical and psychological dependence on drugs

- dependence is inability to stop use/addiction;
- withdrawal symptoms if go without drug;
- e.g. morning shakes with alcohol/cold turkey with heroin

Physical

- drug necessary for continued functioning of the body (metabolism in the body);
- prevents withdrawal/abstinence syndrome;
- withdrawal results in physical (and psychological)
- withdrawal symptoms e.g. opiates
- caused by drug replacing/imitating natural chemicals;

Psychological

- occurs when drug is needed as a compulsive desire to continue to take a drug;

- Reduces stress/anxiety/inhibitions;
- only emotional dependence/no physical dependency;
- withdrawal symptoms results in psychological symptoms
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 - changes in lifestyle and behaviour;

Withdrawal symptoms
- tremors;
- cravings/irritability/restlessness/anxiety;
- sweating;
- depression;
- sleep disturbance/insomnia;
- altered time perception;
- gastro interstitial problems/nausea/vomiting;

Drug tolerance and why it occurs with alcohol and heroin

- progressive decrease in body‘s response/effects become less intense with time/usage;
- user therefore uses larger and larger doses;

Heroin
- binds to pain receptor molecules at synapses;
- mimics encephalins/natural neurotransmitters;
- body adapts to presence of heroin and tries to restore original state;
- more receptors made at post-synaptic membranes;
- so more heroin needed to saturate them/have same effect;

Alcohol
- alcohol tolerance due to liver adapting;
- by producing more enzymes that break down alcohol;
- oxidized by MEOS/microsomal ethanol oxidizing systems
- nerve cells in brain become less responsive;

How you might tell whether a drug is socially acceptable or not

- survey of people‘s attitudes to the drug
- legislation i.e. laws governing sale and use of drugs;
- e.g. banned by law;
- the number of people who use the drug/prevalence of drug taking;
- the number of deaths from illegal drugs;
- general acceptance or rejection of drug – takers;
- e.g. it is socially acceptable to drink alcohol

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 - but not acceptable to inject heroin;

Factors that contribute to drug dependence

- to experience its psychic effect;
- to avoid the discomfort caused by its absence/withdrawal;
- the drug (or one of it metabolites) has become necessary for the continued function of the
body;
- trying the drug out of curiosity;
- because of peer pressure/lack of self-identity;
- boredom

Why the use of heroin can result in damage to health

- use of unsterile needles to inject drug lead to blood poisoning/abscesses/skin infections at
the sites of injection;
- shared needles may lead to transfer of infective hepatitis B/HIV/AIDS;
- long term use can lead to liver disease/failure;
- can lead to blood poisoning;
- transmission of disease;
- e.g. HIV/AIDS/ hepatitis B;
- deficiency diseases/malnutrition due to reduced secretion of digestive juices/money spent
on drugs rather than food/loss of appetite
- tend not to eat well therefore malnutrition;
- tend not to maintain standards of hygiene;
- may overdose as tolerance builds up;
- respiratory/ cardiac centres of the brain can be fatally depressed;
- constipation common;
- street heroin may be impure and mixed with harmful substances, this can cause blood
poisoning/damage to blood vessels;
- damage to/collapse of blood vessels or veins due to injecting;
- tolerance leads to high doses/physical dependence/addiction is likely;
- associated life style has risks e.g. violence/crime/alcoholisms
- withdrawal/abstinence symptoms may lead to
vomiting/choking/diarrhoea/dehydration/fever/high blood [pressure;
- users can become part of a drug subculture/loose contact with family and friends;
- damage to foetus;
- damage to mental health;

Metabolism of alcohol

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 - alcohol dehydrogenase;
- alcohol converted to acetaldehyde/ethanol;
NAD – hydrogen carrier;
ethane dehydrogenase;
ethanol to acetic
acid/acetate/ethanoic acid;
- acetate converted to acetyl coA;
- enters Krebs Cycle;
- respired to carbon dioxide and water;
- liver metabolises alcohol as an energy source rather than fat;
- catalase may also oxidize alcohol;
- MEOS used when blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is higher;

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 Long term consequences of alcohol consumption on the liver, brain and peripheral nervous
system

Liver
- inflammation;
- scarring/fibrous tissue;
- cirrhosis/hepatitis/jaundice/cancer;
- fatty liver;
- compression of blood vessels in liver (blood forced from portal veins into veins from
oesophagus and rectum);

Brain
- loss of short term memory
- impaired judgement;
- confusion/disorientation/anxiety/hallucinations;
- impaired motor control;
- dementia;
- sleep disturbance/reduced REM sleep;
- shrinkage of brain cells;
- by alcohol induced dehydration;
- inhibits secretion of AHD so kidneys remove more water than normal ;
- hypoxia – low blood oxygen causes death of brain cells;
low blood glucose levels cause death of brain
cells blockage of brain capillaries; loss of
intellectual functions e.g. calculations, learning;
- Korsakoff‘s psychosis, leading to loss of short term memory and learning ;
- Wernicke‘s encephalopathy leading to comma, disturbance of speech/walking, confusion;
- Neglecting of diet leading to Vitamin B1 deficiency - Leads to long term brain damage

Peripheral nervous system

- (poly) neuropathy (neurological disorder that occurs when many PNS throughout the body
malfunction simultaneously);
- damage to sensory nerves;
- feeling cold, pains/cramps/numbness(partial/total lack of sensation)/tingling;
- starts in hands and spread to centre of body;
- damage to motor neurones;
- muscle wasting/weakness;

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- damage to autonomic nerves;
- related to faintness/incontinence(involuntary
urination/defecation)/impotence(powerlessness/feeble/weak)/blurred vision/poor control
of gut;
- caused by Vitamin B1/thiamine deficiency;
- poor diet/all or most energy needs from alcohol so no balanced diet; - damage to
axons;

Short term effects of alcohol consumption on the brain

- depressant;
- effects depends on blood alcohol concentration;
- depresses brain function;
- by inhibiting reticular activating system (RAS);
- therefore activity of cerebral cortex
intellectual faculties diminished; loss of
coordination/judgement/control over fine movement;
e.g. slurred speech/staggering walking;
- depression of respiratory centres/death;
- relaxed feeling/increased confidence/reduced tension;
- loss of inhibitions;
- slower reaction time;
- loss of balance;
- at higher levels, comma;

Social problems associated with heavy alcohol drinking

- personal relationship affected/considerable stress caused to the family;
- social isolation from friends/neighbours/embarrassment;
- violence in marriage + marital breakdown;
- correlated with wife battering (half husbands involved frequently drink);
- aggressiveness + destruction of property;
- crime as means to finance drinking;
- drink-driving + traffic accidents;
- neglect of food intake;
- frequent changes of jobs/loss of employment;
- uncontrollable anger;
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- sexual assault;
- grandiose behaviour;
- young single women getting pregnant;
- conflict between parents affect children;
- sexual abuse of children;
- child neglect/children more likely to need child guidance/help from social services;
- children left unattended more likely to have accidents;
- poverty resulting from money spent on alcohol;
poverty resulting from loss of job; poor health
leading to loss of income/premature death;
e.g. repossession of home, default on hire purchase/mortgage repayment;

Effects of heroin on the nervous system

- heroin is an opiate/depressant;
- does not stimulate vomit and nausea centres;
- psychoactive;
- binds (with high affinity and specificity) to pain receptors on the synapses;
- mimics encephalins;
- inhibits activities of the neurones concerned with pain;
- inhibits activities of cardiac and respiratory systems;
- gives a sense of warmth/rush;

Effects of tar in tobacco smoke on the gaseous exchange system

- stimulates extra cell division +thickening of the epithelium;
- which may develop into a tumour;
- tar coats the epithelium lining of the breathing tubes;
- causing irritation of the epithelial cell;
- epithelia replaced by scar tissue;
- production of excess mucus by the goblet cells;
- paralysis of cilia;
- build up of pathogens + mucous;
- smoker‘s cough/emphysema;
- reduced surface area for gaseous exchange;

Effects of tar and carcinogens in tobacco smoke on the gaseous exchange system
- paralyses/destroys cilia;
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 - stimulates over secretion of mucus by goblet cells;
- growth of scar tissue;
- leads to development of bronchitis/emphysema;
- epithelial lining coated with tar;
- carcinogens;
- combine with DNA/chromosomes of cells in the bronchial epithelium/lining;
- leading to tumour growth/growth in the epithelium/lining;
- bronchial carcinoma;
- malignancy;
- metastasis/secondary tumours;

The effects of nicotine and carbon monoxide on the cardiovascular system

Nicotine
- causes constriction of arterioles;
- stimulates release of adrenaline;
- increase heart rate/blood pressure;
- reduced peripheral blood flow;
- less blood flows to the skin/hands/feet (blood supply to extremities reduced);
- increased stickiness of blood platelets;
- increases cholesterol levels;
- which may lead to atherosclerosis;
- due to formation of atheromas
- increases likelihood of thrombosis;
Carbon monoxide
- combines with haemoglobin;
- to form a stable compound;
- haemoglobin has a greater affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen;
- decreases oxygenation of blood/lead to shortage of oxygen;
- increases strain on the cardiovascular system to supply oxygen to all tissues;
- blood vessels more vulnerable to the development of atherosclerosis;
- may lead to CHD/stroke;

Describe how atherosclerosis develops

- onset may be caused by damage to lining of artery;
- smooth muscle cells proliferate at site of damage;
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 - phagocytes invade breaks and release growth factors and stimulate the growth of smooth
muscle cells/accumulation of cholesterol/slow down passage of LDLs back into the blood
which therefore deposit more cholesterol);
- atherosclerosis starts as fatty streaks;
- fatty substances deposited in inner coat/lining of arteries;
- deposited in inner surface of artery;
- also high proportion of cholesterol;
- usually large arteries;
- deposit is called atheromas;
- (uneven) patches develop called plaques/atheromatous plaques;
- causes walls of artery to thicken/lumen narrow;
- accept information presented in labelled diagrams; - no details of development of thrombosis
required;

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Explain how atherosclerosis may lead to death
- plaques roughen the lining of artery;
- may lead to slow development of a blood clot/thrombus over the plaque;
- causes cessation or restriction of blood flow to affected area;
- if in coronary artery can cause coronary thrombosis;
heart muscles starved of oxygen (myocardial infarction) and becomes damaged/dies/heart
attack; if in brain can cause cerebral thrombosis/stroke;

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 - if clot breaks away can travel through blood vessels and jam at a narrower vessel
(embolism);
- narrowing of arteries causes rise in blood pressure;
- may weaken wall of artery;
- wall may stretch/balloon out to form aneurysm, causing bursting of wall/hemorrhage; -
cerebral hemorrhage causes strokes;

Link between atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease

- atherosclerosis is the main cause of CHD;
- coronary arteries become narrower;
- therefore blood pressure increases;
- can damage walls of arteries/cause aneurysm, causing wall to burst;
- atheromas roughen lining of arteries causing blood clots/thromboses;
- clot can block coronary artery;
- clot may break away and lodge where artery narrows/embolism;
- heart muscle is deprived of oxygen and diets;
Evaluate the epidemiology and experimental evidence linking smoking to lung cancer and
early death
Epidemiology
- more smokers died of cancer;
- number of woman developing cancer increased with number of women smoking
- number of cigarettes smoked per day increased per day linked with death rate;

Experimental
- carcinogen identified in tar;
- dogs exposed to cigarette smoke developed tumours;
rate of tumour development reduced when filter tipped brands used;

Discuss the epidemiological and experimental evidence which links smoking with disease.
- more new diseases in smokers;
- compared to non-smokers
- the higher the number of smokers the higher the number of sufferers
- experimental animals exposed to smoke developed diseases;
- compared to those not exposed to smoke;

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 - animals exposed to smoke have higher chances of developing disease - filtered vs.
unfiltered

Why sporting performance is lowered by smoking

- carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin;
- to from carboxyhaemoglobin;
- up to 10% decrease in oxygen transport by blood/slight anaemia;
- reduces endurance activities;
- nicotine stimulates sympathetic nervous system;
- release adrenaline/epinephrine;
- increase in heart rate;
- raised blood pressure;
- reduced appetite;
- dust not removed from lungs; - reduced lung efficiency;

How cigarette smoking can lead to coronary heart disease

- main cause of CHD is atherosclerosis;
- carbon monoxide/nicotine in smoke responsible;
- cholesterol deposited in, inner layers/.linings of artery walls;
- form plaques which lead to restriction of blood flow/clotting which can block vessels;
smoking increases blood cholesterol/fat level;
- nicotine causes constriction of coronary arteries/arterioles;
- rise in blood pressure makes damage to walls more likely;
- increases number of platelets stimulating formation of blood clots;
- nicotine makes platelets more sticky;
- smoking causes rise in ratio of VLDLs/LDLs, to HDLs in
blood so more atherosclerosis/cholesterol deposited;
- decrease concentration of antioxidants/Vitamin C/vitamin E, so increasing damage to
artery walls by free radicals;

The difficulty in achieving a balance between prevention and cure of coronary heart diseases
- due to life style;
- such as smoking/diet/lack of exercise most causes can be avoided;
- government could take steps to encourage change of life;
- a few patients are victims of their own genetic;

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 - cure is expensive;
- e.g. heart transplants/coronary by-pass/drug treatment;
- ethical problems of who to treat, suitable example;
- since donors are few;
- problems associated with tissue rejection;
- should patient change their life style before treatment is made available

Arguments for diverting funds from the treatment of coronary heart disease to its
prevention
- cure is expensive;
- e.g. heart transplant, coronary by-pass, drug treatment;
- difficult to find enough donor hearts;
- ethical problems of who to treat e.g. father with young family;
many of the risks are avoidable; associated with life style -
change will make people less susceptible;

Discuss the factors that should be taken into account when deciding how to share limited
resources between prevention and treatment of coronary heart disease
- treatment is expensive due to technology and professional expertise of surgeons;
- after – care also expensive (immunosuppressant drugs, e.t.c.);
- NHS working on tight/limited budget;
- preventive measures cheaper;
- not so dependent on expensive equipment/manpower;
- very expensive to advertise/train/employ health educators;
- difficulty in disseminating information;
- prevention saves a lot of suffering for potential victims;
- and families;
- e.g. may cause financial difficulties if wage earner affected/fatherless family/e.t.c;
- in terms of years of healthy life gained preventive measures may be better;
- great demand for treatment because heart disease so common;
- moral dimension – if a treatment is available should we not make resources available to
use it; - more lives can be saved by preventative measures;

Global distribution of CHD

- mainly confined to developed/affluent countries;
- due to lifestyle + sedentary work;

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 - fatty diets;
- high saturated fats;
- cigarette smoking;
- alcohol intake;
- obesity;
- high blood pressure;
lack of
exercise;
fast foods;

Reasons why coronary heart disease is so common in developed countries

- caused by many factors most of which are common in developed countries;
- smoking s common risk factor;
- carbon monoxide and nicotine are the components responsible;
- carbon monoxide reduces oxygen carrying capacity;
- increasing strain on the cardiovascular system;
- nicotine increases stickiness of platelets, raising risk of clotting;
- diets tend to be rich in saturated fats;
- increased blood cholesterol and hence atherosclerosis;
- cause rise in ratio of LDLs to HHDLs;
- hypertension/high blood pressure common which puts arteries under strain; - lack of
exercise is a risk factor and life style/ occupations often sedentary

IMMUNITY

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

Learners (ATTITUDES, LEARNING RESOURCES
should be able SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES
to: KNOWLEDGE) AND NOTES

8.8.3  recognise - Phagocytes,  Observing  Microscope

Immunity lymphocytes lymphocytes phagocytes  Photomicrographs
and and  Prepared slides
phagocytes
lymphocytes.
 describe the - Phagocytosis
origin,  Observing  ICT tools
maturation phagocytosis
and mode of simulations.
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 action of - B and T  Observing  Braille
phagocytes lymphocytes simulations of software/Jaws
 describe the - Mode of modes of
modes of action
action of B  Print media
action of B
and T - Effects of HIV and T
lymphocytes on T lymphocytes.
 describe the lymphocytes  Discussing
effects of HIV - Memory cells modes of
on T action.
lymphocytes - Vaccination
 Discussing the
 explain the
effects of HIV.
role of
memory cells  Discussing the
in long term role of
immunity memory cells.
 discuss the  Researching
reasons why on eradication
vaccination
of smallpox
programmes
have and reasons
eradicated for failure to
small pox but eradicate
failed in measles,
measles, tuberculosis,
tuberculosis, malaria and
malaria and
cholera.
cholera

- Immunity is the protection against diseases provided by the body‘s immune or defence
system.
- There are two parts of this system:
(i) The non-specific system
(ii)The specific system

Non-specific system
- The defenses present from birth form the non-specific system.
- This system does not distinguish between different pathogens and gives the same
response each time the same pathogen attacks.

Specific Immune system

- Gives a highly effective, long-lasting immunity to anything the body recognizes as foreign.
- Specialised cells known as lymphocytes direct a defence against specific pathogens.

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 - Although highly efficient, this immune response is slow, when it encounters a pathogen
for the first time.
- During the first encounter, some lymphocytes produce special protein molecules, called
antibodies which are targeted specifically at the invading pathogen.
- Although the capability of producing antibodies is present from before birth, they are
only produced when the appropriate pathogen invades.
- The specific immune system recognizes pathogens because their surfaces are covered in
large molecules such as proteins, glycoproteins and polysaccharides.
- The immune system also recognizes the toxins that are produced by pathogens as foreign
particles.
- Any molecule that the body recognizes as foreign is called an antigen.

Primary defense against disease

- The defenses that prevent pathogens from entering the body:

Surface barriers
Defence mechanism Function

Skin Prevents entry of pathogens and foreign substances

Acid secretions Inhibit bacterial growth on skin

Mucus Prevents entry of pathogens, mucous membranes also

produce defensins (small toxic peptides) that kill pathogens

Nasal hairs Filter bacteria in the nasal passages

Cilia Move mucus and trapped materials away from respiratory

passages

Gastric juice Concentrated HCl and proteases destroy pathogens in the

stomach

Acid in vagina Limits the growth of fungi and bacterial in female

reproductive tract

Tears, saliva Contain lysozyme which destroys bacteria

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 Other non-specific cellular, chemical and co-ordinated defenses

Defence mechanism Function

Normal flora Compete with pathogens, may produce substances toxic to

pathogens

Fever Body wide response inhibits microbial reproduction and

Defence mechanism Function

speeds body repair processes

Coughing and sneezing Remove pathogens from respiratory tract

Inflammatory response Involves leakage of blood plasma and phagocytes from

capillaries. Limits spread of pathogens to neighbouring
tissues, concentrates defences, digests pathogens and dead
tissue cells, released chemical mediators attract phagocytes
and lymphocytes to the site

Phagocytes Engulf and destroy pathogens that enter the body

(macrophages and
neutrophils)

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Cells of the Immune system
- Originate from the stem cells in the bone marrow
- Stem cells retain the ability to divide by mitosis forming large numbers of cells which
differentiate into specialised cells
- There are two groups of these cells involved in defence:
(i) Phagocytes: neutrophils and macrophages
(ii) Lymphocytes

Phagocytes

- For secondary defence against disease – phagocytosis

- If a pathogen enters it must be killed before it has time to reproduce and cause symptoms of
disease. This is the role of the phagocytes.
- Are continuously produced by the bone marrow throughout life.
- They are stored there and leave in the blood to be distributed around the body.
- They are scavengers and involved in the non-specific response.

2 types of phagocyte:

Neutrophil

- The most common type of white blood cell (60%)

- Smaller than macrophages

- Travel throughout the body

- They have a multi-lobed nucleus

- Granulocytes - granular cytoplasm

- Granules contain degradative enzymes

- They are very short lived few hours in blood, few days in tissue (half life in blood is about
12 hours – perhaps an evolutionary response to the possible infection of parasites living
inside this type of cell)
- They are attracted to areas of cell and tissue damage, probably by chemicals released by
the ruptured cells
- Able to squeeze through walls of blood capillaries and move about tissue spaces
(diapedesis)

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 - Their numbers increase rapidly during an infection, when they are released from stores
in the bone marrow.

The cell with the lobed nucleus [in the centre] is a neutrophill; a type of a phagocyte.

Monocyte

- Comprise 4% of white blood cells

- Larger than neutrophils

- Bean shaped nucleus

- Agranulocytes - no granules in cytoplasm

- When they leave the blood they act as neutrophils or they differentiate into macrophages
– larger cells that patrol tissues especially lungs, liver, spleen and lymph nodes
- Can engulf larges particles e.g. malarial parasite (Plasmodium)

- Some are stationary and line blood spaces in organs such as liver (Kupffer cells)

- Cytoplasm contains numerous larger lysosomes

- Long lived – few days in blood, months or even years in tissues

- Can proliferate in tissues

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The cell with a horseshoe-shaped nucleus is a monocyte; from the family of phagocytes.

Lymphocytes
- Produced before birth and lave the bone marrow to fill the lymphoid system
- They are generally not phagocytic but instead secrete antibodies and the hormone-like
cytokines.
- There are two types of lymphocytes:
(i) T lymphocytes (often called T cells)
(ii) B lymphocytes (often called B cells)

The cell with a uniformly circular nucleus is a lymphocyte; it can either by a B-lymphocyte or
Tlymphocyte. Notice its size; which roughly equals that of a RBC.
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 - The comparatively huge cell in the centre is a plasma cell; it is formed upon differentiation
[something close to specialization] of B-lymphocytes during an immune response.
- Both of these must go through a maturation process which starts just before birth.

(a) Describe the origin, maturation and mode of action of phagocytes;

- originate from stem cells in the bone marrow
- stem cells divide by mitosis
- cells differentiate into specialised cells and stored in the bone marrow
- examples are neutrophils/macrophages/monocytes/polymorphs
- Monocytes leave the bone marrow before being fully functional and attain maturity in the
blood stream.
- After 40-60 hours of circulation by a mature monocyte, it settles in the tissue and increases
in size slightly, now a macrophage [e.g. the alveolar macrophage in the alveoli].
- On the other hand neutrophils do not leave bone marrow until maturity
- involved in non-specific responses
- Phagocytes/neutrophils/macrophages act between initial infection by bacteria and immune
response.
All three types of phagocytes share the same job, i.e. phagocytosis [killing by engulfing]. The
-
mechanism is described below...
Phagocytosis
- phagocytes act between infection and immune response
- include macrophages and neutrophils
- presentation/treatment of antigen by macrophages
attracted to site of infection by histamine proteins produced by mast cells
-
chemotaxis i.e. the process by which cells are attracted to the bacteria.
-
it may be by the materials released by the bacteria or opsonization, and opsonin is a type
-
of antibody that renders bacteria more susceptible to phagocytosis [which may be by coating
of the outer membrane of bacteria], or by agglutination [via agglutinins which 'clump'
together bacteria at wound/area of infection].
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 - complements/lymphokins/microbial components attract neutrophils
- accumulate at wounds/site of infection
- squeezing through capillary walls (diapedesis)
- binding of neutrophils direct to bacteria/receptors
- compliment/antibody/opsonins facilitate binding
- surface membrane infold/invaginate to surround bacteria/antigen
- forming a phagosome
- lysosome fuse with the phagosome
- forming a phagolysosome
- bacteria killed by toxic free radicals/hydrogen peroxide
- intracellular digestion (lysosomal enzymes)
- products of digestion absorbed into cytoplasm

Phagocytosis going on..

Distinguish between phagocytes and lymphocytes

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Phagocytes
- macrophages and neutrophils
- involved in non-specific response/engulfing the bacteria/pathogen/antigen -
can squeeze through capillary walls

Lymphocytes
- B and T cells
- involved in specific response
- remain in circulatory system and lymphatic system
- produce antibodies

Explain the meaning of the term immune response, making reference to the terms antigen,
self and non-self;
- An immune response is a body's reaction to an antigen which a marker molecule in the cell
surface membrane of foreign bodies that sets off an immune response.
- The discrimination between self and non-self cells is an integral part of our immune system.
- This distinguishing is possible by the presence of glycoproteins or other types of
recognition molecules.
- Our body functions normally when no abnormal recognition protein/molecule is
encountered by our immune system but when foreign particles exhibiting recognition
proteins that our not normally found in our body are encountered then our body's defense
mechanism starts rolling, i.e.
an immune response is initiated.

- This can be a product of two scenarios:

Tissue Transplant leading to tissue rejection because the donor can never have the
same recognition proteins as the acceptor. That‘s why, following up a tissue transplant, the
acceptors are usually at prescriptions that suppress their immune system from starting an
immune response.

Invasion of Bacteria and other foreign particles

Distinguish between B- and T-lymphocytes in their mode of action in fighting infection, and
describe their origin and functions;

- The lymphocytes are the backbone of our immune system without them our immune system
would be of no use.
- Moreover the two main types of lymphocytes, the T and B lymphocytes are interdependent
that is why a person infected by the AIDS virus has a severely depleted immune system due
to the destruction of T-Lymphocytes.
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 - Both of these cells originate in the stem cells of the bone marrow.
- While the B-cells mature in the bone marrow, the T-cells move as precursors [non-
functional form] to the thymus gland where they mature and T-lymphocytes which are over
reactive and can cause harm to the body's own cells are also destroyed here.

B-Lymphocytes
- B-Lymphocytes can differentiate into Memory Cells and Plasma Cells.
- memory cells act as an immunological memory of the antigen in question after the body is
exposed to it for the first time and has countered it and remains in the blood stream for
months or even years to initiate a more severe secondary immune response when that
antigen is encountered again.
- plasma cells are there to produce antibodies against a specific antigen and thus have a more
developed and extended Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Body.
T-Lymphocytes
- There are of two main types; Helper Cells and Cytotoxic Cells.
- T- Helper Cells sells act like assistants to the immune system, when they come across an
immune cell such as a Dendritic Cell or Macrophage displaying {on their cell membrane like
war trophies, after they have destroyed an antigen bearing cell =)] an antigen which they
are also specific to, they form a temporary bond at the T-Cell Receptor (TCR) which can be
thought of as a binding site on an enzyme and release chemicals called cytokines which
simulate other immune system cells like
- Macrophages and Lymphocytes to take action against the intruder.
- This simulation can be done in the form of B-Lymphocytes activation and differentiation to
produce plasma cells.
- While Cytotoxic Cells exclusively scan the cell membranes of the bodies' own cells for
changes in the Major Histocompatibility Complex [it can be thought of as a genomic region
in a cell responsible for protein synthesis and displaying of the proteins encoded inside the
cell on the cell surface membrane], malignant growth [as in cancer], cell invasion by viruses
and other intercellular parasites alter the MHC of the cell [i.e. other/more types of proteins
will started to get synthesized] and thus Cytotoxic Cells act on it and destroy the cell as a
whole.
There are two routes that an immune response can follow we will briefly outline both of
them...The first one is a simpler

Humoral Response
- involves B-cells
- B cells release antibodies into the blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph. As the antibodies
are released into fluids and the attack on the microorganisms takes place in the fluid this
type of immunity is called humoral, humor means fluid.
- Antibodies of B cells attack bacteria and some viruses
A non-activated B-cell has several antigen binding sites (antigen receptors) attached to its
-
cell membrane whose shape is identical to the antibodies that the cell can make.
- All the receptors in the membrane of one cell are identical, so a given cell can recognize only
one type of antigen.
- A complementary antigen attaches to it
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 - When it binds to an antigen the cell is activated to clone itself, meaning that it multiplies to
form many identical copies of itself.
- Activation requires the presence of lymphokins secreted by T-helper cells as well as antigen.
- Memory cells and effector cells (plasma proteins) are formed
- These secrete large numbers of antibody into the blood, tissue fluid and lymph.
- Effector cells live for a few days only
- Memory cells survive for long periods of time and enable rapid response to be made to any
future infection

Cell-Mediated Response
- Involves T-cells
- T cells attack the following:
(i) Cells that have become infected by a microorganism most commonly a virus
(ii) Transplanted organs and tissues
(iii)Cancer-causing cells

- The whole cell is involved in the attack thus cell-mediated immunity.

- T cells do not release antibodies
The cell surface membrane of T cells contains specific receptors with particular shapes,
similar to antibodies.
- The receptors do not recognize the whole antigen molecules unlike antibodies
- They bind only to fragments of antigens or other foreign molecules which are presented to
them by other cells, often macrophages
- Mature T cells possess a T4 molecule (T4 cells) or a T8 molecule (T8 cells) which give them
different functions.
- T4 cell are known as T helper cells. The HIV virus which causes AIDS infects mainly T-helper
cells.
- There are two types of T8 cells known as suppressor cells and killer cells (or cytotoxic cells).
- Each type of T-cell produces a different type of lymphokine.
- Lymphokins are small peptide molecules with various functions.
- T4 cells work in association with macrophages.
- The macrophage first captures an antigen-carrying organism.
- It then chops off a piece of the antigen an presents it at its cell surface where it is recognized
as a foreign peptide by a T4 cell (one with a matching receptor) - The T cell then produces
large amounts of lymphokines. - This have various functions which include;
(i) stimulate T cells to multiply
(ii) promote inflammation
(iii)stimulate B cells to make antibodies

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 - killer cells produce smaller amounts of lymphokines, but kill body cells which have become
infected by viruses and cancer cells. This si done by a chemical attack or by punching holes
in the cells.
- They recognize e.g. a stray part of a virus on the outside of an infected cell or a mutant protein
produced by a cancer cell.
- They also attack and gradually destroy transplanted organs.
- Suppressor cells secrete lymphokines that depress the activity of all the different types of
white blood cells including phagocytes.
- Helper cells secrete lymphokines which increase the activity of all the different types of
white blood cells

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Role of lymphocytes in cell mediated and humoral response
- cell mediated/cellular involves T-cells;

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 - humoral involves B-cells
- clonal selection
- receptors on T/B cell membranes for recognition of antigen
- divide/mitosis to form clones
- T cells to form effector cells
- B cells to form plasma cells
- B cells/plasma cells release antibodies (into blood/plasma)
- different types of antibodies IgM/IgG
- ref. to structure of antibodies
- ref. to modes of action
- T-helper cells activate B-cells
- activate macrophages
- secretion of lymphokins
- T-cytotoxic cells destroy virus infected cells
- T-suppressor cells control immune response
- memory cells
- slow primary response/fast secondary response (Idea –could be shown on a graph)

Memory Cells
- memory cells are important if a second infection of an antigen occurs
- the population of memory cells is much larger than the original population of B cells from
which they came from.
- Therefore, the response to the second infection called secondary response is much more
rapid and is also greater than the primary response to the original infection as shown in the
graph below.
- The primary response may not be rapid enough to prevent a person suffering from an
infection but if that person survives, they will rarely suffer from it again because of the
greater secondary response.
- With each exposure, the response gets more efficient.
- This is the basis of vaccination (booster doses).

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Explain the role of memory cells in long-term immunity
- produced by both T and B lymphocytes/cells
- survive for long periods
- remain in lymphoid system and circulate in blood and in lymph
- constantly checking for return of pathogen with same antigen
- go fewer divisions before differentiating into plasma cells
- Second response called secondary response
- greater than primary response to original infection
- Antigen presenting cells/APCs continue to expose
- antigen to memory cells to maintain memory

Immunological Memory
- Primary immune response – cellular differentiation and proliferation, which occurs on the
first exposure to a specific antigen
- Lag period: 3 to 6 days after antigen challenge
- Peak levels of plasma antibody are achieved in 10 days
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 - Antibody levels then decline

- Secondary immune response – re-exposure to the same antigen

- Sensitized memory cells respond within hours

- Antibody levels peak in 2 to 3 days at much higher levels than in the primary response
- Antibodies bind with greater affinity, and their levels in the blood can remain high for weeks
to months

Describe the role of lymphocytes in cell mediated and humoral response

- cell mediated/cellular involves T-cells;
- humoral involves B-cells
- clonal selection
- receptors on T/B cell membranes for recognition of antigen
- divide/mitosis to form clones
- T cells to form effector cells
- B cells to form plasma cells
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 - B cells/plasma cells release antibodies (into blood/plasma)
- different types of antibodies IgM/IgG
- ref. to structure of antibodies
- ref. to modes of action
- T-helper cells activate B-cells
- activate macrophages
- secretion of lymphokins
- T-cytotoxic cells destroy virus infected cells
- T-suppressor cells control immune response
- memory cells
- slow primary response/fast secondary response (Idea –could be shown on a graph)

Relate the molecular structure of antibodies to their functions;

- An antibody is a molecule synthesized by an animal in response to the presence of foreign
substances called antigens
- Each antibody is a globular protein molecule called immunoglobulin.
- Structure consists of four polypeptide chains
- Two heavy chains and two light chains
- The chains are held together by disulphide bridges
- It has a constant and a variable region
- The variable part is specific to each type of antibody produced
- There are different classes of antibodies e.g. IgS, IgM, IgA, IgE and IgD
- Its structure consists of two heavy chains (H-chains) and two light chains (L-chains)
- It has a constant and variable part, the variable acts like a key which specifically fits into a
lock
- The body van produce an estimated 100 million different antibodies recognizing all kinds of
foreign substances, including many the body has never met.
- It does this by shuffling different sections of parts of the genes on which produce the variable
region.
Antigen
- An antigen is a molecule which can cause antibody formation
- All cells possess antigens in their cell surface membranes which acts as markers, enabling
cells to recognize each other.
- Antigens are usually glycoproteins
- The body can distinguish its own antigens (self) from foreign antigens (non-self) and
normally makes antibodies against non-self antigens.
- Microorganisms carry antigens on their surface

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 - They are proteins that are utilized by the immune system to detect and neutralize foreign
objects.
- They consist of light chains (the two smaller ones) and the heavy chains (the two central
ones) which both have a variable region (specific to every different type of antibody) at the
tips with an antigen-binding site (shown in yellow).
- The heavier chains and the heavy and light chains are linked together by disulfide linkages
which are a type of covalent bonds that are formed upon the oxidation of thiol groups [-SH2]
that are left over from the cysteine molecules.
- They are very important to the functioning of the antibody because most of its functions are
carried out in an extracellular aqueous environment which attacks both the other available
alternatives, ionic bonds and hydrogen bonding so the preservation of an antibody's
structure is critical to its proper functioning and the disulfide linkages ensure just that.

Functions of antibodies
- Opsonization - the stimulation of other immune cells (like Macrophages) to engulf a
foreign particle.
- Agglutination - the clumping together or precipitation of antigen-bearing material.
- Lysis - breakdown of an antigen bearing particle.
- Detoxification - the neutralization of harmful substances produced by foreign particles.

Explain what is meant by monoclonal antibodies and describe how they may be used to
diagnose diseases
- antibodies developed from a single cell/clone;
- they have a defined specificity;
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 - reactive with a single epitome/antigen;
- early diagnosis – couple to fluorescent markers to locate antigens;
- e.g. Chlamydia/streptococcal throat infections/gonorrhea/STDs;
- Chlamydia difficult to distinguish from gonorrhea/difficult to diagnose;
- used to diagnose lung/breast/colon//rectal cancer;
- classification of type of leukemia by specific markers on white blood cells;
- ensures correct treatment (for leukemia) given;
- distinguish between leukemias and lymphomas (both types of cancer of white blood cells);
- distinguish between closely related herpes viruses 1 (cold sores on lips and 20% of genital
herpes) and herpes virus 2 (genital infections);
- recommended treatment is different for two viruses;
- therefore important to distinguish between them;
- monitors spread of malaria by identifying stages in infected mosquitoes;

Active immunity
- result of infection/naturally/artificially/vaccination
- body manufactures its own antibodies
- stimulated by memory cells
- most effective/rapid response (second infection)
- persists for a long time

Passive immunity
- antibodies from another individual
- give immediate protection
- protects for short time (about a week)

Natural
natural active
- natural infection by pathogen/antigen
natural passive
- antibodies from mother to foetus/across placenta
- antibodies in colostrums/breast milk to baby

Artificial
artificial active
- injection of pathogens/antigens into the body
artificial passive
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 - ready-made antibodies injected into the body

How vaccination give protection against diseases

- vaccination- injection/administration of an antigen
- causes production of antibodies (against the antigen)
- vaccination is artificial immunity
- booster injection may be used for longer lasting/more effective protection
- response due to B and T cells
- memory cells survive for a long period
- memory cells are B cells
- memory cells enable a rapid response
- antibody brings about destruction of antigen/organism carrying it
- effective against infectious diseases 9e.g. small pox/diphtheria/polio/measles/whooping
cough) - vaccinate children in national/international campaigns

Describe why vaccination managed to eradicate small pox but not malaria
Small pox
- varilosa virus stable
- (harmless) strain of (live) vaccine effective
- vaccine could be kept for a long time (6 months)
- infected people were easy to identify
- ring vaccination was possible
- political stability during that time

Malaria
- no vaccine/no effective vaccine against the protozoan
- resistance of Plasmodium to drugs
- resistance of vector/mosquitoes to DDT/deldrin/insecticide
- difficulty of mosquito control
- expensive to expand the programme
- civil wars disrupt the programmes

Measles

- caused by an RNA virus

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 - viruses are intracellular pathogens
- antigenic concealment
- have a short time in the blood
- major changes in the epitate as a result of mutation
- poor response to vaccine (children do not respond well to one dose of vaccine)
- deficiency immune system
- or protein energy malnutrition
- need several boosters which are expensive
- high birth rates and flighting populations make it difficult for boosters
- follow up cases and trace contacts also impossible
- refugees and immigrants from reservoirs of the infection
- it is highly infectious resulting in the whole population requiring vaccination which is highly
expensive
- the virus is of hiring attenuated virus can be virulent

Tuberculosis
- some strains of TB bacteria resistant to drugs;
- the AIDS pandemic;
- poor housing and rising homelessness in inner cities in the developed world;
- the breakdown of TB control programmes particularly in the USA;
- partial treatment for TB increases the chance of drug resistance in Mycobacterium;
- attacks many of the poorest and socially disadvantaged because it is spread by airborne
droplets;
- so people who are overcrowded are particularly at risk;
- those with low immunity particularly because of malnutrition or being HVI+ are also
vulnerable;
- transmission is easily achieved but the bacteria may remain in the lung, or in the lymphoid
tissue for years until they become active;

Cholera
- V. cholerae in intestine;
- out of reach of immune system;
- antigenic concealment;
- antibodies broken down in intestine;
- antibodies are proteins;
- ref to pH and effect on structure or shape; e.g. in the stomach
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 - denaturation;
- vaccine stimulates antibodies in, blood / lymph;
- not in gut;
- oral vaccine needed;
- mutation;
- different strain idea;
- AVP; e.g. not required in developed countries
- developing countries cannot afford to develop vaccines
- no / limited, demand
- cholera can be treated with ORT
- can be treated with antibiotics

ALLERGIES
- Allergy means ‗altered reaction‘ – it is the inappropriate and harmful response of the body‘s
defence mechanisms to substances that are normally harmless.
- Allergies are caused by the immune system responding inappropriately to harmless substances
which can lead to severe illness.
- Asthma and hay fever are examples of allergic reactions - reacting to allergens that are antigenic
but shouldn't cause harm.
- When these allergens are inhaled, B cells produce antibodies, including histamines, when the
tissues are damaged. and these coat the mast cells that are found in the lining of the airways,
sensitizing the body to these allergens
- Examples of allergens include pollens, dust mite, molds, danders, and certain foods. People prone
to allergies are said to be allergic or atopic
- Now, every time this allergen enters the body, the antibodies are stimulated to release histamine,
causing the blood vessels to widen and become leaky - fluid and white blood cells leave
capillaries.
- The area where histamines are released become hot, red and inflamed. Hay fever causes the nose
and throat to become inflamed and irritated.
- It can be an attack of sneezing and runny eyes (hay fever), an itchy red rash (eczema), wheezing
when breathing (asthma) or swelling of lips and tongue and vomiting (food allergy). Allergies
affect about a third of the population.

Hay fever
- Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) is the most common of the allergic diseases - refers to
seasonal nasal symptoms that are due to pollens.
- Year round or perennial allergic rhinitis is usually due to indoor allergens, such as dust mites
or molds.
- Symptoms result from the inflammation of the tissues that line the inside of the nose (mucus
lining or membranes) after allergens are inhaled.

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 -Adjacent areas, such as the ears, sinuses, and throat can also be involved. Hay fever is an
allergic reaction to airborne allergens.
Symptoms
- Irritation in the nose resulting in vigorous bouts of sneezing
- Release of a large volume of watery mucus making the nose run
- Itchy watery eyes
- Itchiness in the mouth, throat and ears
- Blocked nose and sinuses
- Runny nose
- Stuffy nose
- Nasal itching (rubbing)
- Itchy ears and throat
- Post nasal drip (throat clearing)

Cause
- Hay fever is not necessarily caused by hay. It generally occurs during the summer months and
may be triggered by grass pollen in the air. This generally peaks in June.
- Tree pollen which peaks in April.
- Fungal spores such as those of moulds that occur on foliage (including grasses).
- Non-seasonal hay fever is most often triggered by faecal pellets of dust mites or by hair of pets
which may be coated in saliva or urine.

Treatment
- Treatment of an allergic reaction involves avoiding the allergen as far as possible and preventing
or treating the symptoms.

Asthma
- Asthma is a breathing problem that results from the inflammation and spasm of the lung's air
passages (bronchial tubes).
- Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways, trigger by a range of allergen.
- The inflammation causes a narrowing of the air passages, which limits the flow of air into and
out of the lungs.
- Asthma is most often, but not always, related to allergies.
- When an allergen is inhaled histamine is released by the mast cells in the lungs.
- This causes inflammation of the lining of small air tubes, secretion of excess mucus and
contraction of the muscles in the wall of the airways making breathing difficult if not
impossible.
- Asthmatics have a more serious problem
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 - their airways are nearly always inflamed, but during an asthmatic attack this inflammation
worsens.
- Fluid leaks from the blood into the airways and the goblet cells secrete large amounts of mucus,
blocking the smaller airways with fluid.
- This forces the muscles to contract, narrowing the airways and increasing air flow resistance.
- This makes breathing very difficult and can have fatal consequences.
- Asthma has been linked to increased air pollution and passive smoking.

Cause:
The allergens that commonly cause asthma are:

- House dust mites: These are very small (0.3 mm) and there may be thousands of them of them
in a gram of dust in a mattress or carpet. The allergen causing asthma is actually the faecal
pellets of the dust mites which are so small they are easily inhaled into the lungs.
- Pets: the allergen is the saliva or urine on hairs or feathers which are shed around the house.
- Engine emissions, especially particles of soot: emissions from petrol and diesel engines have
been blamed for the increase in childhood asthma but this has not been proven.
- Organic solvents.
- Wood and floor dust.
- Spores from fungi in rotting vegetation.
- Some medicines.

Symptoms:

- Difficulty with breathing (shortness of breath)

- Chest tightness; a cough, especially at night.
- Wheezing – a whistling sound due to air moving through swollen and partially obstructed
airways

TOPIC 5: GENE TECHNOLOGY

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.9.1 Insulin  outline the - Steps involved in  Illustrating genetic Paper and scissors
Production synthesis of the production of engineering using models
human insulin by human insulin by paper and scissors.
bacteria bacteria  Conducting
educational tours to
Biotechnology
laboratories.

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 KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

 explain the - Advantages of  Discussing the  ICT tools

advantages of human insulin advantages of use  Braille
treating diabetics produced by gene of insulin from gene software/Jaws
with human insulin technology in technology.
produced by gene treating diabetes
technology
8.9.3 Gene Therapy  outline the basis of - Gene therapy  Discussing gene  ICT tools
gene therapy therapy.  Braille
software/Jaws

GENE TECHNOLOGY

Key Definitions
• Gene technology – this term really covers techniques such as genetic engineering, the creation of
genomic libraries of DNA and DNA fingerprinting.
• Genetic engineering – the transfer of a gene from one organism (the donor) to another (the
recipient) e.g. the genes coding for human insulin, growth hormone or the blood clotting factor,
Factor VIII may be removed from human cells and transferred to bacteria.
• Promoter – a length of DNA (usually about 40 bases long) situated next to genes and which
identify the point at which transcription should begin.
• Marker – a gene which is deliberately transferred along with the required gene during the process
of genetic engineering. It is easily recognized and used to identify those cells to which the gene
has been successfully transferred.
• Genetic fingerprinting – the analysis of DNA in order to identify the individual from which the
DNA was taken to establish the genetic relatedness of individuals. It is now commonly used in
forensic science (for example to identify someone from a blood sample) and to determine whether
individuals of endangered species in captivity have been bred or captured from the wild.
• DNA sequencing - the determination of the precise sequence of nucleotides in a sample of DNA
or even a whole genome e.g. the Human Genome Project.

Gene therapy
- Introduction of genes into an individual with abnormal genes; so allowing the individual
to produce proteins which otherwise they would not be able to produce. The principle of
the process is very simple:
1. Take some cells from an individual
2. Add genes to the cells
3. Replace the cells (i.e. put the cells back into the individual)
4. These cells can now produce the proteins the individual needs
- Cells contain all the genetic information – in the form of genes on chromosomes – of an
individual. Genes work by coding for protein production – they are essentially the
instructions for making proteins.

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 - Non-reproductive cells are used, i.e. not the sperm or eggs, since it is essential that the
altered cells cannot be inherited/passed to the next generation. For this reason, blood cells,
liver cells, skin cells or bone marrow cells are used.
- In practice, things are a bit more complicated.
1. Extracting the cells from the individual
- This is relatively easy using a biopsy syringe under local anesthetic

2. Getting the gene into the patient’s cells

- The genes are carried into the cells using a vector.

- The vector is often a retrovirus, which contains RNA. Before the virus is allowed to
enter the cells, it is made harmless – this may involve cutting out some of the genes in the
virus. Once inside the patient’s cells, the retrovirus’s RNA is used as a template to make
DNA. This viral DNA then becomes inserted into the patient’s DNA.
- In making the vector retrovirus safe, the virus is unable to enter the human cells by itself.
Thus the vector virus is mixed with normal (harmless) retroviruses, called helper viruses.
These are able to penetrate

Steps involved in the genetic engineering of bacteria to synthesize human insulin

1. Human insulin gene must be identified. There are various ways in which this might have
been done, described at the end of this section. What was actually done, in the late 1970’s,
was as follows:
 Insulin-producing cells from human pancreas tissue synthesise large amounts of the
protein, insulin, for which they make large amounts of mRNA. This mRNA has a
genetic code complementary to the key portions (exons) of the human insulin gene.
Some of this mRNA was isolated from such cells.
 The mRNA was incubated with a mixture of free DNA nucleotides and reverse
transcriptase (an enzyme from viruses that use RNA as their genetic material). This
produced a single strand of DNA known as complementary DNA or cDNA, which
is a copy of the informational strand of the human insulin gene.
 The single strand of cDNA was then made double stranded using DNA polymerase,
and cloned to make many cDNA molecules using the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)
2. Additional, non-coding DNA was added to the ends of the cDNA insulin genes so that
‘sticky ends’ could be produced using restriction enzymes (also called restriction
endonucleases). Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific basesequences – their restriction
site, for example, EcoR1 cuts at the sequence GAATTC. Some restrictions enzymes leave
‘sticky ends’ (short lengths of unpaired bases at each cut) as shown below.
GAATTC G AATTC
CTTAAG CTTAA G

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 DNA car here with restriction enzyme EcoRI

G A A T T C G A T A
C T T A A G C T A T

Gene with unpaired bases forming “sticky end”

A A T T C G A T A
G C T A T

Gene can be joined to another piece of DNA with complementary

sticky ends to form recombinant DNA

G T C G A A T T C G A T A
C A G C T T A A G C T A T

The restriction enzyme was chosen so that it would not cut the insulin genes into pieces, and
would leave sticky ends at either end of the gen, shown below.

3. The gene is then transferred to a bacterial plasmid - a small, circular DNA molecule found
in bacteria and separate from the bacteria’s main DNA molecule. The gene was inserted
into a selected plasmid by cutting open the plasmid using the same restriction enzyme that
was used to make sticky ends at either end of the cDNA human insulin genes – again,
leaving complementary sticky ends. If the insulin genes and the cut plasmids are mixed,
the complementary bases in the sticky ends will pair up. This may join the gene into the
plasmid. (Unfortunately some plasmids rejoin without gaining the desired gene.) Ligase
enzyme is used to re-join the breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA so that
the gene is permanently added to the plasmid, forming recombinant DNA.

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 DNA containing required gene Bacterial plasmid

cut with same

restriction
endonuclease

Isolated gene Plasmid cut open

Gene inserted into DNA of

plasmid with DNA ligase

Recombinant DNA in plasmid ready to be taken up by bacteria

4. The plasmids containing the human insulin gene are then transferred to bacterial cells. This
is brought about by mixing the plasmids with bacteria, some of which will take up the
plasmids. The bacteria which take up plasmids containing the human gene are said to have
been transformed. The transformed bacteria are then cloned to produce large numbers of
genetically identical offspring, each containing the recombinant plasmid, and grown on a
large scale. Every time a bacterium divides, it will replicate the human insulin gene. In
each bacterium the gene will be expressed, being transcribed and translated in the
bacterium to produce human insulin.
5. The bacterium Escherichia coli has been transformed in this way and has been used since
1982 to produce human insulin.
6. The steps above are a simplification of the process used to manufacture human insulin
using recombinant DNA. This is partly because it has been done several times, improving
the process each time it has been done as we understand more of the genetic mechanisms
[Link] insulin is a small protein which does not contain the amino acid
methionine, but does have quite a complex structure, with two polypeptide cut site for same
restriction chains, A and B, joined to one another by covalent disulphide bonds. The
presence of two chains means that it has a quaternary structure, and also that two separate
genes are used, one to make each polypeptide. In order to produce each of these two
polypeptide chains separately, the two genes were added into the lac operon (see below, in
the section on promoters) of the Bgalactosidase enzyme of E. coli. Before the start of the
cDNA code for each of the insulin genes was inserted an extra triplet, ATG. Look in a
DNA dictionary (e.g. at

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 [Link] ) to confirm that
this is the DNA triplet code for methionine. To make sure that transcription stopped at the
correct place, two consecutives top codes were added at the end of the cDNA for the A
chain, and also the cDNA for the B chain. In each case the triplet TAA was followed by
the triplet TAG. Look these up in a DNA genetic dictionary to confirm that they are stop
codes. This had to be done separately to different plasmids, so that some plasmids the
genetically engineered E coli containing both types of plasmid were grown in the presence
of lactose, the lac operon genes were turned on but instead of producing B-galactosidase,
produced some proteins containing the first part of the bacterial protein, followed by
methionine and then either the insulin A chain of the insulin B chain. When these proteins
had been separated from the bacteria, they were treated with cyanogen bromide, which cuts
the amino acid sequence at methionine, separating the insulin chains from the remains of
the bacterial protein. When the mixture of A and B chains is treated to promote formation
of disulphide bonds, insulin forms.

Extract messenger RNA from healthy human cells.

Treat mRNA with reverse transcriptase to make copy DNA.

Test cDNA with a radioactive gene probe to locate the fragments which
contain the normal gene.

Isolate these fragments by gel electrophoresis,

Treat these fragments with a specific restriction endonuclease to produce

cDNA fragments with sticky ends.

Extract viral DNA(adenovirus) and treat with same

restriction endonuclease.
Mix the human and viral DNA together with DNA ligase to
seal them together as recominant DNA.

Mix rDNA with the other viral components (capsid proteins) to

assemble new virions. These can be used to carry the required gene into
the patient’s cells, and should insert the rDNA into the patient’s genome.
( In the case of a retrovirus the required gene on the human mRNA has
to be tagged onto the RNA of the retrovirus)

The advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by gene technology

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Until bacteria were used to produce human insulin, people with insulin-dependent diabetes were
injected with insulin derived from pigs or cattle. Although this type of insulin works in the human
body, pig or cow insulin does not have exactly the same primary structure as human insulin, so its
amino acids sequence, while similar to human insulin, is not identical.

There are a number of advantages of using the human insulin produced by genetically engineered
bacteria:
1. it is chemically identical to the insulin that would have been produced had they not been
diabetic, so there is little chance of an immune response
2. because it is an exact fit in the human insulin receptors in human cell surface membranes,
it brings about a much more rapid response than pig or cow insulin,
3. like natural human insulin, the duration of the response is much shorter than pig or cattle
insulin,
4. it overcomes problems related to the development of a tolerance to insulin from pigs or
cattle,
5. it avoids any ethical issues that might arise from the use pig or cattle insulin, for example,
religious objections to the use of pig insulin or objections from vegetarians to the use of
animal products.

Activity

1(a) Describe the use of recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin by
bacteria [9]
─ mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin;
─ from beta cells of islets of Langerhans/pancreas;
─ reference to reverse transcriptase;
─ to cDNA;
─ reference PCR/DNA polymerase/double strand;
─ reference sticky ends/AW;
─ use of vector/virus/plasmid;
─ reference endonuclease/restriction enzymes;
─ to cut plasmid;
─ reference DNA ligase to join DNA;
─ inserted into suitable host cell/[Link]/bacteria;
─ reference method of insertion;
─ identification of modified bacteria;
─ reference growth/culture of engineered bacteria in fermenters; 9 max

(b) Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by genetic
engineering [6]
─ constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply;
─ less risk of contamination/infection;
─ identical to insulin produced in the body;
─ less/no risk of allergic reaction;
─ does not stimulate the immune system;
─ fewer side effects;
─ can be produced without the killing of animals/ethical reason;
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 ─ cheaper/easier to extract and purify;
─ more available/large amount;
─ more rapid response; 6 max.

Fig. 2.1 outlines the way in which the gene for human insulin is incorporated into plasmid
DNA and inserted into a bacterium.

(a) Describe how the plasmid DNA is cut. [3]

─ restriction (endonuclease) enzyme ;

─ named example e.g. EcoR1 ;
─ specific sequence of bases ;
─ ref. to sticky ends / exposed bases ;

(b) Explain how the human insulin gene is joined to the plasmid DNA. [3]

─ ref. to complimentary base pairing ;

─ of sticky ends ;
─ ligase ;
─ formation of phosphodiester bond ;

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 (c) List two advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by
geneticengineering. [2]

─ identical to human insulin (ref. to bovine / porcine insulin used previously) ;

─ ref. to possible immune response ;
─ easier to extract ;
─ pure / uncontaminated ;
─ regular production not dependent on livestock ;

Fig. 4.1 shows some of the steps involved in the production of bacteria capable of
synthesising human insulin.

State the role of each of the following enzymes in the production of bacteria capable of
synthesising human insulin,
reverse transcriptase
DNA polymerase
restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases)
DNA ligase
[6]
reverse transcriptase
─ makes, cDNA / single strand of DNA ;
─ from (human) mRNA ;
DNA polymerase
─ produces, second strand of DNA / double stranded DNA ;
─ ref. links nucleotides (in context of backbone formation) ;
─ ref. semiconservative replication / ref. complementary base pairing ; [max 2]
restriction enzymes
─ cut DNA / cut plasmid ; Rcuts gene Acuts out gene
─ at specific sites / at palindromic sites ;
─ to give sticky ends ; Ablunt ends [max 2]
DNA ligase
─ seals nicks in sugar-phosphate backbone ;
─ forms rDNA ;
─ by adding phosphate group ; [max 2]

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The secretion of insulin by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas stimulates the liver
to reduce the blood glucose concentration.
(a) Describe how the liver reduces blood glucose concentration, when insulin issecreted.
(b) Almost all insulin used to treat type I diabetes is produced by genetically engineered
bacteria or yeast. A summary of this procedure is shown in Fig. 4.1.

(i) One way of carrying out step 1 is to collect mRNA from cells from the pancreas.
The relevant mRNA is then isolated and used to make DNA.
Suggest why isolating the mRNA coding for insulin in a cell is easier than isolating
the DNA for insulin in a cell. [2]
(ii) Outline the use of restriction enzymes in step 2. [2]

(a)
─ binds to receptors (on liver cell membranes) ;
─ conversion of glucose to glycogen / glycogenesis ;
─ (because) insulin activates enzyme ; e.g. glucokinase / phosphofructokinase /
─ glycogen synthase
─ increased use of glucose in respiration ;
─ increased uptake of glucose / increased permeability to glucose (of liver cells) ; [3 max]
(b) (i)
─ mRNA (found in β cells) is only from gene coding for insulin / AW ;
─ large numbers (of mRNA coding for insulin) ;
─ (whereas) DNA has all genes ;
─ (so) restriction enzymes needed ; [2 max]
(ii)

─ cut plasmid (DNA) ;

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 ─ at specific, base sequence / site ;
─ leaving sticky ends (that will join with insulin gene) ;

Outline the potential benefits and hazards of gene therapy. [6]

Benefits
 permanent treatment of genetic disorder/e.g. CF
 reduced need for continued dependence on drugs;
 reduced need to alter one’s life style to survive;
 saves lives
hazards
 allele may be inserted with another needed gene altering product;
 allele may be inserted into germline and passed via gamete;
 unintentional chromosomal damage may result in undesirable mutations;
 allele may be inserted into tissue other than target with unknown consequences (as DNA enters
other cells)
 virus (vector may damage tissue);

(b) Outline a basic technique for gene transfer involving plasmids. [6]

 plasmid removed from bacteria;

 plasmid cleaved/cut open by restriction enzymes;
 desired gene/DNA extracted from donor;
 DNA from donor cleaved using same restriction enzyme;
 results in sticky ends;
 with complementary base sequences;
 pieces of DNA from two organisms mixed;
 ligase used to splice pieces (DNA);
 recombinant plasmids formed;
 insertion into host cells; [6 max]

The benefits and hazards of gene technology

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) ACTIVITIES AND
NOTES

8.9.4 Benefits and  explain the - Gene technology  Discussing benefits  ICT tool
hazards of Gene benefits and - Its benefits and and hazards of  Braille
Technology hazards of gene hazards gene technology. software/Jaws
technology

Benefits
Through gene technology, it is now possible to produce:
• genetically modified organisms for a specific purpose. Previously, such genetic change would
have to be brought about by selective breeding which requires organisms to be of the same
species (able to breed successfully together), takes many generations and involves transfer

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of whole genomes, complete with undesirable background genes. Gene technology is much
faster and involves transferring one or few genes, which may come from completely
unrelated organisms, even from different kingdoms.
• specific products, such as human insulin and human growth hormone, thereby reducing the
dependence on products from other, less reliable sources, such as pig or cow insulin.
• reduce use of agrochemicals such as herbicides and pesticides since cropscan be made
resistant to particular herbicides, or can be made to containtoxins that kill insects
• clean up specific pollutants and waste materials – bioremediation
• potential for use of gene technology to treat genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis (see
below) and SCID (Severe Combined Immune Deficiency) as wellas in cancer treatment.

Hazards
Genes inserted into bacteria could be transferred into other bacterial species, potentially
including antibiotic resistance genes and those for other materials, which could result in
antibiotic resistance in pathogens, or in bacteria that can produce toxic materials or break
down useful materials. Regulation is designed to minimise the risks of escape of such genes.
There is little evidence that such genes have escaped into wild bacterial populations. Crop
plants have, by their nature, to be released into the environment to grow, and many millions
of hectares of genetically engineered crops, both experimental and commercial, are planted
across the globe. So far, fears that they might turn out to be ‘super-weeds’, resistant to
herbicides and spreading uncontrollably, or that their genes might transfer into other closely
related wild species, forming a different kind of ‘super-weed’, or that they might reduce
biodiversity by genetic contamination of wild relatives seem to have proved unfounded. A
paper was published in Nature in 2001showing that Mexican wild maize populations were
contaminated with genes from genetically manipulated maize, but the methods used were
flawed and subsequent studies have not confirmed this contamination, suggesting that the
wild maize is not genetically contaminated. There is some evidence that Bt toxin, geneticially
engineered into plants such as cotton and maize, whilst very effective in killing the target
species, may kill other, desirable, insects such as bees and butterflies, and may also cause
natural selection of Bt toxin resistant insects. Future events may show that such
environmental risks are greater than they look at present. Food that is derived from
genetically engineered organisms may prove to be unexpectedly toxic or to trigger allergic
reactions when consumed. There is little reliable evidence that this has been so, but the risk
remains. Food containing the expressed products of antibiotic resistance marker genes could
be consumed at the same time as treatment with the antibiotic was occurring, which would
potentially reduce the effectiveness of the treatment. No examples of this are known.

The social and ethical implications of gene technology

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED LEARNING

Learners should be able (ATTITUDES, SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND NOTES
to: KNOWLEDGE)

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 8.9.5 Ethical implications  discuss the social and - Social and ethical  Researching and
of Gene Technology ethical implications of implications of gene debating on the social
gene technology technology and ethical implications
of gene technology.

The social impact of gene technology is to do with its potential and actual impact of human
society and individuals. In terms of social impact, gene technology could:
─ enhance crop yields and permit crops to grow outside their usual location or
season so that people have more food
─ enhance the nutritional content of crops so that people are better fed
─ permit better targeted clean-up of wastes and pollutants
─ lead to production of more effective and cheaper medicines and treatments
through genetic manipulation of microorganisms and agricultural organisms
to make medicines and genetic manipulation of human cells and individuals
(gene therapy)
─ produce super-weeds or otherwise interfere with ecosystems in unexpected
ways, reducing crop yields so that people have less food
─ increase costs of seed and prevent seed from being retained for sowing next
year (by inclusion of genes to kill any seed produced this way) reducing food
production
─ reduce crop biodiversity by out-competing natural crops so that people are
less well fed
─ damage useful materials such as oil or plastic in unexpected ways
─ cause antibiotics to become less useful and cause allergic reactions or disease
in other unexpected ways
The ethical impact is about the application of moral frameworks concerning the principles
of conduct governing individuals and groups, including what might be thought to be right or
wrong, good or bad. So in the context of gene technology, it is to do with issues of whether is
right or wrong to conduct research and develop technologies, whether it is good or bad.
Judgements may be that
─ It is good to conduct such research to develop technologies that might
improve nutrition, the environment or health
─ It is good to use the results of such research to produce food, to enhance
the environment or improve health
─ It is wrong to continue such research when the potential impact of the
technology is unknown and many aspects of it remain to be
understood.
─ It is wrong to use the results of such research even when the organisms
are kept in carefully regulated environments such as sterile fermenters
as the risks of the organisms or the genes they contain escaping are too
great and unknown
─ It is wrong to use the results of such research when this involves
release of gene technology into the environment as once it is released
it cannot be taken back – the genes are self-perpetuating, and the risks
that they might cause in future are unknown
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The social and ethical implications of gene technology are complex and relatively unfamiliar
to people who are not scientists, including those involved in the media and in government.
This complexity and unfamiliarity is the cause of considerable concern and debate. In
considering the implications of gene technology the best approach is to avoid the general
(e.g. avoid ‘it is bad to play God’) and stick to the specific and balanced (e.g. it is possible to
increase food crop yields with gene technology so more people can be fed, but there is
enough food already if it is properly distributed, so people should not be forced to eat
products with unknown risks).

There may be dangers arising from the accidental release of genetically engineered
organisms into the environment. The bacterium which is used in many genetic engineering
experiments is [Link] which lives naturally in the human intestine. If a genetically engineered
strain of [Link], carrying a cancer causing gene or a gene for antibiotic-resistance managed to
invade the human body, the consequences could be disastrous. In addition, different species
of bacteria are able to exchange genetic material with each other. A genetically engineered
strain of [Link] might escape and transfer genes to another species of bacteria. This might
mean considerable concerns that their widespread planting will lead to even greater
contamination of the environment with herbicides

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The use of electrophoresis in genetic fingerprinting and DNA sequencing

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

Learners should be (ATTITUDES, SKILLS LEARNING ACTIVITIES RESOURCES
able to: AND KNOWLEDGE) AND NOTES

8.9.2 Genetic  describe how - Genetic screening  Discussing how  ICT

Screening and genetic screening genetic screening  Braille
Fingerprinting is carried out is carried out. software/Jaws
 discuss the roles - Roles of genetic  Ink pads
of genetic screening  Bond paper
screening for  Hand lense
genetic  Discussing the
conditions and roles of genetic
need for genetic screening.
counselling

 explain the - Genetic

theoretical basis  Observing
fingerprinting
of genetic simulations of
fingerprinting electrophoresis
process.
 outline how the  Discussing
process of genetic
genetic fingerprinting.
fingerprinting is
carried out

Screening for clinically important genes

─ Screening is used to determine the probability of a couple having offspring with a genetic
condition
─ Gene screening can be used to detect oncogenes
─ When both alleles of the oncogene in an individual have mutated, a cancer may form. Some
people already have one mutated oncogene that they have inherited and so are at greater
risk of developing cancer

There are 9 main stages of the process of gene screening:

1. DNA sequencing is used to determine the nucleotide sequence on the mutated gene and is
stored in a genetic library
2. A fragment with a complementary sequence of nucleotide bases to the mutant gene is
produced
3. The fragment is turned into a DNA probe by radioactively labelling it
4. PCR is used to create multiple copies of the probe
5. The probe is added to a mixture of single stranded pieces of DNA from the patient being
tested
6. If the person has the genetic condition the probe will bind to the specific region on the DNA
molecule

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 7. The combined fragments are now distinguishable from the other pieces of a DNA
8. If complementary fragments are present, the DNA probe will be taken up and the x-ray film
will be exposed
9. If complementary fragments are not produced, the probe will not be taken up and the x-ray
film will not be exposed

Genetic Counselling
─ Examines family history of certain diseases
─ A counsellor can advise a couple on the what the emotion, economically, medical and social
issues that arise from having offspring that suffer from a certain genetic condition
─ Screening can help detect oncogene mutations. From this, a counsellor can advise the best
treatment plan that would give the patient the best chance of survival

Genetic fingerprinting
─ The genome of any organisms contains many repetitive, non-coding DNA bases
─ The repetitive sequences contained in introns are called core sequences In every
individual length and patterns of the core sequences is unique (except in identical twins)
─ The more closely related two individuals, the more similarities between core sequences
─ The five main stages of genetic fingerprinting are:
─ Extraction, Digestion, Separation, hybridization and development

Extraction
─ DNA is extracted from sample cells and copied using PCR

Digestion
─ Specific restriction endonuclease enzymes are chosen that will cut close to the core sequences
without altering them

Separation
─ Gel electrophoresis is used to separate the fragments by size
─ The gel is immersed in alkali to separate the double strands of DNA Each single strand
is transferred by southern blotting onto a nylon membrane Southern blotting is
achieved as follows:
─ A nylon membrane is laid over the gel
─ Absorbent paper is them placed over the nylon membrane. The liquid containing the
─ DNA is soaked up by capillary action
─ This transfers the DNA fragments to the nylon membrane in exactly the same position as they
were in the gel
─ Ultraviolet light then fixes the DNA to the membrane

Hybridisation
─ DNA probes complementary to the core sequences are added. They bind to the DNA under
specific conditions (temp., pH and light). The various probes bind to different core sequences
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Development
X – Ray film is now put over the nylon membrane. The radiation from the probes allows the position
of the fragments after electrophoresis to be seen. The pattern of the bands is unique to every
individual (except identical twins)

Summary

Extraction – DNA is extracted from the sample

Digestion – Restriction endonuclease cuts the DNA into fragments Separation – Fragments
are separated using gel electrophoresis

The fragments are then transferred from the

gel to a nylon membrane by southern blotting

Hybridisation – DNA probes are used to label

the fragments by binding to complementary
core sequences

Development – Membrane with radioactively

labelled DNA is added to x – ray film X – ray
film reveals dark bands corresponding to the
position of DNA fragments after gel
electrophoresis.

Interpreting the results

─ An automatic scanning machine can

calculate the length of the DNA fragments. This is done using results from known lengths of
DNA
─ The odds are calculated for somebody else having the same pattern
─ The closer the match, the higher the chance of the DNA coming from the person being checked

Uses of DNA fingerprinting

─ Since half the DNA of an individual comes from their mother and the other half from their
father, each band on a DNA fingerprint should be found on either the mother or fathers DNA
fingerprint also This can be used to test for paternity
─ Genetic diversity can also be assessed using genetic fingerprinting When members of
the same population have similar genetic finger prints, the population will have little
genetic diversity, hence a smaller gene pool

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Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis is a method of separating substances and analyzing molecularstructure based on
the rate of movement of each component in a liquid medium whileunder the influence of an electric
field. In genetic fingerprinting and DNA sequencing,the components being separated are
fragments of DNA.

In this case, the type of electrophoresis used is gel electrophoresis – the gel appears solid but is
actually a colloid in which there are spaces between the molecules through which other molecules
can move. Electrodes are placed at either end of the gel, as a result of which the DNA molecules
move under the influence of an electric current. Usually the DNA is fragmented (cut across) into
a series of fragments using a restriction enzyme or mixture of restriction enzymes. These enzymes
cut the DNA at specific restriction sites (see above), but these sites are randomly distributed along
the length of the DNA so the fragments are of varied lengths.

The direction of movement depends on the fact that DNA molecules and fragments of DNA are
negatively charged and thus move towards the positive electrode(anode). The distance moved in a
given time will depend on the mass of the molecule of fragment. The smaller fragments move
further in a given time, and thelarger fragments of DNA move less [Link] humans as an
example, almost everyone has 46 chromosomes: 23 pairs ifyou are female and 22 pairs plus two
odd ones if you are male. The longest of thesekinds of chromosomes has been numbered as
chromosome 1 and the smallest as22, the sex chromosomes being out of sequence and called X
and Y. The basesequence of every chromosome 1 in every human being is similar, but not
identicaldue to the existence of mutations and therefore of different alleles of genes. Whatthis
means is that when the DNA is fragmented with a restriction enzyme, thefragments are similar but
not exactly the same in DNA from different [Link] DNA is transparent and invisible, so the
fragments must be treated to makethem visible. There are two key ways of doing this:
o One is based on staining all of the DNA fragments, for example using ethidium bromide
(toxic, fluoresces in short wave UV radiation), methylene blue (fades quickly and stains
gel as well as DNA)and nile blue A (does not stain gel and visible in ordinary light).
o The other is based on creating a gene probe that is complementary:
o either to a commonly repeated bit of DNA that will therefore be present on many of the
fragments,
o or to a base sequence that is specific to a particular gene or allele of a gene which will
therefore be present on no more than one of thefragments. The gene probe is a single
stranded piece of DNA with a base sequence complementary to the DNA that you wish to
identify.
In order to make it possible to locate which fragment or fragments the gene probe has attached itself to, the
gene probe must be labelled. The most common forms of labelling are:

o to make the probe radioactive and to detect it by its ability to expose the photographic film
used to make X-ray photographs
o to stain the probe with a fluorescent stain such as vital red, that will fluoresce with bright
visible light when placed in ultraviolet light, making the location of the probe and therefore
of the fragment or fragments visible.

Genetic fingerprinting

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Once the DNA fragments have been separated by gel electrophoresis they can be compared with
other samples of DNA, thereby allowing determination of the source of the DNA (as in forensic
investigations) or whether the samples are derived fromrelated individuals, as shown below:

DNA sequencing
The most publicised example of DNA sequencing is the Human Genome [Link]
is used to separate fragments of DNA to enable determination of theorder of bases within genes
and chromosomes. The fragments vary in length by onebase at a time and the last base on each
can be identified. Because the fragmentsare different lengths, they can be separated by
electrophoresis as shown below:

The causes and symptoms of Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a genetic condition in humans. It is inherited and although itreduces
considerably the life expectancy of people with the condition, improvedtreatments have been
helping such people to live longer so that the average life-spanis now about 35 years. There are
estimated to be around 50,000 people with CFworldwide.
Causes
Cystic fibrosis is caused by several different alleles of a key gene coding for atransmembrane
protein that transports chloride ions through cell surface membranes(cystic fibrosis transmembrane
regulator, CFTR). Its inheritance is autosomal (i.e. itis NOT sex-linked) and recessive. The gene
is located on chromosome 7. CF allelesoriginate by mutation of the CFTR protein, but can then be
inherited through manygenerations.

As CF alleles are recessive, individuals with a single copy of such an allele areheterozygous and
do not have the condition. There are about 10 million such carriersworldwide.

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To have CF, it is necessary to be homozygous for CF alleles, most often by inheriting
one CF allele from each parent.

Effects of CF
Reduced chloride transport through cell membranes leads to production of thick,sticky mucus that
particularly affects the lungs, pancreas and reproductive organs.
o The mucus remains in the lungs rather than being swept out by the tracheal cilia, leading
to wheezing and repeated infections. The mucus may be removed by physiotherapy
o The mucus may block the pancreatic duct, preventing amylase and protease enzymes from
reaching the small intestine, compromising digestion and nutrition, and also causing a
build-up of protease in the pancreas, damaging the pancreatic tissue including the cells that
produce insulin, increasing the chance of diabetes.
o The mucus may block the sperm ducts, causing male infertility and may slow the progress
of eggs and sperm through the oviducts, reducing female fertility.

Progress towards treating Cystic Fibrosis with gene technology

Current treatments for CF deal with the symptoms rather than the causes, for example
physiotherapy to remove mucus from lungs, antibiotics to combat recurrent lung infections and
enzyme supplements to enhance digestion. These have been very successful in improving people’s
quality of life and lifespan, but research continues to try and develop techniques for adding
functional copies of the CFTR gene to the cells of people with CF.

Since it is a recessive condition, such gene therapy does not need to remove or replace the existing
genes in the person’s cells – adding a working copy of the gene to a cell and having it expressed
would be sufficient to permit that cell to transport chloride ions normally. Since it is the mucus in
the lungs that generally limits lifespan in people with CF, it is these cells that have been the focus
of effort. It is thought that if even a proportion of lung cells could be given a working copy of the
gene, this would thin the mucus sufficiently to allow the cilia to operate normally.
The approach that has been trial led with another recessive genetic condition, SCID, is to remove
cells from the body, add working copies of the gene and put the cells back. The working copies of
the gene integrate themselves into random positions in the genome of the treated cells. The blood
cells involved in this case only live for a few weeks so it has to be frequently repeated. Of 14 boys
in one French trial, 3 have developed cancer, probably because the gene has been inserted into a
critical portion of one of the cells at some point. Clearly this approach cannot be used with CF
because the lung surface cells cannot be extracted from the body.

For CF, a vector must be used to deliver the DNA containing the functional CFTR
gene into the lung cells.
o Viral delivery systems – some viruses such as Adenoviruses can be used asthe vector.
Normally, viruses which infect lung cells are used – their virulence (ability to cause
disease) is removed and they are genetically engineered to carry the functional human
CFTR gene. Early trials have involved either injection with the genetically engineered
viruses or inhale them from an aerosol directly into the lungs. The intention is that the lung
surface cells are infected with the virus, which releases the genetic material into the cells
where it is expressed.

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 o Non-viral delivery systems – other systems are also being developed and have been trialled
for safety but have not been used therapeutically e.g.
1. Creation of a lipid sphere or liposome, containing the DNA. An aerosol is sprayed into the lungs
where the liposome will be able to pass through the target cell membrane and carry the DNA into
the cell.
2. DNA can be compressed into a very small volume which may directlyenter cells.

Whether the DNA is introduced into the cells by viruses or some other system, the intention is
that the gene will be incorporated into the cell’s genome and will start to be expressed, to
produce CFTR protein to carry chloride ions through its membrane.

There is not yet a successful example of treatment of CF by gene therapy. This is because:
o current viral vectors have been found to stimulate allergic or other immune responses
o current liposome vectors have proved inefficient at delivering genes into cells
o the effect of the therapy on chloride ion transport has, so far, lasted only a few days
Research continues to solve these problems to develop a workable treatment for lung symptoms.
Further into the future, similar approaches may be possible for pancreatic symptoms. A cure
would require every one of the 50 x 1013 cells in the body to be altered, which is not currently
thought to be technically possible and would raise significant further ethical issues. To enable
people with CF to have children would require germ-line gene therapy where changes are made
to human gamete cells that are inherited by the next generation. This would also raise very
significant further ethical issues and does not appear to be realistic at present.

Genetic screening and counseling

There are now many conditions known to be caused by varied alleles of varied genes and which
can therefore be inherited. The pattern of inheritance varies, according to whether the allele is
dominant, recessive or sex-linked.

Individuals may be tested for the presence of such alleles – such tests may be requested because
there is a history of a particular condition in the family of that person or because the person belongs
to an ethnic group which has a high percentage of individuals with a particular allele, such as the
alleles that cause Tay Sachs in people who are Ashkenazi Jews.

 Genetic screening: The testing of samples of DNA from a group of people to identify the presence
or absence of particular alleles and thus the risk of having or passing on particular genetic
conditions. detection of, specific allele/genetic disease/haplotype; Such screening may be:
 Carrier screening- all the individuals in a family may be screened if one family member develops
a particular condition that may be genetic. potential parents may be screened where there is the
possibility that one or both of them might carry a recessive allele for some particular condition e.g.
cystic fibrosis
o Prenatal screening – this is used to determine aspects of the genetic makeup of an unborn
child. Such testing can detect a number of genetic conditions:
o Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Downs Syndrome (of particular importance if the
mother is over 34), trisomy 13 and trisomy 18.
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 o Single gene disorders, such as haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis
o Neural tube defects, such as spina bifida and anencephaly Pre-natal screening may be
carried out in different ways and at different stages of the pregnancy :
o Chorionic villus sampling – where the early placental tissue is sampled, usually done at 10
– 12 weeks of the pregnancy
o Amniocentesis – where fetal cells in amniotic fluid are sampled, usually done at 13 – 18
weeks of the pregnancy
o Intra-uterine blood test – where fetal blood is sampled, usually done at 16 – 18 weeks of
the pregnancy
o Newborn screening – in some countries, all newborn babies are screened for genetic
conditions such as phenylketonuria (pku) by a simple blood test. This test enables the
affected individual to be put onto a protective diet low in the amino acid phenylalanine, for
the rest of their life, to protect them from the damaging symptoms of the condition.

Once the results of a genetic test are known, it will be necessary for those involved to receive

Genetic Counselling.

This will involve an explanation of the results and the implications in terms of probabilities,
dangers, diagnosis, and treatment.
o For the individual – depending on the nature of any detected allele (dominant or recessive),
it will be necessary to explain the possible future consequences in terms of the health of
the individual and whether this is likely to have repercussions on their education or
employment. In some cases, it might affect their prospects of obtaining insurance.
o For couples who want to have children – again, depending on the nature of the inheritance,
it will need to be explained what the probabilities are of any children inheriting the
defective allele – and the chances of any child actuallyhaving the disease i.e. it showing in
their phenotype. All of this will depend on whether the allele is dominant, recessive or sex-
linked.
In addition to the practical considerations of genetic screening and counselling, there are also some ethical
considerations :

o Who decides who should be screened or tested?

o Which specific disorders should be screened?
o Who should be providing the screening?
o Should we screen or test for disorders for which there is no known treatment or cure?
o What psychological impact might the results have on the individuals involved?
o Should the results be confidential?
o If not, who should be able to have access to the information?
o Should the results be made available to potential employers, insurers etc.?

Outline how genetic fingerprinting is carried out.

 DNA extracted from, suitable cell/named cell;
 fragmented by restriction enzyme(s);
 gel electrophoresis;
 smallest fragments furthest/largest fragments least far;
 Southern blotting;
 banding pattern visualised;
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of genetic screening for HD. [6]

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 advantages
 know have allele before having children;
 take steps not to pass on allele/gene/condition;
 test embryo and terminate if positive/test IVF embryo and do not
 implant if positive;
 appropriate, AI/donor oocyte/donor embryo;
 activity/physiotherapy to delay onset; [max 4]
disadvantages
 know will suffer from incurable disease in time;
 positive test on offspring means untested parent knows must have allele;
 positive test on parent means any offspring knows has 1 in 2
 chance of having allele;
Explain the genetic basis of Down’s syndrome in humans.

 trisomy 21/three chromosomes 21;

 as a result of non-disjunction;
 translocation;
 part of 21 onto another chromosome;
 detail chromosome (13, 14 or 15/group D);
 together with two chromosomes 21;

(a) Explain how changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may affect the amino acid
sequence in a protein. [7]
─ code is three, bases / nucleotides ; A triplet code
─ (gene) mutation ; R chromosome mutation
─ base, substitution / addition / deletion ;
─ addition / deletion, large effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
─ frame shift ;
─ completely new code after mutation / alters every 3 base sequence which follows ;
─ (substitution) often has no effect / silent mutation ;
─ different triplet but same amino acid / new amino acid in non-functional part of protein ;
─ (substitution) may have big effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
─ could produce ‘stop’ codon ;
─ sickle cell anaemia / PKU / cystic fibrosis ;
─ reference to transcription or translation in correct context ; A description
─ AVP ; e.g. protein produced, is non-functional / not produced / incomplete [7 max]

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Discuss the use of genetic engineering in improving the quality and yield of
(ii) crop plants, [6]
(iii) animals. [6]

(a) (i) Describe the techniques used in embryo transplantation. [7]

(ii) Describe the process of cloning plants from tissue culture. [7]
(iii) Explain the advantages of using these two procedures in selective breeding. [6]
[Total : 20]

Describe the ways by which gene mutations can occur. [6]

─ change in, base / nucleotide, sequence (in DNA) ;

─ during DNA replication ;
─ detail of change ; e.g. base, substitution / addition / deletion
─ frame shifts / AW ;
─ different / new, allele ;
─ random / spontaneous ;
─ mutagens ;
─ ionising radiation ;
─ UV radiation / mustard gas ;

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Outline the need for energy in living organisms using named examples. [9]

─ ATP as universal energy currency ;

─ light energy needed for photosynthesis ;
─ ATP used conversion of GP to TP ;
─ ATP used to regenerate RuBP ;
─ (energy needed for) anabolic reactions ;
─ protein synthesis / starch formation / triglyceride formation ;
─ activation energy ;
─ (activate) glucose in glycolysis ;
─ active transport ;
─ example ; e.g. sodium / potassium pump
─ movement / locomotion ;
─ example ; e.g. muscle contraction / cilia beating
─ endocytosis / exocytosis / pinocytosis / bulk transport ;
─ temperature regulation;

Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by genetic
engineering. [6]

─ constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply;

─ less risk of contamination/infection;
─ identical to insulin produced in the body;
─ less/no risk of allergic reaction;
─ does not stimulate the immune system;
─ fewer side effects;
─ can be produced without the killing of animals/ethical reason;
─ cheaper/easier to extract and purify;
─ more available/large amount;
─ more rapid response;

Describe the use of recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin by
bacteria [9]
mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin;
─ from beta cells of islets of Langerhans/pancreas;
─ reference to reverse transcriptase;
─ to cDNA;
─ reference PCR/DNA polymerase/double strand;
─ reference sticky ends/AW;
─ use of vector/virus/plasmid;
─ reference endonuclease/restriction enzymes;
─ to cut plasmid;
─ reference DNA ligase to join DNA;
─ inserted into suitable host cell/[Link]/bacteria;
─ reference method of insertion;
─ identification of modified bacteria;
─ reference growth/culture of engineered bacteria in fermenters;
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Explain why mammalian cells are used as host cells in recombinant DNA technology during
production of human factor VIII
─ human genes contain exons and introns
─ mammalian cells have enzymes to remove introns/ enzymes for methylation and splicing of
mRNA;
─ mammalian cells have enzymes / Golgi apparatus for post –translational modification;
─ presence of human regulator genes

State any biological methods other than the use of plasmids; of introducing genes into host
cells.
─ Liposome transfer
─ Electroporation
─ Microinjection/ micropipette;
─ a DNA gun fires tungsten or gold particles coated with DNA
─ ballistic impregnation
─ use of vectors

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 A Level Biology TEACHERS PRACTICAL TRAINING
Module

CONTENTS

Background 2

Practical 1: Introduction to Microscopy 2

Practical 2: Demonstration of plasmolysis using red onion skin cells 6

Practical 3: Measuring the water potential of potato tubers 9

Practical 4:Determination of the water potential of solutes 12

Practical 5: Identification of non-reducing sugars 17

Practical 6: Determination of relative quantities of reducing sugars in food items 18

Practical 7: Demonstration of the action of protease (pepsin) on enzymes 21

Practical 8: Demonstration of the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme action 23

Practical 9: Demonstration of regulation and control through dialysis 27

Practical 10: Plant Gross form and Tissues 32

Practical 11: The structure of flowers and adaptation to pollination 34

Practical 12: The basic leaf structure 36

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BACKGROUND

A practical assessment is undertaken for ZIMSEC Advanced level students in Paper 4 which is written
for 2 h, 30 min. The paper is allocated 60 marks and has a weighting of 20%. The paper comprises of
experiments and investigations based on the Core syllabus. The students are expected to
demonstrate planning and implementing skills in carrying out the practical exam. After that they
should demonstrate interpreting and concluding skills on the findings of the investigations that they
would have carried.

Good implementing skills can be demonstrated by carrying out experimental work in a methodical
and organised way with due regard for safety and living organisms. The students should also use
apparatus and materials in an appropriate way. They should be make accurate and detailed
observations of low power and high power drawings of a specimen. They should also make
measurements to the appropriate degree of precision allowed by apparatus.

Interpreting and concluding skills involve assessing the reliability and accuracy of experimental data
and techniques by identifying and assessing errors. Students should apply knowledge to explain and
interpret experimental results to reach valid conclusions. They are also expected to communicate
information, results and ideas in clear and appropriate ways using text, tabulation, graphs and
figures.

This A Level Practical Module has been developed to facilitate learning among students and to guide
teachers in the execution of practicals. The practicals were derived from the Cambridge and ZIMSEC
past examination papers.

The module provided the teacher with selected practicals that can be executed by the students. For
each practical a brief introduction of the concept being investigated is provided, the objectives and a
detailed procedure. A list of materials and equipment required for the practicals are also provided.

PRACTICAL 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROSCOPY

INTRODUCTION
Of all the techniques used in biology, microscopy is probably the most important. The vast majority
of living organisms are too small to be seen in any detail with the human eye, and cells and their
organelles can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Cells were first seen in 1665 by Robert
Hooke (who named them after monks' cells in a monastery), and were studied in more detail by
Leeuwehoek using a primitive microscope. The Light Microscope is the oldest, simplest and most
widely-used form of microscopy. Specimens are illuminated with light, which is focused using glass
lenses and viewed using the eye or photographic film. Figure 1 outlines the parts of a light
microscope. All light microscopes today are compound microscope, which means they use several
lenses to obtain high magnification. Light microscopy has a resolution of about 200 nm, which is good
enough to see cells, but not the details of cell organelles.
A light source, which is either external or an integral part of the microscope, is required to illuminate
the specimen. The condenser lens under the stage gathers the diffuse light rays from the light source
and illuminates the specimen with an intense cone of light. This allows small parts of the specimen
to be seen after magnification. Two sets of light rays enter the objective lenses. One set has not been
altered by the specimen, coming directly from the many points on the specimen and is brought into
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focus by the objective lens. Using the focusing controls the user can change the relative distance
between the specimen and the objective lens so that the final image is in focus on the retina of the
eye. The total magnification of the specimen is the product of the magnification of the ocular lens
(usually 10X) and that of the objective lens (10X, 40X etc).
Specimens can be living or dead, but often need to be stained with a coloured dye to make them
visible. Various dyes/stains are used to enhance the contrast between the object and the background
medium. On the other hand, the most important property for seeing an unstained object is scattering
of light by diffusion. Absorption of light may also enhance contrast. A good example is the wing of an
insect. The thicker parts will absorb more light than the thinner bits, which will appear brighter. Due
to the difference in the transmitted light from the different parts of the wing an image is seen

Figure 1:Diagram of a typical light microscope, showing the parts and the light path

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this practicalis to familiarize the student with the theory and practice of operating
the compound optical microscope specifically to (i) calibrate (ii) prepare and mount a specimen for
observation and, (iii) measure the size of cells under a light microscope.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS/ REQUIREMENTS

1. Purple Onion
2. Light Microscope
3. Eye pierce graticule
4. Forceps
5. Fuse wire of known diameter
6. Slides
7. Cover slips
8. Blotting/filter paper
9. Distilled water
10. Iodine solution
Part A:Calibration of the OcularMicrometer
As part of this practical you will need to calibrate a scale (an ocular micrometer or reticle) in the
right eyepiece of the microscope so that it can be used to measure the dimensions ofdifferent types
of cells. The ocular micrometer scale itself has no inherent units, and because different objectives
produce images with different degrees of magnification, the meaning of its intervals varies from one
objective to the next. The figure below shows a slide with some red blood cells as seen through an
ocular lens fitted with an ocular micrometer. In this case, the scale simply goes from 1 to 10, and each
interval is divided into 10 smallerunits.

Figure 2: Shows the view throughthe objective lens of a microscope with an ocular
micrometer.
Because the ocular micrometer or reticle scale has no inherent units, it is necessary to calibrate it
using a stage micrometer. A stage micrometer is a special microscope slide with a ruler etched on
its surface, which has units of millimeters (mm) and micrometers (μm). To calibrate the reticle, you
will line up the stage micrometer with the ocular micrometer and count the number of units or
divisions on the ocular micrometer that corresponds to a particular distance in millimeters or
micrometers on the stage micrometer (Figure 2). The number of ocular units per millimeter or
micrometer will change as themagnificationchanges.

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 (a)

(b)
Figure 3: (a) The view through the microscope if the stage micrometer has been aligned with
the ocular micrometer and focused correctly. (b) Shows the scale on a sample
stagemicrometer.

Calibration of an eye piece graticule

An eye pierce graticule is a special eye-piece containing an arbitrary scale – scale units which do not
mean anything until they have been calibrated. To calibrate, follow these steps:
1. Using the eye-piece graticule and a piece of fuse wire of known diameter calibrate your microscope
at 100X total magnification i.e. using 10X objective lens.
2. With the eye piece graticule in place, focus on the calibrations of a stage micrometer using the low
power objective.
3. Rotate the eyepiece until the ocular micrometer is aligned with the stage scale.
4. Determine the length of each division by dividing the total length sub-tendend on the stage scale.
Place the slide with the piece of wire of known diameter on the stage microscope. Measure how many
arbitrary eye unit equal the diameter of the wire. Perform a simple calculation and record your
answer which should be in the form:
1 eye piece unit = µm (using the 10X objective ONLY)
5. Carefully change to 20X and 40X objective lenses and determine the lengths of each division as in 4
above. Enter your values in a table with magnification and length in µm per division. Show all your
calculation on paper. Comment on the numerical relationship between the calibration values for
the 10X, 20X and 40X objective lenses.

NOTE:

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(a) Not all the eye-piece graticules contain exactly the same size scales so you must calibrate the one that
you will be using to make your measurements
(b) The magnification used for doing the calibration must be the same as the one used for making the
measurements. Why?
(c) Now that you have calibrated your eye-piece scale you are now ready to measure the length of
epidermal cells. You will be preparing a onion epidermal cells for observation under the microscope.

Part B: Preparing a slide of purple onion epidermal cells

The fleshy pieces inside an onion are leaves that store nutrients. Cut open an onion and separate
some of the leaves. Peel off one of the thin layers of epidermal tissue from the inner concave surface
of a leaf and transfer it to a drop of water on a microscope slide. Use forceps and mounted needle to
make sure that the tissue is not folded.
(a) Place two drops of iodine solution onto the tissue. Gently lower a coverslip onto the slide using a
mounted needle. Use a piece of filter paper to absorb excess stain. Place some filter paper over the
coverslip and gently press to flatten the specimen.
(b) Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and use the low-power objective to locate the cells.
Now use the high-power objective to select three adjacent cells that are clearly visible in your field of
view.
(c) Make a large, labelled drawing of these three epidermal cells.
Part C: Measuring the size of the cells
1. Use the calibrated eyepiece graticule to measure the length of one of the epidermal cells that you
have drawn. Now measure the same cell in your drawing.
2. Measure the length of 2-5 epidermal cells in eyepiece units at 100X magnification and calculate the
length in µm. Calculate the mean epidermal cell length.
3. Calculate the magnification of your drawing, using the formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙/ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
NB. The lengths must be measured in the same units e.g. micrometers (µm)
Some useful definitions in Microscopy

Magnification, the degree of enlargement of the image of the object compared to its
real size. It is provided by a two lens system; ocular lens (8 or 10X) and objective lens
(4, 10, 40 or 100X). Total magnification is the product of these two magnifying power
[Link], a measure of the clarity of [Link] power is the ability of an optical
instrument to show two objects as separate. For example, what looks to your unaided eye like a
single star in the sky may be resolved as two stars with the help of a telescope. Any optical device is
limited by its [Link], is the ability to determine same particular detail of specimen
against its background. In a bright field light microscope, adjustable condenser with aperture
diaphragm control or adding dyes may increase contrast of a transparentspecimen.

The maximum magnification obtained through a light microscope is 400X, in other words the closest
two distinct points can be and still be resolved is 0.2 micrometer (µm) about the size of the smallest
-6
bacterium (1 µ m = 10 m). This limitation is the result of light being diffracted by the object under
observation and because diffracted light interferes with the image.

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 PRACTICAL 2: Demonstration of plasmolysis using red onion skin cells
INTRODUCTION
One of the main functions of the cell membrane is to selectively regulate what passes into and out of
the cell. Molecules can cross the cell membrane by simple diffusion or osmosis. Diffusion is the
random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration. This will occur until the two areas reach a dynamic equilibrium. When this dynamic
equilibrium is reached the concentration of molecules will be approximately equal and there will be
no net movement of molecules after [Link] is a special kind of diffusion in which water
moves through a selectively permeable membrane in the direction that tends to equalize the osmotic
concentrations on the two sides of themembrane.
Plant cells are composed of an outer cell wall and an inner cell membrane. The cell wall is a relatively
rigid structure composed of cellulose and several other polysaccharides. It is also porous and allows
most molecules to pass through it. When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water will enter
the cell through osmosis. However, the rigid cell wall prevents the cell from enlarging beyond
acertain volume, leading to the development of hydrostatic pressure called tugor pressure. Tugor
pressure keeps a plant upright, and prevents more water from entering the cell. When a plant cell is
placed in a hypertonic solution, water will leave the cell through osmosis, and the cell membrane
pulls away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is called plasmolysis. Plasmolysis is a reversible
process: when the hypertonic solution is replaced with a hypotonic solution, the cell regains its
original volume and tugor pressure. When cells are placed in isotonic solution, the movement of
water out of the cell is exactly balanced by the movement of water into the cell. An isotonic solution
is when two solutions, separated by a semipermeable membrane have equal concentrations of
solutes and water. Since the solutions have the same osmotic pressure this allows for the free
movement of water across the membrane without changing the concentration of solutes on either
side.
OBJECTIVES
1. To observe osmotic responses typical of plant cells using purple onion skin cells under hypotonic,
hypertonic and isotonic conditions.

METHOD AND MATERIALS/REQUIREMENTS

1. Purple Onion
2. Light Microscope
3. Forceps/Tweezers
5. Slides
7. Cover slips
8. Blotting/filter paper
9. Distilled water
10. Isotonic Solution
11. Hypertonic Solution
12. Hyportonic solution
1. Using a razor blade cut out a 3 mm x 3 mm square on the outside skin (epidermis) of a red onion.
You only need to cut through the skin, which is consisting of a single layer ofcells.
2. Using a pair of tweezers carefully peel off the skin and spread it onto a glass slide skin sideup.
3. Add a drop of distilled water onto the onion skin and cover with a coverglass. When mounting a
cover glass, it is a good practice to contact the glass slide at a 45 degree angle then lower the cover
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 glass slowly. This way you will have less air bubbles trapped under the coverglass.
4. Observe the onion skin under 10X and 40X magnification. Start with the low magnification. Can you
see the cell wall, the cell membrane and the nucleus? Record your observations. Draw and label 3
plant cells.
5. Take another strip of cells from onion, mount it on a slide and then add a drop of salt water
(hypertonic solution 10 NaCl) onto the onion skin and cover with glass slide. Observe the onion skin
under the microscope. Can you see the cell membrane now? Record your [Link] and
label 3 plant cells.
6. Take another strip of cells from onion, mount it on a slideand then add a drop of isotonic solution
onto the onion skin and cover with glass slide. Observe the onion skin under the microscope. Can
you see the cell membrane now? Record your [Link] and label 3 plant cells.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the cells in distilled water. How are the cells in hypertonic solution (10% sodium
chloride) different from this?
2. Explain what happened to the cells in the hypertonic solution (10% sodium chloride
solution) using biological terms. Try to include these words. Cytoplasm, diffusion, water,
solvent, dissolved salts, solute, cell membrane, vacuole, cell wall, osmosis, plasmolysis,
turgid, flaccid, turgor.
3. What prevents the plant cells from bursting when they take in lots of water?
4. You’ve seen what happens to cells in epidermal tissue when they lose water. How does a
whole plant look when it is short of water? How does it change when you give it water?
5. Animal cells do not have the same structure as plant cells. What do you think could happen
to an animal cell in water?
6. For microscopic observation, why is it necessary to use only the thin skin of the onion cells?
7. Why use purple onion cells and not white onions.

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PRACTICAL 3: Measuring THE water potential OF potato tubers

INTRODUCTION
Plants rely on physical forces to move water in and around their tissues, both short distances from
cell to cell and long distances through the xylem vessels. Water potential ( ), a measure of the driving
force that governs the movement of water from the soil into plants and finally into the atmosphere,
is the amount of energy per unit volume (or pressure) contained in a system like a plant cell. Pure
water in a free standing solution has a water potential of zero, while most plant cells have a negative
water potential. The atmosphere typically has a very negative water potential, much more negative
than a typical plant tissue, while the water potential of the soil solution is typically less negative than
a typical plant tissue. Water moves from a tissue or area of higher water potential to a tissue or area
of lower (more negative) water potential. It is energetically favorable under normal conditions for
water to move into a plant from the soil, through the plant, and out to the atmosphere down a water
potential gradient. The rate of movement varies considerably depending upon soil moisture
availability and relative humidity of the atmosphere.

Water potential of a plant cell is made up of two important components. The relationship among
these components is expressed mathematically as: (Eq. 1) = s+ p
Where is the overall water potential of a cell. s is the solute or osmotic potential and represents
the contribution made by dissolved solutes to . Adding dissolved solutes to a system decreases the
water potential. In a plant cell, mineral ions, sucrose, starch, amino acids, proteins that can
accumulate to high levels in the cytosol or vacuoles are iimportant contributors to solute potential.
p is the pressure potential and represents the contribution made by pressure to . Fully turgid cells
whose plasma membranes are pressing against the cell wall have a positive p. Cells at incipient
plasmolysis (the point at which the membrane is just barely touching the cell wall) have a p of zero.
Cells under tension, like those in the xylem during active evapotranspiration, have a negative p.

When placed in a free standing sucrose solution, water will move into or out of a plant tissue
depending upon its water potential relative to the solution. Gain or loss of water can be detected by
weighing the plant tissue before and after immersion in the solution. By incubating tissues in a series
of sucrose solutions of different concentrations, the solution that causes no change in tissue weight
can be identified. The water potential of this isotonic solution is assumed to equal the water potential
of the tissue.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this practical is to measure the water potential of potato tuber tissues.

METHODS AND MATERIALS/REQUIREMENTS

Requirements
 Distilled water
 Sucrose solutions
 Potato tubers
 Scapels
 Balance

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  Blotting paper

You are required to estimate the water potential of the plant material [Link] the tubes
carefully during the whole procedure.

1. Label six test-tubes as follows: DW for distilled water, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 molm 3 and
place them in a test tube rack.
2. Prepare the following sucrose solutions: Distilled water, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0
molm3(mol/kg solution) sucrose.
3. Add 75 ml of each solution to the appropriate labeled test-tube using a separate graduated
cylinder for each solution.
4. Cut 6 cylinders from a potato and trim each cylinder to 4 cm in length with a scapel, being
careful to remove the peel. Work quickly to prevent the tissues from drying out as you cut
them. What problems would tissue drying cause in the experiment?
5. Place all 6 cylinders into a petri dish which must be lidded immediately.
6. Weigh one cylinder and record its initial mass in the Tablebelow. Place this cylinder into the
test tube labeled DW.
7. Weigh a second cylinder and place it into the test tube labeled 0.2, taking care to record its
mass in the Table below.
8. Repeat the weighing for the remaining cylinders and put them into the test tubes labeled 0.4,
0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 molm3.
9. Immediately start a stop watch. Leave the cylinders in the test tubes for 25 minutes.
10. After 25 minutes, pour out the distilled water from the tube labeled DW. Place the cylinder
on a filter paper and blot any excess water quickly and gently. Do not squeeze the cylinder.
Reweigh this cylinder and record its final mass in the Table below.
11. Repeat the procedure above with the other cylinders and record their final masses.
12. Calculate the change in mass and percentage change in mass for each cylinder and record in
the Tablebelow.

Table 1: Weight change in potato tissues in sucrose solutions of different concentration

Concentration Initial mass Final mass (g) Change in % change in
of solution (g) mass (g) mass
(moldm ) 3

D1

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Calculations

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 First, subtract the initial tissue weights from the final weights. Second, divide the difference by
the initial weight and multiply by 100 to get the percent weight change. Record your calculations
in Table 1. Next, plot the percent change in weight (ordinate) vs. sucrose concentration (abscissa)
using a graph paper or in Microsoft Excel. Using this figure (and the regression line determined
from it), determine the exact concentration of sucrose that would cause no change in weight in
the potato tubers. The water potential of this solution will equal the water potential of the potato
tissue.

In an open solution where there is no turgor pressure, the p is equal to zero. Thus, the of
such a solution is equal to the s of a solution. Calculate the s of the solution causing no
change in weight of the potato tissues using the following formula:

(Eq. 2) s = -miRT

m = molarity
i = ionization constant = 1 for sucrose
R = gas constant = 8.31 J K -1 mol -1
T = room temperature in K (ºC + 273 = K)

First, convert molality of the appropriate sucrose solution to mol m-3 (Note that 1 molal = 1 x
103 mol m-3), and then use Eq. 2 to calculate the s of your solution. The results of this
calculation will be in units of J m-3 (energy per unit volume), which is equal to a unit of
pressure in Pa. Convert your answer to Mpa by dividing by 10 6. Show your calculations and
include them in your report.

B. Relationship between molarity and water potential

The table below shows the relationship between molarity and water potential.

Molarity/ moldm3 Water potential

(kPa)

0.05 -130

0.10 -260

0.15 -410

0.20 -540

0.25 -680

0.30 -860

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 0.35 -970

0.40 -1120

0.45 -1280

0.50 -1450

0.55 -1620

0.60 -1800

0.65 -1980

0.70 -2180

0.75 -2390

0.80 -2580

0.85 -2790

0.90 -3000

0.95 -3250

1.00 -2500

Draw a graph to show the relationship between molarity and water potential. Account for the
shape of the graph.

QUESTIONS

a. Explain why the potato cylinders must not be squeezed during the blotting process.

b. Why was sucrose used as the solute in the solutions? How might using another
solute influence the results?

c. Tissues in which treatments have a water potential equal to that of their solution
after the incubation period? How can you tell?

d. What influence would increasing temperature have on our calculation of water

potential?

e. The results of the calculations of water potential usually vary among years, among
laboratory sections, and even among groups within one laboratory. Why might this
be?

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 f. Suggest three ways in which you could improve this experiment to make your results
more reliable.

PRACTICAL 4: DETERMINATION OF WATER POTENTIAL OF SOLUTES

INTRODUCTION

Water Potential is the measurement of the tendency of water moleculesto move from one place to
another. Water always moves down the water potential gradient, therefore moving from an area
of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential. Equilibrium is reached when the water
potential in one region is equal to the water potential in another region. For example, if a plant
cell (like the potato tuber cells) is in equilibrium with an external solution of such a concentration
that there is no net gain or loss of water then the water potential of the external solution will be
equal to the water potential of the cell.

By convention, the water potential of pure water is set at zero. Knowing that solutes make the water
potential of solutions lower,solutes make solutions negative. Solute potential is the amount thatthe
solutes lower the water potential of a [Link] potential is especially important in plant
cells. If a plant, for example the potato tuber cells, is placed in pure water (or a dilute solution), the
water (or solution) has a higher water potential than the plant cell. This causes the movement of
water to the cell due to the higher water potential in the cell. Water enters a cell through the partially
(semi) permeable membrane by osmosis.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of
lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane. A plant cell wall is extremely
inelastic. This property allows very little water to enter a plant cell - preventing the cell
from bursting. For plant cells water potential consists of a combination of solute potential and
pressure potential. Solute potential can be defined as the amount that the solute molecules lower the
water potential. It is evidently always negative. On the other hand, the pressure potential is always
positive. This is because it causes the water potential to be less negative. Pressure potential can be
defined as the contribution made by pressure to water potential.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this practical is to determine the water potential of solutions, A and B.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Prior knowledge:The water potential of a plant tissue can be found by immersing the plant tissue
in sucrose solutions of different water potential.

Sucrose solutions A and B are the solutions in which tissues from two different species of plant did
not change in mass after immersion for 30 minutes as shown in Figure1.

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 Figure 1: Plant tissue immersed in sucrose solution

(a) (i) Use two of the following words to complete the sentences below.

gains less loses more

If the plant tissue ........................ water then the sucrose solution will become more dilute.
This will change the solution so that it becomes ........................ dense.

A blue dye is added to the two solutions, A and B, so that they can be seen. A drop of the coloured
solution is placed into a known concentration of sucrose solution. Fig. 2 shows how the drop is
released.

Figure 2:How the drop is released

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Immediately the drop is released the syringe is removed. The drop may move up, move down or
remain at the same level.

(ii) Show clearly in diagrams how you would expect to see the drop move.

Preparations of different solutions (S, A, B, D and W).

(i) S, at least 200 cm3 of 1mol dm¯3 sucrose solution, in a beaker or container, labelled S. This is
prepared by dissolving 68 g of sucrose in 100 cm3 of distilled water and making up to 200 cm3 with
distilled water.

(ii) A, at least 10 cm3 of 0.7 mol dm¯3 sucrose solution, in a small beaker or container, labelled A.
This is prepared by dissolving 48 g of sucrose in 80 cm 3 and making up to 200 cm3 with distilled
water.

(iii) B, at least 10 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm¯3 sucrose solution, in a small beaker or container, labelled
B. This is prepared by dissolving 17 g of sucrose in 80 cm 3 and making up to 200 cm3 with distilled
water.

(iv) D, at least 10 cm3 of 0.01% methylene blue solution, in a small beaker or container, labelled
D. This is prepared by dissolving 1 g of methylene blue in a container and making up to 100 cm3
with distilled water. This forms a 1% methylene blue solution. Then take 1 cm 3 of this solution and
make up to 100 cm3 with distilled water. Methylene blue is harmful and will stain skin. Care should
be taken when making up the stain.

(v) W, at least 200 cm3 of distilled water, in a beaker or container, labelled W.

It is advisable to wear safety glasses/goggles when handling chemicals.

Solutions and reagents provided to the students should be supplied in a suitable beaker, or
container, for removal of the solution using a syringe.

APPARATUS

1. Two 10 cm3 syringes or one 10 cm3 syringe and one 50 cm3 measuring cylinder.
2. At least two 5 cm3 syringes. If possible, up to six 5cm3 syringes can be provided.
3. Container with tap water, labelled “For washing”.
4. Container, labelled “For waste”.
5. Paper towels.
6. Eight small containers capable of holding at least 50 cm 3.
7. One large test-tube, with the means to wash it out.
8. Small Petri dish or shallow container.
9. Teat pipette.
10. Test-tube rack or container to hold the large test-tube.
11. Glass marker pen.
12. Safety goggles/glasses.
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 The teacher should carry out the experiment and record his/ her results for comparison.

These solutions you have been prepared from the procedure above.
 200 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 sucrose solution in a beaker, labelled S
 200 cm3 of distilled water in a beaker, labelled W
 10 cm3 of sucrose solutions A and B
 10 cm3 of 0.01% methylene blue, labelled D.

If any methylene blue comes into contact with your skin wash off immediately with water.

It is recommended that you wear safety goggles/glasses.

1. To find the concentration of sucrose in samples A and B you will need to dilute the 1.0 mol
dm-3 sucrose solution to provide a range of concentrations.
2. Decide on the concentrations of sucrose solution that you will prepare using the 1.0 mol dm -
3 sucrose solution and distilled water. You will need to make up 50 cm 3 of each sucrose

solution. Fill in Table 1 to help you with your dilutions.

Table 1: Amounts of 1.0 mol dm-3 sucrose solution and distilled water needed to make
different sucrose concentrations
Concentrations of sucrose Volumes of 1.0 mol dm-3 Volumes of distilled
solution sucrose solution water

3. Place a 5 cm3 syringe on top of the large test-tube and use the glass marker to draw a line on the test-
tube at the same height as the end of the syringe nozzle
4. Use a 5 cm3 syringe to collect 4.0 cm3 of A and place it in a Petri dish. With a pipette, add sufficient
drops of D to turn the solution blue and stir.
5. Use the same syringe to collect 1.0 cm3 of the coloured solution A. Wipe the syringe with a paper
towel and label the syringe A.
6. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with sample B and label the second syringe B.
7. Put 35 cm3 of one of your sucrose solutions into the large test-tube.
8. Put syringe A into the large test-tube so the end of the nozzle is level with the mark. Hold the syringe
vertically and very gently push out a drop of the coloured solution.
9. Immediately observe the movement of the drop.
10. Record your observations.
11. Repeat steps 6 to 8 with sample B in syringe B.
12. Empty and wash the large test-tube.
13. Repeat steps 5 to 10 with each sucrose solution that you have made and record all your observations.
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14. Use your results to estimate the sucrose concentration of
sample A...............................mol dm-3
sample B............................... mol dm-3 .
In order to find the water potential of the solutions A and B a graph is required show the relationship
between sucrose concentration and water potential.

Table 1: The water potential of different sucrose concentrations.

15. Plot a graph of the data shown in Table 1.

16. Using your results and your graph estimate the water potential of sample A. Show clearly on your
graph how you obtained the water potential.
17. Describe how you would improve the investigation to obtain a more accurate estimate of the water
potential of sample A.

PRACTICAL 5: IDENTIFICATION OF NON-REDUCING SUGARS

INTRODUCTION
Non-reducing sugars are sugars which do not have an aldehyde functional group - the reducing
species. As non-reducing sugars do not have the aldehyde group, they cannot reduce copper (I) (blue)
to the copper(II) (red). Sucrose is the most common disaccharide non-reducing [Link] test for
non-reducing sugars may either be qualitative, or it may be quantitative. The qualitative tests
produce a colour change from blue to green to yellow to orange to brick red (for Benedict’s test and
Fehling’s test) and a silver mirror (for the Tollens test) as highlighted in Table 1. The principle of the
Benedict's Test for non-reducing Sugars in that disaccharides are hydrolyzed to their constituent
monosaccharides when boiled in dilute hydrochloric acid. The monosaccharide products of
hydrolysis are reducing sugars i.e. have the aldehyde functional group and can reduce copper in the
presence of alkali producing the colour changes.

Table 1: Major tests for non-reducing sugars

Benedict's Fehling's Tollen's

Oxidising Reagent
Solution Solution Reagent

copper sulfate copper sulfate silver nitrate in

Composition in alkaline in alkaline aqueous
citrate tartrate ammonia

Colour of Solution deep blue deep blue colourless

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 Colour After brick red brick red silver mirror
Reaction with a precipitate precipitate forms
Reducing Sugar Cu2O(s) Cu2O(s) Ag(s)

Species Being
Cu2+ Cu2+ Ag+
Reduced
Cu2+ + e ---> Cu Cu + e ---> Cu Ag + e ---> Ag(s)
+ 2+ + +
(the oxidant)

Species Being reducing sugar reducing sugar reducing sugar

Oxidised oxidised to oxidised to oxidised to
(the reductant) carboxylate carboxylate carboxylate

OBJECTIVES

In this practical, we will identify the presence of non-reducing sugars. This is a qualitative test
hence it is important for the student to exercise their observation skills.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. 2% sucrose solution
2. Dilute hydrochloric acid
3. Dilute sodium hydroxide or dilute sodium hydrogen carbonate solution
4. pH paper
5. Benedict’s solution
6. Test tubes
7. Bunsen burner
8. Water bath.

1. Add 2cm³ of sucrose solution to a test tube.

2. Add equal amounts of the Benedict’s solution and observe any colour change. Explain your
observations.
3. In another test tube, add 2cm3 of sucrose.
4. Add 1cm³ of dilute hydrochloric acid.
5. Boil for one minute.
6. Cool the tube under running water.
7. Carefully neutralise with dilute sodium hydroxide or sodium hydrogen carbonate.
8. Add about 2 cm3 of the Benedict’s solution and observe any colour [Link] your
observations (N.B. Care should be taken as effervescent occurs.)

QUESTIONS

a) Suggest the role of hydrochloric acid in the reaction.

b) How else would you convert sucrose into reducing sugars?
c) What is the principle of the Benedict's Test for non-reducing sugars?

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PRACTICAL 6: DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE QUANTITIES OF REDUCING
SUGARS IN FOOD ITEMS

INTRODUCTION
Sugars are classified as reducing or non-reducing based on their ability to act as a reducing agent
during the Benedict's Test. A reducing agent donates electrons during a redox reaction and is itself
oxidized. The aldehyde functional group is the reducing agent in reducing sugars. Reducing sugars
have either an aldehyde functional group or have a ketone group - in an open chain form - which can
be converted into an aldehyde. Reducing sugars are simple sugars and include all monosaccharides
and most disaccharides. Some examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose and
[Link] of reducing disaccharides are lactose and maltose.
Benedict’s solution is designed to detect the presence of reducing sugars. In hotalkaline solutions,
reducing sugars reduce the blue copper(II) ions to brick redcopper(I) oxide precipitate. As the
reaction proceeds, the colour of the reactionmixture changes progressively from blue to green,
yellow, orange and red. When theconditions are carefully controlled, the colouration developed and
the amount ofprecipitate formed depends upon the amount of reducing sugars present. Hence,
inmost conditions, a sufficiently good estimation of the concentration ofglucose-equivalent reducing
sugars present in a sample can be obtained.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to ascertain relative quantities of reducing sugars in selected food
items.

MATERIALS AND METHODS/APPARATUS

 Pipette fillers and safety goggles should be used where necessary.
 Three test-tubes labelled X, Y and Z, containing 2 cm3 of the following solutions:
Solution Y consisting of 20 g of glucose, made up to 1 dm3 of solution.
Solution Z consisting of 20 cm3 of solution Y, made up to 1 dm3 of solution.
Solution X consisting of 20 cm3 of solution Z, made up to 1 dm3 of solution.
One dm3 of solution is sufficient for at least 450 candidates

1. 1 cm3 of freshly peeled potato, covered in water, in a dish, labelled P. Avoid using sprouting
potatoes if possible.
2. 1 cm3 of freshly peeled onion, covered in water, in a dish, labelled O.
3. Benedict’s solution, labelled as Benedict’s solution.
4. Syringe to measure 2 cm3.
5. Test-tube rack or similar with two empty test-tubes and bungs.
6. Means of holding hot test-tubes.
7. Access to a waterbath. This could consist of a Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze and 250 cm 3 or
similar beaker or heatproof container, half full of hot water, with thermometer that can read
up to at least 100 °C. Alternatively, an electrically heated waterbath can be set to at least 80
°C.
8. Paper towel.
9. Tile.
10. Sharp knife or scalpel.
11. Thick glass or wood or metal rod to crush the tissue.
12. Sight of a clock.

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 You are provided with test-tubes, labelled X, Y and Z, each containing a different concentration of
reducing sugar.

1. Carry out the test for reducing sugars on samples X, Y and Z as follows
a. In another test tube, add 2cm3 of sucrose
b. Add 1cm³ of dilute hydrochloric acid.
c. Boil for one minute.
d. Cool the tube under running water.
e. Carefully neutralise with dilute sodium hydroxide or sodium hydrogen carbonate.
f. Add about 2 cm3 of the Benedict’s solution and observe any colour changes
g. Record your observations and conclusions for your observations in Table 1.0 below.

Table 1.0: Benedict’s test results

Retain the test-tubes for comparison with the results of your next step.

f. Determine the order of concentration of reducing sugar in the three solutions and

complete Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1: The concentration of reducing sugars in three solutions

2. You are also provided with some potato tissue, labelled P, and some onion tissue, labelled O.

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 a. Finely cut up tissue P on the tile and place the crushed tissue into one of the two empty
test-tubes provided.
b. Add 2 cm3 of water to the test-tube.
c. Place a bung in the open end of the test-tube and shake gently.
d. Repeat the process for tissue O using the other empty test-tube.
e. Carry out the test for reducing sugars on both samples.
f. Record your observations in Table 2.0.

Table 2.0 : Tests for reducing sugars

g. Compare your observations with the results obtained for (1) above.
h. Explain how you made sure that your tests produced a fair comparison.

Prior Knowledge of the Benedicts test

Table 2: Colour observations and their interpretation

Observations Interpretations

No Colour Change No non-reducing sugars present

(Blue)
Green Trace amounts of non-reducing sugars present
Yellow Low amounts of reducing sugars present
Orange Moderate amounts of reducing sugars present
Brick-red Large amounts of non-reducing sugars present

PRACTICAL 7: DEMONSTRATION OF THE ACTION OF PROTEASE (PEPSIN) ON

ENZYMES

An enzyme is a biological catalyst, a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed
by the reaction. The initial investment of energy for starting a reaction so that bones can break is
known as the free energy or activation [Link] Pauling in 1948 stated that enzymes are
molecules that are complementary in structure to the activated complexes of the reactions that they
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 catalyse. The attractions of the enzymes molecule for the activated complex would thus lead to a
decrease in its energy, hence, to a decrease in the energy of activation of the reaction and increase in
the rate of reaction.

The large enzyme molecule presumably can have sufficient rigidity and sufficiently exclude solvent
to provide the necessary environment for sufficient catalysis. The large size further provides sites for
the binding of molecules that control enzyme activity. The large size may be necessary to resist
proteinases and other potentially dangerous/ damaging agents.

Factors affecting enzymically controlled driven reactions are: (i) Temperature -The rate increases
with increasing temperature especially between 35 and 40°C. Rate doubles for every 10°C rise in
temperature between 30 to 40°C. (i)Enzyme inhibitors- Both naturally occurring and synthetic
compounds have the ability to bind reversible or irreversibly with/ to specific enzymes and alter
their activity. Inhibitors reduce/ eliminate the catalytic activity of the enzyme. Such inhibitors are
drugs, antibiotics, toxins and antimetabolites. (iii) Irreversible inhibitors (non-competitive
inhibitors)-They form covalent bonds with specific functional groups usually an amino acid side
chain, thereby blocking the active site and preventing enzyme action. They cannot be reversed by
dilution. They reduce velocity of the reaction to an extent that corresponds to the fraction of enzyme
molecules which have been inactivated. (iv) Reversible inhibition- Chemicals resemble an enzyme’s
normal substrate and compete with it for the active site. They block the active site from the substrate.
(v) Co-factors-These include prosthetic groups and coenzymes. Prosthetics groups are organic
cofactors which permanently combine with the enzyme. Examples are FAD and Haem. Coenzymes
are not bonded to the enzyme molecules. Main examples are vitamin derivatives such as NAD
(respiratory coenzyme).

Proteases are enzymes that hydrolyse proteins into smaller peptide fragments. They work best on
denatured proteins. When eggs are cooked, protein is rapidly denatured by heat. Egg whites contain
several proteins, the most abundant being ovalbumin. When pepsin works on egg white suspension
the physical states in which it should be in the stomach, where pepsin is one of several digestive
enzymes, it rapidly clears or clarifies it. This is because the peptides formed by enzyme action are
water soluble, while the denatured proteins are not. The peptide bonds in proteins can also be broken
by boiling the protein in concentrated acid for several hours.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this practical is to demonstrate the action of a protease (pepsin) on protein.

MATERIALS AND METHODS/ REQUIREMENTS

 Egg
 Pepsin (40mg sample in tightly stoppered bottle)
 Stop watch
 Bunsen burner
 500ml beaker
 Test-tubes & rake
 Boiling tube & holder
 Water bath at 25°C
 1cm ³ & 2cm³ syringes
 100cm³ conical flask
 10cm³ measuring cylinder
 Dropping pipette

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  Distilled water
 2M hydrochloric acid.

NB: Hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Use safety glasses when handling it and deal with spills
immediately by neutralising it with sodium hydrogen carbonate before wiping.

1. Break the egg and separate its white into a small beaker.
2. Put 25cm³ distilled water into a boiling tube and add four drops of egg white, stirring the
suspension thoroughly after each drop.
3. Heat the test tube over a medium Bunsen flame until the suspension turns milky. The proteins are
denatured.
4. Cool the tube under a running cold water tap.
5. Make an acidified egg white suspension by adding 0.5 cm³ 2M HCl to the 10cm³ measuring cylinder
using the 1cm³ syringe. Then add egg white suspension to the 10cm³ mark.
6. Add 20 cm³ distilled water to the bottle containing pepsin.
7. Transfer a 1cm³ portion of this to a test tube and denature by heating in boiling water bath (use
the 500 cm³ beaker) for 5 minutes. Allow to cool.
8. Label four tubes A, B, C and D. Add 2cm³ egg white suspension to A, B and C. Add 3cm³ distilled
water to C. Incubate the tubes in the water for 5 minutes.
9. Now add 1cm³ pepsin solution to A and then 1cm³ portion of denatured pepsin to B and start the
stop watch.
10. Note and record the appearance of the tubes at suitable intervals for the next hour.
11. Finally, add another 2cm³ egg white suspension to test tube A.

(a) Record the time taken to clarify.

(b) Comment on the use of controls in this experiment.
(c) Which properties of enzymes are demonstrated by this experiment?
(d) Account for any faint cloudiness remaining after clarification.
(e) Giving reasons, would you expect pepsin to clarify a suspension of
(i) olive oil in water
(ii) cooked meat particles
(iii) Milk
12. How would you degrade the protein in egg white if no enzymes were available?
NB: In the presence of hydrochloric acid, pepsin turns a cloudy suspension of egg-white into a clear
solution

Tips for the Instructor

 The interpretation of results will be easier if the student knows already that egg-white suspension
consists of solid particles of albumen, suspended in water; enzymes are inactivated by boiling,
conditions in the stomach are acid.

 In the presence of hydrochloric acid, pepsin turns a cloudy suspension of egg-white into a clear
solution.

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PRACTICAL 8: DEMONSTRATION OF THE EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE
CONCENTRATION ON ENZYME ACTION
INTRODUCTION

Enzymes such as Catalase are protein molecules which are found in living cells. They are used to
speed up specific reactions in the cells. They are all very specific as each enzyme just performs one
particular reaction. A catalase is an enzyme found in food such as potato and liver. It is used for
removing Hydrogen Peroxide from the cells. Hydrogen Peroxide is the poisonous by-product of
metabolism. A catalase speeds up the decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide into water and oxygen as
shown in the equations below.

Formula:

Catalase
Hydrogen Peroxide---------------------->Water + Oxygen
Catalase
2H2O2------------------->2H2O+O2
It is able to speed up the decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide because the shape of its active site
matches the shape of the Hydrogen Peroxide molecule. This type of reaction where a molecule is
broken down into smaller pieces is called an anabolic reaction.

In 1913, Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten proposed a theory to explain the way in which the rate
of enzyme-catalysed reactions increases with substrate concentration. They noted that, at low
substrate concentrations, the rate is proportional to concentration, but as concentration increases,
the rate levels off until a maximum value is achieved. This rate can be only be increased further if
more enzyme is [Link] and Monton defined two important properties from their model,
which are used today to compare the properties of different enzymes: K m, the Michaelis constant, is
the substrate concentration at which half the maximum enzyme velocity (Vmax) is reached, (Figure
1).

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 Figure 1:Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme action

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this practical is to demonstrate the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme
action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Gas Syringe
2. Metal Stand
3. Yeast Catalase
4. Hydrogen Peroxide
5. Test Tubes
6. Beakers
7. Test Tube Rack
8. Stop Watch
9. Pipette
10. Pipette Filler
11. Tap Water

To test out how the concentration of hydrogen peroxide affects the rate of reaction, first set up the
apparatus below.

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 Figure 2: Apparatus to test the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme action.

1. Add 2cm3 of yeast to one test tube. Add 4cm 3 of hydrogen peroxide solution at a
concentration of 20% to the other test tube. Use a pipette to measure out the volumes. It is
very important to accurately measure the amounts of Hydrogen Peroxide, Yeast and water to
ensure a fair test.

2. Pour the hydrogen peroxide solution into the test tube containing the yeast and immediately
put the gas syringe bung on the end of the test tube, at the same time start the stopwatch.

3. Bubbles should start to rise up the tube and the gas syringe will move outwards, as soon as
the gas syringe passes the 30cm3 mark stop the stopwatch and note the elapsed time down
to the nearest 1/10th of a second.

4. Repeat the experiment with hydrogen peroxide concentrations of 16%, 12%, 10%, 8%, 4%
and 0%. The 0% concentration of hydrogen peroxide solution is done as a control solution
to show that at 0% concentration no reaction occurs. The different concentrations of
Hydrogen Peroxide are made by adding tap water to the 20% Hydrogen Peroxide in the
correct amounts. The table below shows what amounts of Hydrogen Peroxide and water are
needed to make the solutions.

Table 1: Amounts of Hydrogen Peroxide and water needed to make the solutions

Concentration Of Hydrogen Volume Of Hydrogen Volume Of Water

Peroxide Peroxide (cm3) (cm3)

20% 4 0

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 16% 3.2 0.8

12% 2.4 1.6

10% 2 2

8% 1.6 2.4

4% 0.8 3.2

0% 0 4

5. Repeat all the tests at least three times so that an average can be obtained. Repeating the
experiments several times will help to produce better and more accurate results as any
inaccuracies in one experiment should be compensated for by the other experiments. Note
all the results in a table such as the one below (Table 2).

Table 2: Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme action

Hydrogen Peroxide
0% 4% 8% 10% 12% 16% 20%
Concentration

Time Taken (Test 1)

Time Taken (Test 2)

Time Taken (Test 3)

Average of the Tests

Rate

The rate can then be worked out by

Rate=30/Average Time
This gives the rate in cm3 of oxygen produced per second, this is because we are timing how long it
takes to produce 30cm3 of oxygen. From these results a graph can be plotted with concentration on
the x-axis and time taken on the y-axis.
6. List any 3 variables that should be kept constant to ensure a fair experimental procedure.
Tips for the Instructor.

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 We are using yeast catalase as opposed to catalase from apples, potatoes or liver because it is easier
to get the desired amount of yeast catalase by simply measuring it off. To obtain catalase from a
substance such as potato would involve crushing it and with that method you would never be sure
of the concentration of the catalase. If the catalase was used up then another potato would have to
be crushed and this could produce catalase of a totally different concentration which would lead to
inaccuracies in the experiment making this an unfair test.
 To ensure this is a fair test all the variables except for the concentration of Hydrogen Peroxide must
be kept the same for all the experiments. Variables that must not be altered include:-
 Temperature,
 yeast concentration,
 type of yeast,
 batch of yeast,
 volume of yeast,
 volume of hydrogen peroxide,
 air pressure and
 humidity.
 When measuring the volumes of Hydrogen Peroxide, Yeast and Water the measurement should be
taken by looking at the scale at an angle of 90 degrees to it to avoid any parallax error.

PRACTICAL 9: Demonstration REGULATION AND CONTROL through Dialysis

INTRODUCTION

During kidney dialysisan artificial kidney is used to remove solutes and toxins from the blood by
diffusion and osmosis. This shows that osmosis and diffusion are vital to the health of organisms.
Osmosis is useful for regulating solute concentrations in organisms in order to maintain homeostasis.
The process can be demonstrated by placing cells in solutions of varying solute concentrations. In an
isotonic solution there will be no net movement of water into or out of the cell while in ahypertonic
solution water would leave the cell in order to reach equilibrium. In a hypotonic solution water would
enter the cell in an effort to reach equilibrium.

Kidneysmaintain homeostasis within the body by filtering the blood and producing urine. The
filtration system of the kidneys maintains the necessary ion levels in the blood. It removes the waste
products (e.g. urea). Urine is produced in order to maintain the internal body environment through
the regulation of certain solutes, such as potassium and sodium ions and other materials. The kidney
responds to the constantly changing internal conditions, adjusting and re-adjusting itself to maintain
homeostasis. In people with kidney malfunction the blood composition can be regulated artificially
by dialysis. The basic principle in dialysis involves removing a small amount of blood from the body
at a time and then filtering out urea, remove other waste products and balance essential ion
concentration from the blood through simple diffusion. This principle will be demonstrated during
this practical.

Hemodialysis involves temporary removal of blood from the body, flowing the blood through a tube
surrounded by a carefully selected permeable membrane which is surrounded by a fluid called the
dialysate, and then returning the filtered blood back into the body. Dialysis occurs so that molecules
can attain a state of equilibrium. Molecules diffuse through a membrane in order to reach this state.
If a hypertonic solution is surrounded by a hypotonic solution, the solute particles will diffuse across
the membrane. The dialysate is a solution that has been specially formulated to remove specific
materials from the blood before sending the blood back into the body. Ideally, little to no urea should
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 be present in the blood when it is sent back into the body. As the blood passes through the tube,
which would have pores large enough for urea to pass through, the dialysate would contain no urea.
This would cause urea to move through the membrane into the dialysate, thereby reducing the
concentration of urea in the blood. There are multiple factors that will determine the rate of diffusion
during dialysis. The rate of diffusion, and therefore the success of the dialysis, is dependent on the
concentration gradient between the blood and the dialysate, the material used for the membrane and
the size and properties of the solute that is diffusing.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this practical is to investigate how much glucose diffuses through selectively
permeable Visking (dialysis) tubing in 15 minutes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS/REQUIREMENTS

1. Fresh G
2. Benedict’s solution
3. W
4. Visking tubing
5. S1, S2 and S3

More of the solutions should be available if requested by the student.

Solutions and reagents provided to the students should be supplied in a suitable beaker, or
container, for removal of the solution using a syringe.

Preparations
(i) G: at least 25 cm3 of 10 % glucose solution in a small beaker or container, labelled G. This is prepared
by dissolving 10 g of glucose in 80 cm3 of distilled water and making up to 100 cm 3 with distilled
water.
(ii) At least 100 cm3 of Benedict’s solution, in a small beaker or container (so that a syringe can be used),
labelled Benedict’s solution.
(iii) W, at least 100 cm3 of distilled water, in a beaker or container, labelled W.
(iv) 20 cm length of Visking tubing (about 14 mm flat diameter) submerged in distilled water, in a beaker
or container, labelled V.
(v) S1, at least 20 cm3 of 0.1 % glucose solution in a small beaker or container, labelled S1. This is
prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of glucose in 500 cm3 of distilled water and making up to 1 dm3.
(vi) S2, at least 20 cm3 of 0.2 % glucose solution in a small beaker or container, labelled S2. This is
prepared by dissolving 2.0 g of glucose in 500 cm3 of distilled water and making up to 1 dm3.
(vii) S3, at least 20 cm3 of 0.3 % glucose solution in a small beaker or container, labelled S3. This is
prepared by dissolving 3.0 g of glucose in 500 cm3 of distilled water and making up to 1 dm3.

These solutions can be made up the day before the practical and stored in a refrigerator. However,
these must be at room temperature for the practical.

It is advisable to wear safety glasses/goggles when handling chemicals.

Apparatus
1. Elastic band to fit around the top of a large test-tube.
2. One 10 cm3 syringe

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3. Two 5 cm3 syringes, or four 2 cm 3 syringes
4. Container with tap water, labelled “For Washing”
5. Container labelled “Waste”
6. One large test-tube
7. Four test-tubes suitable for heating
8. Test-tube rack or container to hold at least four test-tubes
9. Small beaker or container
10. Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze, bench mat
11. At least a 400 cm3 beaker suitable for a water-bath
12. Matches
13. Thermometer –10 °C to 110 °C
14. Stop clock, stop watch or sight or a clock with a second hand
15. Glass marker pen
16. Safety goggles/glasses

Method

You are required to investigate how much glucose diffuses through selectively permeable Visking
(dialysis) tubing in 15 minutes.

You are provided with

• 25 cm3 of 10% glucose solution, labelled G
• about 20 cm of Visking (dialysis) tubing in a container of distilled water, labelled V
• 100 cm3 of distilled water, labelled W
• 20 cm3 of 0.1 % glucose solution, labelled S1
• 20 cm3 of 0.2 % glucose solution, labelled S2
• 20 cm3 of 0.3 % glucose solution, labelled S3
• 100 cm3 of Benedict’s solution, labelled Benedict’s solution.

Proceed as follows:

1. Tie a knot in the Visking tubing as close as possible to one end so that it seals the end.
2. To open the other end, wet the Visking tubing and rub the tubing gently between your fingers.
3. Use a syringe to put 10 cm3 of G into the open end of the Visking tubing.
4. Rinse the outside of the Visking tubing by dipping it into the water in the container labelled V.
5. Put the Visking tubing into a large test-tube in a test-tube rack.
6. Fold the open end of the Visking tubing over the top of the large test-tube as shown in
Figure 1.
7. Use an elastic band to hold the Visking tubing in place.
8. Use a syringe to put some of W into the large test-tube so that it surrounds the Visking tubing.
9. Immediately start a stop clock, stop watch or record the time on a clock to time for 15 minutes.
(a) Draw on Figure 1 a line to show the level of water in the large test-tube.

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 Figure 1

To find out how much glucose has diffused out of the Visking tubing after 15 minutes, you are
provided with solutions S1, S2 and S3.
In order to find how much glucose has diffused from inside the Visking tubing into the water you will
need to test a sample of the water with Benedict’s solution.

You should record the time taken for the first appearance of any green colour.
The result will be compared with the time taken for the first appearance of any green colour obtained
from testing solutions S1, S2 and S3 with Benedict’s solution.

To do this you need to use the same procedure.

(b) State the volume of Benedict’s solution and the volume of the solutions (S1, S2 and S3) and the
sample you are testing.
volume of Benedict’s solution ..................... cm3
volume of each solution (S1, S2 or S3) .................... cm 3
volume of sample .................... cm3
(c) State one variable, other than volume, which needs to be kept constant when you do the tests and
describe how you will keep this variable constant.

10. After 15 minutes, pour the water from around the Visking tubing into a beaker or container and
label it sample.
11. Now test all four solutions, sample, S1, S2 and S3.
(d) (i) Record your results.

(ii) Estimate the concentration of glucose in the sample.

(iii) Suggest how you might modify this investigation to find the effect of temperature on
the rate of diffusion of glucose through Visking tubing.

(e) A student investigated the rate of diffusion of a coloured solution through agar. A Petri
dish containing a layer of agar had a small well of 1 cm diameter, cut so that 10 drops
of the coloured solution could be placed in the well. The distance the coloured solution
diffused from the edge of the well was measured at 15 minute intervals.

Figure 2below shows the surface view of the Petri dish after 75 minutes.

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 Figure 2: The surface view of the Petri dish after 75 minutes.

The results of the student’s investigation are shown in Table 1 below.

(i) Plot a graph to show the results in Table 1.

(ii) Use the graph to calculate the rate of diffusion of the solution between 10 minutes and 20 minutes.
Show on your graph where you took the readings. Show all the steps in your calculation.

(iii) Describe and explain the trend in the rate of diffusion shown in the graph you have
drawn in (e) (i).

(f) The ruler used to measure the distances in Table 1 is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3
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 State the uncertainty of the measurements using this ruler.

PRACTICAL 10:PLANT GROSS FORM AND TISSUES

INTRODUCTION
An angiosperm plant consists of two basic parts: the root system and the shoot system. The root
system is below ground and the shoot system above ground (of course there are exceptions). The
root system constitutes a taproot and lateral roots. Sometimes there is no taproot, and the root
system is adventitious. The root system may be modified into various functional structures (bulbs,
nodules, etc.). The shoot system consists of a stem, together with leaves, flowers and fruits. The points
of attachment to the stem are located on nodes. In between any two nodes are internodes. The stem
may be modified into various functional structures. At the tip of the plant is the terminal bud which
contains the actively dividing meristems. The leaf may be attached to the stem through a petiole
(dicotyledons) or a leaf sheath (monocotyledons). Leaves are variously arranged on the stem. The
blade of the leaf may be divided into leaflets (compound leaf), or it may be undivided (simple leaf).
At the base of the petiole, small lateral outgrowths (stipules) are found. Between the stem and the
petiole of a leaf (leaf axial) lies the axillary bud.

OBJECTIVES

1. To study morphology of the shoot and root systems

2. To compare features of dicotyledons and monocotyledons

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PROCEDURE 1

You are provided with dicotyledon and monocotyledon plant material.

1. Study the shoot system from the provided material.
a) Make sketch diagrams of the stem, and (where present) label the following structures: stipule,
axillary bud, terminal bud, node, internode, leaf scar, vascular bundle scar, and lenticel.
b) Makes a sketch diagram of the leaf, and label the following structures: margin, lamina, tip, midrib,
and (where present) petiole, pulvinus, rachis, pinna, auricle and ligule.
c) Which major stem and leaf morphological characters distinguish dicotyledons from
monocotyledons?
d) Relate structure to function in the monocotyledon stem and leaf.
e) What is the functional significance of a compound leaf in a xerophytic environment?
f) Examine the various types of modified stems on display:
i. Potato tuber (a fleshy underground stem). The potato on display shows some “eyes”. What is the
functional significance of the “eye”?
ii. Onion bulb (a very short underground stem surrounded by fleshy leaf bases). Why is the bulb not
wholly a true stems?
iii. Corm (a short, thick stem that grows vertically underground). How does this structure differ from a
stem bulb? What structures are found in the corm, but lacking in the bulb? State the functional
significance of these structures.
iv. Rhizome (a horizontal underground stem) - State two functions associated with this structure.

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v. Stolon (a horizontal above ground stem) - How does it differ from the rhizome? State its
functional significance.

2. Tissues of the plant body (an introduction)

When compared to gymnosperms, angiosperms have much more complex tissue structures. Also,
among the angiosperms, there are considerable differences in tissue organisation between dicotyledons
and monocotyledons. The following are some of the major tissues in angiosperms: meristem,
parenchyma, colenchyma, and sclerenchyma, dermal and vascular. Variation in structure and
organisation of tissues has taxonomic and evolutionary significance. Considerable variation in tissue
organisation is also found in different organs of the same plant. Variation in tissue structure and
organisation among plants is best studied at primary growth stage.
OBJECTIVES
1. To study structure and arrangement of tissues in stems and roots of angiosperms at primary growth
stage
2. To compare and contrast root anatomy in monocotyledons and dicotyledons at primary growth stage
3. To compare and contrast stem anatomy in dicotyledons and monocotyledons at primary growth stage

PROCEDURE 2
Roots and stems arise from apical meristem. The meristem of the root, however, does not occur at the
extreme tip but just behind it. The tip of a root is covered by a thimble-like structure, the root cap. For
several millimetres behind the root cap, the root is smooth, representing the zone of elongation - a
region of undifferentiated tissue. Root hairs are found immediately behind the zone of elongation.
A. The monocotyledon primary root
T/S of Zea mays (MAIZE)
a) Make a Low Power diagram (Plan diagram) of a whole section to show the distribution of tissues.
b) Make a High Power drawing of a representative section. Note and label the following:
i) epidermis ( a single layer of cells surrounding the entire root);
ii) cortex (the ground tissue, composed of several cell types whose primary function is
that of support, storage, secretion, and a variety of other functions):
EXODERMIS (several layers below the epidermis);
PARENCHYMA (bulk of cortex)
ENDODERMIS (with U-shaped thickening on radial walls, and at intervals
with some passage cells)
i) vascular system, comprising:
PERICYCLE
XYLEM (polyarch, note the protoxylem and metaxylem)
PHLOEM(alternating with xylem)
PITH parenchymatous cells (rest of the cells in between the vascular bundles)

B. The dicotyledon primary root

T/S of Phaseolus vulgaris (COMMON BEAN)
a) Make a Low Power diagram (Plan Diagram) of a whole section to show distribution of tissues.
b) Make a High Power drawing of a representative section.
Note and label the following:
i) Epidermis
ii) Cortex with EXODERMIS(single layer of cells beneath the epidermis), PARENCHYMA
(note intercellular spaces and starch grains) and ENDODERMIS (note the thickened
walls)
iii) Vascular system comprising:

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 PERICYCLE (a single layer of cells);
XYLEM (triarch or tetrarch, note the smaller, outer protoxylem vessels
and the larger, inner metaxylem vessels);
PHLOEM (patches of cells alternating with xylem);
PARENCHYMA (between xylem and phloem).

C. Comparing the T/S of a dicotyledon stem and that of a monocotyledon

1. Make a Low Power diagram and a High Power drawing of a representative section of the stem in each
case.
2. Draw up a comparison table between monocotyledon and dicotyledon roots and stems, emphasising
the diagnostic characters.

D. Transverse section of a plant organ

You are provided with slide Z1, which is a transverse section of a plant organ.
You are also provided with a microscope fitted with an eye piece graticle and a 30 cm transparent
[Link] are required to examine Z1 carefully using both the low and high power of your
microscope.
(i) Draw an accurate plan drawing of Z1, to show distribution of the various tissues that make up Z1.
Label your drawing.

(ii) Calculate the actual diameter of Z1, your answer should be in micrometers.
Actual diameter of Z1 …………………………………..𝜇𝑚
(iii) Describe your method fully
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
(iv) Put a line on your diagram to show the size that you have measured.
(v) Drawing diameter ………………………………………..mm/ cm
(vi) Calculate the magnification of your drawing, showing working.
(vii) Make a detailed drawing of three adjacent storage cells.

PRACTICAL 11: The structure of flowers and adaptation to pollination

INTRODUCTION
A typical flower is composed of four whorls of modified leaves (a) sepals (b) petals (c) stamens and
(c) carpel/carpels all attached to the modified stem end that supports these structure, the receptacle.
The sepals-enclose the other flower parts in the bud and are generally green. Sepals taken collectively
constitute the calyx. The petals are usually the conspicuous, coloured, attractive flower parts. Petals
together constitute the corolla. Stamens form a whorl, lying inside the corolla. Each stamen has a
slender stalk or filament at the top of which is an anther, the pollen-bearing organ. The whorl or
grouping of stamens is called androecium. The carpel/carpels comprises the central whorl of the
modified floral leaves, collectively carpels form the gynoecium. Each individual structure within the
gynoecium is referred to as a pistil. A pistil may be composed of a single carpel or of several united
carpels in the center of the flower. There are generally 3 distinct parts to each pistil: (a) an expanded
basal portion, the ovary, in which are borne the ovules and (b) the style a slender stalk supporting
(c) the stigma. Perianth is the term applied to the calyx and corolla collectively.
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Modification of the flower has occurred in relation to mode of pollination. In primitive flowers, floral
parts are usually large and of an indefinite number. Advanced flowers have fewer floral parts and of a
definite number.

Pollination of flowers may be brought about by either wind or insects and occasionally by water,
birds, bats and other small mammals. Flower structure is generally adapted to one or the other of
these pollinating vectors. Insect pollination adaptation may be very complex, indication a long
association of insect vectors and plants. Wind pollination is common in plants with inconspicuous
flowers, such as grasses. Such plants produce pollen in enormous quantities, flowers lack odour and
or nectar and hence are unattractive to insects, pollen is light and dry and easily wind-borne and
their stigmas are feathery and expose a large surface to catch flying pollen

Plants that are pollinated by living vectors usually possess a colourful perianth and produce a sweet-
tasting fluid (nectar) and volatile compounds having distinctive [Link] are able to detect and
distinguish between many odours and colours and degrees of [Link] the insect attempts
to reach nectar or collect pollen floral architecture ensures that the insect transfers pollen to the
stigma.

OBJECTIVES
1. To study floral structure in a generalised flower
2. To study floral structures in highly modified flowers

METHODS AND MATERIALS/REQUIREMENTS

A. Dissecting and drawing flowers A,B,C

1. Dissect the provided flower (Flower A) and draw a half flower. Label all parts. Briefly comment on the
structure of the flower.

2. Dissect and draw a half flower from each of the provided flowers (Flowers B and C). Label all parts.
Briefly comment on the structure of the two flowers. Compare them with theflower provided in 1, above.

B. Observing slides of flowers Z1 and Z2

You are provided with two slides of flowers, Z1 and Z2, from two different plant species.
(a) Examine Z1 using the light microscope under low and high power.
(i) Make a plan drawing of Z1.

(ii) Annotate the plan drawing of Z1.

(b) Examine Z2 using the light microscope under low and high power.

(i)Make a plan drawing of Z2.

(ii) Annotate the plan drawing of Z2.

(c) (i) List three structural differences between Z1 and Z2.

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(ii) Suggest the type of pollination for Z1

PRACTICAL 12: The basic Leaf Structure

INTRODUCTION

Leaves are the primary photosynthetic organs of the plant. Leaves are furnished with a large surface
area and an optimal orientation for maximum capture of light, numerous intercellular spaces for efficient
exchange of gases, and large vascular supply for the maintenance of optimal moisture levels and efficient
translocation of photosynthetic products. The upper and lower epidermis may be covered with a waxy
cuticle to minimise water loss and with stomata providing the only pathway for gases.

The leaf consists of dermal, vascular and ground tissue system. The epidermis comprises of a compact
arrangement of cells and the presence of cuticle and stomata. The stomata may occur on both sides
of the leaf (amphistomatic leaf) or only on one side either on the upper (epistomatic leaf) or
commonly on the lower side (hypostomatic leaf). The stomata may be on the same level as other
epidermal cells. The stomata may be located above the surface of the epidermis (raised stomata) or
below it (sunken stomata). Stomata may appear in a depression called a stomatal [Link]
stomata are associated with a hydrophytic habitat providing a large supply of water. Sunken stomata
are associated with a xerophytic habitat characterized by a low supply of available water. The
mesophyll is the main part of the ground tissue of a leaf. The mesophyll contain chloroplasts and a
large volume of intercellular space. It is differentiated into palisade parenchyma and spongy
parenchyma. The palisade parenchyma consists of cells that are elongated and perpendicular to
the surface of the blade in one or more rows. The spongy parenchyma consists of cells of various
shapes. The vascular system of the leaf is distributed throughout the blade.

The epidermis covers the leaf surface and is generally one cell thick. Its main function is protection
and gas exchange. There are special cells in leaf epidermis called guard cells which form [Link]
mesophyll comprises of all internal cells of the leaf outside of vascular bundles. The two main types
of mesophyll cells are (i) palisade mesophyll- which are located near upper epidermis with elongated
cell that contain many chloroplasts and (ii) spongy mesophyll- which are located near lower
epidermis and contain many air spaces which are important in transpiration and CO 2 [Link]
vascular tissues in leaves (veins) branch extensively throughout the mesophyll of leaves. They
provides support and are involved in water transportation(xylem) and food transportation
(phloem).

OBJECTIVES

To study the basic leaf structure and anatomy

To compare and contrast leaf anatomy between dicotyledons and monocotyledons
To draw a plan diagram of tissues of a transverse section of a dicotyledonous leaf
To calculate the linear magnification of drawings

METHODS AND MATERIALS/REQUIREMENTS

PROCEDURE
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 1. Make High Power drawings of representative sections of dicotyledon and monocotyledon leaf
specimens provided. Draw up a table to compare and contrast monocotyledon and dicotyledon
leaves, emphasising on diagnostic characters.

B. Experiment to test whether the lower epidermis of aplant has more stomata than the upper
epidermis
A student carried out an investigation using epidermal strips of a plant. These epidermal strips were
used to test the following hypothesis “The lower epidermis of the leaves of the plant has more
stomata than the upper epidermis”.

The student presented the results of the investigations as shown in the Table below.

Number of stomata/ mm2

Upper epidermis Lower epidermis

Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Mean Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Mean
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Strip 1 30 27 35 32 29 32 37 39 33 36

Strip 2 33 29 38 30 32 36 31 40 35 38

Strip 3 31 32 30 31 27 36 34 37 32 35

Strip 4 34 29 33 36 30 39 30 32 38 31

(i) Describe a procedure by which the student could have obtained these results.
(ii) Calculate the mean number of stomata per mm 2 on the lower epidermis and upper
epidermis.
(iii) Use the information and formula below to calculate the standard error for these
results.
S = Standard deviation
𝑆
SM = Standard error =
√𝑛
Upper epidermis: S = 2.96
Lower epidermis: S = 3.04
Standard error, upper epidermis ______________________________
Standard error, lower epidermis ______________________________

Standard error is used to calculate confidence limits. These indicate how certain the student can be
that the true mean of a whole population lies within the range of the estimated sample mean. The
Table below shows some values of t.

Degrees of 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 40 50 60
freedom (v)

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 t Values when 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.09 2.07 2.06 2.0 2.0 2.04 2.0 2.0 2.0
probability = 3 8 4 2 0 6 5 2 1 0
0.05

t. values when 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.85 2.82 2.80 2.7 2.7 2.75 2.7 2.6 2.6
probability = 7 6 8 2 8 8 5 0 8 0
0.01

(ii) State the number of degrees of freedom for one epidermis for the data in the Table.

(iii) Use the information from the Tableand the formula below to calculate the confidence intervals at
95% certainty for the upper epidermis and for the lower epidermis of the leaves.
Confidence interval at 95% = t x SM
Express your answer in the form;
Mean + confidence interval
Show your working
Upper epidermis
Lower epidermis
(iv) Draw an appropriate conclusion to the student’s experiment

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 FORM 6 TERM 3

REVISION
You can think of it as “telling a story with a beginning, a middle and an end”.

BIOLOGY EXAM TIPS

General advice
• Use your syllabus all the time while you are revising and preparing for the examination papers. You must
know which topics you will be tested on.
• Make sure you have all the equipment you will need for the exam in a clear, plastic container. You need
two pens, pencils (preferably HB or B), a clean eraser, a ruler (which measures in mm), a pencil sharpener
and a calculator.

Answering questions
• The questions are designed to test your knowledge and understanding and your ability to apply the skills
you have gained during the course. When you are writing your answers remember that another person has
to be able to read them.
○ Do not waste time by writing out the question before you start to answer.
○ Keep your handwriting clear and legible.
○ Keep your answers on the lines on the question paper. Do not write in the left hand or right-hand margins
of the paper.
○ If you wish to change an answer, cross out your first answer and rewrite. Do not write over what you
have already written.
○ If you have to cross out something, put a line through it; do not scribble over it.
○ If you run out of space, use white space on another part of the exam paper for a continuation
answer; do not try to squeeze in your answer by using very small writing.
○ Always try to write accurately using the correct biological terms. This often helps you to gain marks.
○ If you want to use the word “it” or “they” – think “what is it?” or “what are they?” and then phrase
your answer more precisely.
○ If you want to use the word “affect” or “effect” – remember to write “how they affect” or “what
effect do they have?”

Example 1
Question
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive disease that develops in many
smokers. COPD refers to two conditions:
• chronic bronchitis
• emphysema.
(i) State two ways in which the lung tissue of someone with emphysema differs from the lung tissue

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of someone with healthy lungs [2]
Correct answer for two marks
1 There are fewer alveoli than in a healthy lung.
2 The surface area for gas exchange is much smaller.
From the wording of the question it is clear that the answers refer to the lung tissue of emphysema.
Ambiguous answers for no marks
1 There are many air spaces.
2 There is less diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
3 There are fewer capillaries.
Both types of lung tissue have many air spaces. The technical term alveoli should be used as in the
correct answers. Even though the third answer is correct, it will not be marked as the question asks for two
ways.

Do not write the first answer that comes into your head. You are unlikely to think of exactly the
correct phraseology or have all the necessary detail to answer the question. Plan what you intend to write
before you start writing.
○ Remember to read the question carefully, plan an answer, write the answer clearly, re-read the question,
re-read your answer and then make any additions or corrections clearly. Always re-read your answers to
check them against the question.
○ During your course you will probably have seen many mark schemes from past papers. Do not learn them.
If you write out a mark scheme that you have learnt, it is unlikely to gain you many marks and often none
at all, as it is very unlikely to be relevant to the exact question you were supposed to be answering
○ Be prepared for questions on aspects of practical biology; they can appear on all the papers, not just
Papers 3

Terms
• These are the technical words used in biology. Many of them are given in the syllabus. These terms will
be used in questions. You will get more marks if you can use them correctly in your examination. Ask your
teacher if you are unsure of the meanings of the biological terms used in the syllabus and in any textbook
you are using. You will notice that many terms are defined in the syllabus, so that is a good place to start
when making your own dictionary. Many of the definitions in the 'Definitions' section of the syllabus are
quite long. It would be a good idea to write more concise definitions for yourself and use them to start your
own biological dictionary using your class notes, web sites and the glossaries from the back of text books.
○ Try to use the correct spelling. If you cannot remember how to spell a word, write it down as best you
can. The examiners will probably recognise what word you mean; if the spelling is too far out or ambiguous,
then they cannot allow you a mark.
○ Some biological terms have very similar spelling. Make sure you write clearly and always try to spell as
accurately as you can.
○ Do not try to mix the spellings of two words when you are not sure which of them is the correct answer.
For example, you might write “meitosis” when you are not sure whether the answer is mitosis or meiosis.
This answer will not get a mark.

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 Writing in your own words
• You often have to write two or more sentences to answer a question.
○ Use short sentences. If you write long sentences you can become confused and your meaning
is lost. You might also write something contradictory. It is hard for the examiner to find correct
statements in a muddled answer.
○ You are often asked to write down something you have learned. Make sure you have learnt the
meanings of the common terms used in biology, e.g. active transport, osmosis, photosynthesis and
respiration.
○ During your course take every opportunity to read and write as much as you can to improve the way you
express yourself.

What you should look for in a question

The number of marks
• Always look to see how many marks are available for each question.
° In Paper 1 there is one mark for each question.
° The number of marks is printed on the examination papers for Papers 2, 3, and 4. The mark
available for each part question ((a), (b), (c)(i), etc.) is printed in square brackets, e.g. [2]. The number of
marks helps you decide how much to write. The total number of marks for each question is printed at the
end of the last part question, e.g. [Total: 8].
° The number of marks is a guide to how long to spend on each part of a question.
° Do not waste time and write a long answer for a question which has one or two marks. You will not get
any extra marks even if your answer is full of many correct and relevant statements.
° If there are two or more marks do not write the same thing in two different ways, e.g. “The leaf is
very large. The leaf has a large surface area”. Notice that the second sentence is more accurate and is
preferable to the first one.

The instructions
• These are called command words and tell you what to do.
○ You can find all the command words in the Glossary of terms used in science papers in the
'Appendix' section of the syllabus.
○ If a question asks you to 'name' or 'state' two things only the first two will be marked. Use the
numbered lines for your answers if they are given on the question paper. If you write more than two and
the first is correct, the second one is wrong, and the third one correct, you will only get one mark (see
Example 1).
○ Some questions have two commands in the question, for example 'predict and explain'. This means that
you have to say what you think will happen AND then say why you think it will happen. Usually the word
and is printed in bold type to help you. See the section below for a tip about answering questions that have
two command terms and require an extended answer.
○ The table below has a list of terms used in biology papers to tell you what to do in an answer. Make sure
you know what you should do in response to each command word.

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Example 2
Question
A learner investigated the effect of increasing the concentration of sucrose on the rate of activity of sucrase.
The results are shown in Fig. 4.1.
The graph in Fig. 4.1 shows that as the substrate concentration increases the rate of activity of sucrose
increases to a constant level.
Describe and explain the results shown in Fig. 4.1.
It is quite easy to forget that there are two parts to this question. Before writing your answer it is a good idea
to write description at the beginning of the first of the answer lines and then explanation about half way down.
You could write these in pencil and rub them out when you have finished your answer.
Alternatively, you may choose to write a description of the first part of the graph (activity increases) and then
explain it followed by a description and explanation of the plateau on the graph. That is also a perfectly
acceptable way to answer the question.

What the question is about

• Make sure you know which part of the syllabus is being tested.
○ Read the whole of a question carefully including all the stimulus material and parts (a), (b), (c) (i) and (c)
(ii), etc. before you begin to answer. Some of the parts may have similar answers so you need to work out
the differences between them. If you write exactly the same thing in different parts of the same question,
the answer cannot be correct for both parts.
○ There is often stimulus material for each question. This might be a photograph, diagram, drawing, flow
chart, table of data, graph or just some text. Read all of this information carefully and study any pictures,
tables or graphs that are included. All of it is relevant to the questions.
○ The stimulus material is often about something you have not studied. Do not panic. There will be enough
information in the question for you to work out an answer. You are being tested on your ability to apply
your knowledge to new information.
○ All the different parts of a question may be about the same topic, e.g. cells from section A or blood from
section G, but you should be prepared for questions that test different topics, e.g. the structure and function
of white blood cells (phagocytes and lymphocytes) involving sections of A, G and J.
○ Look for clues in the wording of the questions.
○ If you are only given a Latin name or a name you do not recognise, e.g. impala, look to see if you are told
anything about it. If in a question on section K you are told that impala are herbivores, then you know they
eat plants.
○ Answer each question as far as you can. Do not spend a long time staring at a question.
○ If you do not know the answer or how to work it out, then leave it and come back to it later. It is best to
put a mark by the side of the question so you can find it easily. An asterisk (*) is a good idea or a large
question mark against the letter of the part question. Not all part questions have answer lines. You may not
realise that you have left out a part question when you check through your script towards the end of the
examination.
○ Try not to leave blanks. Always check through your script towards the end of the examination. When you
come back to a question you may remember what to write as an answer to a question that you left out
earlier in the exam.

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○ Do not waste time by writing about things unrelated to the question.

Example 3
It helps to highlight the main features of a question. You cannot use a highlighter pen, so the best thing todo
is to underline or circle key words in the questions.

Command words
• You can find out more about command terms in the Glossary of terms towards the end of the syllabus.
These notes should help you respond to each of the command words.

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 The style of questions
We use a great variety of different styles of questions. If you answer plenty of past papers during your
course you will gain lots of practice at these. Here are some:
• Putting ticks and crosses in a table to make comparisons. For example, comparing the properties of
different biological molecules.
• Completing tables of information by writing in single words, numbers or short phrases, e.g. what happens
to the four valves in the heart during different phases of the cardiac cycle.
• Completing a passage of text with the missing terms.
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• Writing definitions – make these as concise as you can; there is no need to use any examples unless asked.
• Making a list – answers should also be concise; detail is not required.
• Matching pairs from two lists, e.g. matching the names for the stages of mitosis with descriptions of what
happens inside a cell during this type of nuclear division.
• Putting stages of a process into the correct sequence, e.g. the stages of protein synthesis.
• Labelling a diagram – label lines may already be on the diagram or you may have to add them yourself.
• Completing a genetic diagram (Paper 2).
• Describing and/or explaining data from a table or a graph.
• Explaining aspects of an investigation, e.g. a learner investigation that you might have carried out or a
piece of research that has been adapted from a scientific paper.
• Adding information to a flow chart.
• Writing a flow chart from information that you are given, e.g. drawing a food web from written
descriptions of the feeding relationships in a community.

Use information given in the question

• Questions may ask you to “Use examples from...” or “Use only the information in ....” or “With
reference to Fig. 6.2”. If you read instructions like these, find out what you are expected to use as
examples or take information from. You will not get any marks if you use examples from somewhere else.
The information can be given to you in different ways:
○ a diagram, such as a food web, a set of apparatus or a biological structure;
○ a graph, which could be a line graph, a bar chart or a histogram – always check the headings and units
carefully;
○ a table – always read the headings of the columns and/or rows carefully and look for any units.

Interpret tables and graphs

• The stimulus material may be in the form of a table, line graph, bar chart or histogram.
• Always read the introductory text very carefully before you study the table or graph. Underline key points
in the information that you are given. In Papers 2 and 3, there may be quite a bit of introductory text
explaining how the information was collected.

Tables
• Look at the column and row headings in a table and make sure you understand them. If you have read the
introduction carefully, then you will.
• Find the units that have been used. Make sure that you use the units if you give any figures in your answer.
• Use a ruler to help read the table. Align the ruler with the first column. This should be the independent
variable and should increase in steps. Now put the ruler to the right of the next column and look at the
figures in this second column that should be the dependent variable. Look for a pattern or trend in the
figures. Identify the pattern or trend first before thinking of an explanation. Move the ruler across to the
right of the third column if there is one and continue in the same way. It may help to sketch a little graph
on the exam paper to help you identify any pattern or trend.

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 Line graphs
• Look carefully at the x-axis which is the independent variable and make sure you understand what has
been changed. Look carefully at the y-axis which is the dependent variable. Both variables should be
described in the introduction to the question.
• Put your ruler against the y -axis and move it gradually across the graph from left to right. Follow the
pattern or trend of the line (or each line if there is more than one). Mark on the graph where something
significant happens. For example, the line might show that the dependent variable becomes constant (gives
a horizontal line).
• Use your ruler when taking figures from the graph. If the graph is plotted on a grid, then the examiners
may allow ± one small square or half a small square in taking your readings. If you use a ruler and rule lines
on the graph, you should take exact readings.

Bar charts and histograms

• Look carefully at the x-axis and the y-axis to see what has been plotted. Again, it is a good idea to move a
ruler across the bar graph or histogram from left to right to help you concentrate on one aspect at a time.
You can identify the highest and lowest figures and see if there is any pattern.
• You should make yourself some notes about the table, graph or histogram before answering the questions.

Calculations
• If you are asked to do a calculation:
○ You may have to find the figures from a table or graph.
○ Write out all the working for your calculation. If you make a mistake and give the wrong answer, you may
well be awarded marks for showing how to do the calculation.
○ Make sure that you show the units in the calculation.
○ Make sure you include the units if they are not given on the answer line.
○ Always express your answer in the same way as other figures provided, e.g. in a table. If the other figures
are 5.6 and 4.6, then your answer should be given to one decimal place, e.g. 2.0 and 7.0, not 2 and 7.
○ Round up or down the result on your calculator – do not copy all the figures after the decimal point.

Make comparisons
• If you are asked to compare two things make sure you make it clear which thing you are writing about.
○ The question may ask you to compare two structures or two processes that you have learnt about.
Sometimes you may be expected to do this on answer lines in which case you must make clear the items
that you are comparing (see Example 4).
○ You may be given a table to complete. This may be blank and you have to fill it in, or it may already have
some entries and you complete it.
○ If you are given lines to make the comparison, it is perfectly acceptable to draw a table for your answer.

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 Extended writing
• You are required to write longer answers to questions that have four or more marks. There are more of
these questions in Paper 2 & 3 than in the other papers. You do not have to write your whole answer in
prose. You can use labelled and annotated diagrams, flow charts, lists and bullet points. However you
present your material, you should write enough to make your meaning clear.

The rest of these tips concern the individual papers

Paper 1-MCQ
• You have about one minute to read and answer each question. Each question may test one topic or several
topics from different parts of the syllabus.
• Some questions test what you know and understand.
• Some questions test if you can apply what you have learnt to understand new data. These questions will
often have a diagram, graph or table to use.
• Some of the choices can be very similar; read carefully and underline words that make each choice distinct
from the other three.
• Try to decide what the question is testing as you are reading it. The sequence of questions usually follows
the sequence of topics in the syllabus. Therefore you can expect the early questions to ask about Section A
on cells and those at the end will be on Sections J and K about immunity and ecology.
• Do not try to find a pattern in the order of your answers (e.g. A, B, C, D, A, B....)
○ The same letter could be the correct answer for several questions in a row.
○ Letter A might be the correct answers for more questions than B, C or D. Or there could be fewer correct
answers shown by letter D than any of the others.
○ Do not let what you have chosen for the previous questions influence which letter you choose.
• Some questions may ask about aspects of practical work, for example about different variables:
independent, dependent and controlled.
• It is important to understand how to use terminology, e.g. how to apply water potential terminology to
problems on cells and osmosis.

Paper 2
• This paper has a mix of short answers questions and those requiring slightly longer answers. There is no
essay.
• Longer answers will need four or five sentences with two or three different ideas. Always look at the
number of marks for each part question to help you decide how much to write.
• Look at the number of command words: ask yourself ‘do you have to do one or two things?’.
See Example 2.
• Use the lines given. Stick to the point and do not write too much.
• Only give the number of answers that are asked. Use the numbered lines and give one answer per line.
• There will only be a few parts of questions that need extended writing. These will have four [4] or five [5]
marks. These questions will often be related to some information you are given. You will need to write four
or five sentences in a sequence that makes sense. You can think of it as “telling a story with a beginning, a
middle and an end”. Remember to refer to any information you are given.

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Paper 3
General tips

Paper 4
General tips
Success at Paper 4 requires you to do plenty of practical work during your course and have several attempts
at past paper questions to find out how to complete everything in the time available. During the practical
exam you will have to make some decisions; if you practise plenty of past questions you will find out what
sort of decisions to expect. As you revise, make sure you know exactly how to carry out the practical
procedures described in the syllabus.

You will be assessed on your skills at:

• manipulating apparatus to collect results and make observations
• data presentation
• analysis of results and observations
• evaluation of procedures and data.
You should make decisions, such as:
• identifying variables
• standardising the control variables
• how to change the independent variable
• choose the number of measurements to take
• decide the intervals between the values of the independent variable
• choosing a control experiment
• identifying any risks and stating appropriate precautions.

During the examination

• Read through the questions carefully, looking to see how many marks are given for each question.
• Read the instructions to the end; do not start a practical procedure without reading carefully all the steps
involved.
• As you read, check that you have the apparatus and materials described. If not alert the supervisor.
• Think about the apparatus that you will use for each step and imagine using it in your mind.
• Make sure that you have a sharp pencil to use for making drawings and for drawing graphs and charts.
Do not draw in ink because you cannot make changes as you can when using a pencil.
• Make sure you have a good, clean eraser for rubbing out your pencil lines if necessary. Do not press too
hard when using a pencil for making drawings, graphs or charts. Sometimes it is hard for an examiner to
tell which is your final line.

Following the instructions

• Follow the instructions for practical methods exactly. If you make a change in the method you can alter
the results.
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• Do not take short cuts.
• Always label test-tubes and other containers to help you remember which is which.
• If you are told to “Wash the apparatus thoroughly after each use” make sure you do. If there is anything
left in the apparatus the next stage may not work.

It is a good idea to put a tick by the side of each instruction when you have completed it. This helps you to
find the right place in the instructions, so that you do not leave out a step or repeat a step when it is not
required.
• Keep your exam paper on a part of the bench which you can keep dry. Do not pour liquids or use syringes
or pipettes over your exam paper. If you keep your exam paper away from the ‘wet’ part of your bench you
are unlikely to spill anything on it.

Recording your measurements and observations

You are expected to make observations and record them.
• You can record your observations:
○ as statements in writing
○ in tables
○ by using drawings
○ by constructing tally charts.
You will take readings from different apparatus. You must make the measurements as accurately and
reliably as you can. Numerical readings will normally be collected and presented in a table.
• Follow the instructions below about drawing tables.
• Make clear descriptions of colours and colour changes; refer to ‘blue’, ‘orange’ and ‘purple’ when
describing reagents used in biochemical tests. You may want to refer to slight differences, so use words like
‘pale’ and ‘dark’.
• Make your measurements as accurate and reliable as possible.
• Accurate results are close to the actual or ‘true’ values; reliable results are those that are repeatable.
• If you can take repeat readings, then do so. There is not always enough time to do this.
• You can process your observations by:
○ carrying out calculations, e.g. percentages and percentage changes
○ plotting graphs – line graphs, bar charts and histograms.
• Use all the space available on the paper for your observations.
• Do not write an explanation until the question asks for one.
• Use a sharp HB or B pencil. It can be rubbed out easily if you need to correct a mistake. Use a good eraser
so that is clear to the examiner which is your final line.
• Do not forget to include headings for the columns and the rows in tables.

Drawings
These will be from microscope slides or photographs.
• Read the question carefully, the drawing may have to be an accurate size e.g. twice the original.
• Make each drawing as big as the space allows without writing over the text of the question and making
sure that you leave enough space for labels and annotations, if asked for.
• Use a ruler for labelling lines.
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• Draw and label in pencil.
• Use one clear continuous outline not an artistic drawing. Do not shade.
• Observe details carefully, such as the relative number of chloroplasts in different cells and the thickness
of cell walls in different cells in a vascular bundle. Show these accurately on your drawing.

A plan diagram shows the distribution of tissues in a section. It also shows the proportions of the different
tissues. Although called a low power plan diagram you may use high power to identify the different tissues
and to be sure you are putting the boundaries of those tissues in the right place. You should not draw any
cells in a lower power plan diagram.
When you make a plan diagram, follow these simple rules:

• make the drawing fill most of the space provided; leave space around the drawing for labels and
annotations (if required by the question)
• use a sharp HB or B pencil (never use a pen)
• use thin, single, unbroken lines (often called ‘clear and continuous lines’)
• show the outlines of the tissues
• make the proportions of tissues in the diagram the same as in the section
• do not include drawings of cells
• do not use any shading or colouring.
Add labels and annotations (notes) to your drawing only if you are asked for these in the question. Use a
pencil and a ruler to draw straight lines from the drawing to your labels and notes. Write labels and notes
in pencil in case you make a mistake and need to change them. You may leave your labels and notes in
pencil –do not write over them in ink.

High power drawings should show a small number of cells and they should be drawn a reasonable size so
you can show any detail inside them. When you make a high power drawing, follow these simple rules:
• make the drawing fill most of the space provided; leave space around the drawing for labels and
annotations (if required by the question)
• use a sharp HB or B pencil (never use a pen)
• use clear, continuous lines (see above)
• draw only what is asked in the question, e.g. three cell types or one named cell and all cells adjoining it
• show the outlines of the cells
• the proportions of the cells in the drawing must be the same as in the section you are drawing
• plant cell walls should be shown as double lines with a middle lamella between the cells; the
proportions of cell walls should be drawn carefully.
• show any details of the contents of cells – draw what you see not what you know should be present; for
example, in plant cells you may see nuclei, chloroplasts and vacuoles
• do not use any shading or colouring.

Taking measurements of specimens and photographs

Using an eyepiece graticule

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An eyepiece graticule is a scale that fits inside the eyepiece on your microscope. It allows you to take
measurements of the specimens you view with the microscope. You can measure simply in graticule units,
but you may be asked to make an actual measurement which involves calibrating the graticule using a stage
micrometer. This is done by lining up the graticule with the divisions on the micrometer.
• Make your measurements as accurate as you can. You will probably be able to measure to the nearest
division on the graticule.
• You may be asked to take several measurements and then calculate a mean.

Taking measurements from photographs

You may have to measure an object on a photograph and calculate the actual size of a structure or the
magnification of an image.
• Always measure photographs in millimetres, not centimetres.
• If you have to use your measurements in a calculation, write neatly and show your working. The person
marking your paper might be able to give you marks for knowing what to do even if you make a mistake or
do not finish the calculation.

Presenting data and observations

Tables
Before you start to draw a table, decide what you wish to record. Decide on how many columns and how
many rows you will need. Make sure you have read all the instructions before you draw the table outline.
Follow these rules:
• use the space provided, do not make the table too small
• leave some space to the right of the table in case you decide you need to add one or more columns
• make the table ready to take observations or readings so that you can write them directly into the table
rather than on another page and then copy them into the table (tables need to show all the raw data you
collect)
• draw the table outlines in pencil
• rule lines between the columns and rows
• rule lines around the whole table
• write brief, but informative headings for each column
• columns headed with physical quantities should have appropriate SI units
• when two or more columns are used to present data, the first column should be the independent variable;
the second and subsequent columns should contain the dependent variables
• entries in the body of the table should be brief – they should be single words, short descriptive phrases
or numbers
• data should be recorded in the table in the order in which it is collected – this is because the table is
prepared before the data collection. For example, if the instructions state that results from the highest
temperature or highest pH is to be recorded first then these go at the top of their respective columns. It is
more usual to arrange the values of the independent variable in ascending order (e.g. from 0 to 100) so that
patterns are easier to follow and that is how data in tables for Papers 1, 2, 3 and 4 is usually presented
• numbers written into the body of the table do not have units (units only appear in the column headings).

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You may have to process your results by calculating rates of reaction, changes in length, percentage changes
or means of repeat readings. These processed results can appear in the same table with the raw data that
you have collected or can be in a separate table with the independent variable. The solidus or slash (/)
meaning ‘per’ should not be used in units. For example, if you have to include concentrations as in a table
you do not write g per 100 cm3 as g/100 cm3. It should always be written out in full using ‘per’ or, better,
as g 100 cm–3. The negative exponent, cm–3, means ‘per’.
Note that the solidus is used to separate what is measured from the unit in which it is measured. You may
notice that text books and examination papers use brackets around the units in tables. This is also an
accepted convention, but the solidus is the convention used in A LEVEL Biology.
Correct and incorrect ways of showing units in tables and graphs

A note on the uses of ticks and crosses in tables:

Do not use ticks and crosses in tables of results which should show observations, such as the colours
obtained in biochemical tests. Ticks and crosses may be used in tables of comparison if there is a key to
explain what they mean,
e.g. = present; x= absent.
You may want to show anomalous results in tables. If so circle them and put a note underneath the table to
explain that they are anomalous results. You may be asked to compare specimens viewed in the microscope
and/or in photographs. These comparisons must be organised into a table. Draw your table so that it has a
first column for the features that you have observed. You can then present both similarities and differences:

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 Line graphs
Line graphs are used to show relationships in data which are not immediately apparent from tables. The
term graph applies to the whole representation. The term curve should be used to describe both curves and
straight lines which are used to show trends.
Follow these guidelines:
• use at least half the grid provided, do not make the graph too small
• draw the graph in pencil
• the independent variable should be plotted on the x-axis
• the dependent variable should be plotted on the y-axis
• each axis should be marked with an appropriate scale. The origin should be indicated with a 0. The data
should be examined critically to establish whether it is necessary to start the scale(s) at zero. If not, you
may have a displaced origin for one or both axes, but this must be made obvious by labelling the displaced
origin very clearly
• each axis should be scaled using multiples of 1, 2, 5 or 10 for each 20 mm square on the grid. This makes
it easy for you to plot and extract data. Never use multiples of 3
• each axis should be labelled clearly with the quantity and SI unit(s) or derived (calculated) units as
appropriate, e.g. time/s and concentration/g dm–3; the axes labels and units must be the same as those in
the table
• plotted points must be clearly marked and easily distinguishable from the grid lines on the graph. Dots in
circles () or small, neatly drawn crosses (x) should be used; dots on their own should not. If you need to
plot three lines, vertical crosses (+) can also be used
• label each line carefully or use a key. Use a pencil for both lines; do not use a blue or black pen or different
colours
• in Paper 4 there are usually five or six results to plot.

After plotting the points you need to decide if any of them are anomalous. Ask yourself the question ‘do
they fit the trend?’. But what is the trend? You should know something about the theory behind the
investigation so you should be aware of the likely trend. If you think one or more of the results are
anomalous, then it is a good idea to ring them. Put a circle on the graph away from the line and put a key to

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state that the circled point(s) represent anomalous result(s). The next thing to decide is how to present the
curve.
• It may be obvious that the points lie on a straight line; for example, the effect of enzyme concentration on
the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction. If you have a result for the origin (0, 0) then that must be included
and you can place a clear plastic ruler on the grid and draw a straight line from the origin making sure that
there is an even number of points on either side of the line. If you do not have a result for the origin, then
start the line at the first plotted point. Do not continue the line past the last plotted point.
• You should only draw a smooth curve if you know that the intermediate values fall on the curve. You may
be expecting the relationship to be a smooth curve and if the points seem to fit on a curve then draw one.
Again decide whether the origin is a point and, if not, start at the first plotted point. The curve should go
through as many points as possible, but try to make sure there is an even number of points on either side
of the line. Do not continue past the last plotted point.
• In the practical examination you may only have five or six results. These are likely to be single results
rather than means of replicate results. Therefore you cannot be sure of the relationship and should not
draw a straight line or a curve as described above. You should draw straight lines between the points.
This indicates uncertainty about the results for values of the independent variable between those plotted.
• If a graph shows more than one line or curve, then each should be labelled to show what it represents

If you have times in minutes and seconds, never use minutes as the unit on a graph. It is very difficult to use
a scale with each small square representing 3 or 6 seconds. Always plot results in seconds unless the unit
for time is whole minutes.

Analysis, conclusions and evaluation

As part of analysis you should be able to:
• identify anomalous results. Anomalous results are those that do not fit the trend
• process your results to calculate means, percentages, changes in mass or length, calculate percentage
changes and rates of reactions
• find unknown quantities by using axis intercepts or estimating from colour standards using known
concentrations
• describe the pattern or trend in data
• make conclusions to consider whether experimental data supports hypotheses or not.

Processing results
You should be prepared to calculate:
• means
• percentages
• percentage changes
• rates of reaction by calculating 1/t or 1000/t; the unit used is s–1.
You should know how to use line graphs to:
• find an intercept – where a line you have drawn crosses a key value on the x-axis; for example, finding the
water potential of a tissue using percentage change in length of plant tissues
• find the rate of a reaction by calculating the gradient of a line you have drawn.

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As part of evaluation you should be able to:
• identify systematic and random errors
• systematic errors are those that affect all the results in the same way
• random errors do not affect all the results in the same way
• identify the significant errors in your investigation
• estimate the uncertainty in measurements. The actual error is half the smallest division on the apparatus
you are using
• assess how effective you have been at standardising variables
• suggest improvements to the procedure you have followed
• suggest ways in which the investigation might be extended to answer a new question.

Estimating uncertainty in your results

You may have to estimate the uncertainty or error in your results. For particular apparatus, the error is half
the smallest graduation on the apparatus, e.g. if the smallest division is 1.0 cm3 then the uncertainty would
be ±0.5 cm3. So if you start your measuring at 0 the uncertainty applies where you take your measurement
–say at 6.3 cm3. So the result is expressed as 6.3 ± 0.5 cm3. BUT if you have to start at a measurement other
than 0 (for example when taking readings from a burette) the uncertainty applies at both ends, so it is
multiplied by two as there is an error at each end, e.g. 7.5 ± 1.0 cm3. Similarly, if using a ruler then there
would be an error at each end unless you start at 0. The same applies to measuring a quantity in a syringe
by sucking up from empty. The error would be half the minimum measurement. But when you take two
readings from the syringe (say delivering 2.0 cm3 by moving the plunger from 6.5 cm3 to 4.5 cm3) the
uncertainty is multiplied by two.
Percentage error is calculated as the error expressed as a percentage of the actual reading. For example if
the reading is 7.5 ± 1.0 cm3, then the percentage error is 1.0/7.5 × 100 = 13.3%.

Conclusions
• Conclusions are brief statements supported with explanations using your knowledge from the
syllabus
• Use your own results for your conclusions.

Before planning what to write for a conclusion, turn back to the beginning of the question and read the
introduction. You may have forgotten what you were told about the investigation you have just carried out.
Think about the theory and apply it to the results you have obtained.
• Sometimes you are expected to make conclusions about some other data, not the data you have collected.
• Do not write the conclusion you have learned from a class experiment or from theory.
• You should also consider the confidence that you have in your conclusions. For this it is a good idea to
consider whether:
○ the standardised variables have been kept constant
○ there were any other variables that were not standardised
○ there were any anomalous results
○ any replicate results were similar or not.
• If you are unsure about any aspect of the practical you have carried out, then you can say that you do not
have confidence in your conclusions and give a reason or reasons.
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 Suggesting improvements
You may be asked to suggest modifications or improvements that will increase the accuracy and reliability
of the results. As you carry out the practical procedure you should think critically about it and make some
notes. If asked to suggest improvements, then look back to these notes for ideas. You can suggest:
• ways to improve the standardisation of variables, for example by using a thermostatically-controlled
water bath
• taking repeat readings (replicates) to assess the reliability of the data
• calculate mean results
• use a different way to measure the dependent variable so the results are more accurate
• use a different piece of apparatus to measure the dependent variable and reduce the percentage error
(see above)
You may also have to justify your suggested improvements. When you do this, make sure you explain how
they will improve the confidence you have in the data and therefore in the conclusion.

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A LEVEL BIOLOGY PAPER 3 REVISION GUIDE

1 (a) Describe the main features of an organism belonging to the plant kingdom. [7]
• multicellular;
• (cells are) differentiated into tissues;
• autotrophic / photosynthetic;
• eukaryotic (cells);
• starch is storage compound;
• (some have) chloroplasts / chlorophyll;
• cell wall;
• made of cellulose;
• plasmodesmata;
• large (central) vacuole;
(b) Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and outline its function in a plant cell. [8]
• 0.5–1.0 μm, diameter / width;
• double membrane;
• inner membrane folded / cristae;
• hold, stalked particles / ATP synthase / ATP synthetase;
• site of ETC;
• ref. H+ and intermembrane space;
• ATP production;
• oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis;
• matrix is site of, link reaction / Krebs cycle;
• enzymes in matrix;
• 70S ribosomes;
• (mitochondrial) DNA;

2 (a) Explain what is meant by a gene mutation and outline the possible consequences of a gene
mutation for an organism. [9]
• A mutation is a chance / random / spontaneous;
• change in, base / nucleotide, sequence (in DNA);
• during DNA replication;
• base substitution;
• often no effect / silent mutation / may code for same amino acid;
• base addition / base deletion;
• have great effect on phenotype;
• frame shifts;
• alters whole sequence of bases after mutation;
• may lead to stop codon;

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 • different / new, allele;
• protein, different shape / different function / not made;
(b) Describe the arrangement and location of chloroplast pigments and discuss their effect on
absorption spectra. [8]
• chlorophyll a is primary pigment;
• carotenoids / chlorophyll b, is accessory pigment;
• arranged in, light harvesting clusters / photosystems; A antenna complex
• on, grana / thylakoids ;
• ref. PI and PII ; A P700 and P680
• primary pigment / chlorophyll a, in reaction centre ;
• accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b, surround primary pigment ;
• light energy absorbed by, accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b ;
• (energy) passed on to, primary pigment / chlorophyll a / reaction centre ;
• chlorophyll a and b absorb light in red and blue/violet region ;
• carotenoids absorb light in blue/violet region ;
• ref. absorption spectrum peaks ;
• diagram of absorption spectrum ;
• different combinations of pigments (in different plants) give different spectra ;

3 (a) Describe the first division of meiosis (meiosis I) in animal cells. [6]
• reduction division / (to) halve number of chromosomes / diploid(2n) to haploid(n) /
AW ;
• homologous chromosomes pair up / bivalents form ;
• ref. chiasmata / ref. crossing over ;
• homologous chromosome pairs / bivalents, line up on equator ;
• independent assortment ;
• spindle / microtubules, attached to centromeres ;
• chromosomes of each pair pulled to opposite poles ;
• by shortening of, spindle / microtubules ;
• nuclear envelopes re-form ;
• cytokinesis / AW ;
(b) Discuss the link between the frequency of sickle cell anaemia and the number of cases of malaria.
[9]
accept alternative symbols for alleles throughout
• frequency of sickle cell anaemia is highest in areas where malaria is common ;
• sickle cell anaemia red blood cells cannot carry oxygen very well / AW ;
• A sickling blocks capillaries
• homozygous (nn), have sickle cell anaemia / may die ;
• homozygous (NN), have normal, Hb / red blood cells ;
• heterozygotes, have sickle cell trait or (sickle cell trait) red blood cells not (severely)
affected ;
• malaria parasite / Plasmodium, affects red blood cells ;
• malaria lethal ;
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 • sickle cell trait people / heterozygotes, less likely to suffer from (severe effects of)
malaria ;
• have selective advantage ;
• pass on both N and n ;
• malaria selects against, homozygous NN ;
• sickle cell anaemia selects against, homozygous nn ;
• idea that sickle cell allele is maintained within population because of sickle cell trait
individuals ;
(b) Describe the part played by auxins in apical dominance in a plant shoot. [7]
• IAA / plant growth regulator / plant growth substance / plant hormone ;
• synthesised in, growing tips / apical buds / meristems ;
• moves by, diffusion / active transport ;
• from cell to cell ;
• also, mass flow / in phloem ;
• stimulates cell elongation ; R cell enlargement
• inhibits, side / lateral, buds / growth ; A inhibits branching
• plant grows, upwards / taller or allows stem to grow up to light (instead of sprouting
);
• A stem elongates
• auxin not solely responsible for apical dominance or
• there is interaction between auxin and other plant growth regulators ;
• ref. idea of concentration gradient down shoot so effect of dominance decreases ;
• AVP ; e.g. role of ABA and lateral bud inhibition / cytokinins antagonistic to IAA
• / gibberellins enhance IAA also mp
[7 max]

4 (a) Describe the process of glycolysis. [7]

• (glucose) phosphorylated by ATP ;
• raises energy level / overcomes activation energy ;
• hexose bisphosphate ;
• lysis / splitting, of, glucose / hexose ; R sugar splitting
• breaks down to two TP ; A GALP / GADP / G3P / PGAL
• 6C → 2 x 3C ;
• dehydrogenation / description ;
• 2 NAD reduced formed (from each TP to pyruvate formed) ;
• 4 ATP produced / net gain of 2 ATP ;
• pyruvate produced ;
• reduced NAD → oxidative phosphorylation / redox ;
accept flow diagram [7 max]
(b) Describe the structure and synthesis of ATP and its universal role as the energy currency in all living
organisms. [8]
• nucleotide ;
• adenine + ribose / pentose + three phosphates ;
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 • loss of phosphate leads to energy release / hydrolysis releases
• 30.5 kJ ;
• ADP + Pi ↔ ATP (reversible reaction) ;
• synthesised during, glycolysis / Krebs cycle / substrate level
• phosphorylation ;
• synthesised, using electron carriers / oxidative phosphorylation /
• photophosphorylation ;
• in, mitochondria / chloroplasts ;
• ATP synthase / ATP synthetase ;
• chemiosmosis / description;
• used by cells as immediate energy donor ;
• link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions / AW ;
• active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle / protein synthesis ;

5 (a) Describe a reflex arc and explain why such reflex arcs are important. [7]
• strong stimulus in receptor / AW ;
• action potential / impulses, along sensory neurone ;
• dorsal root of spinal nerve ;
• into spinal cord ;
• synapse with intermediate neurone ;
• (then) motor neurone ;
• action potential / impulses, to effector ;
• action potential / impulses, to brain ;
• response ; e.g. knee jerk 5 max can be on diagram
• fast / immediate ;
• stops / limits, damage / danger ;
• automatic / no conscious thought ;
• innate / stereotyped / instinctive ;

(b) Describe the structure of a myelin sheath and explain its role in the speed of transmission of a nerve
impulse. [8]
• Schwann cells ;
• wrap around axon ;
• sheath mainly lipid ;
• (sheath) insulates axon (membrane) ;
• Na+ / K+, cannot pass through sheath / can only pass through
• membrane at nodes ;
• depolarisation (of axon membrane) cannot occur where there is
• sheath / only at nodes of Ranvier ;
• local circuits between nodes ;
• action potentials ‘jump’ between nodes ;
• saltatory conduction ;
• increases speed / reduces time, of impulse transmission ;
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 • up to 100 ms-1 ;
• speed in non-myelinated neurones about 0.5 ms-1 ; [8 max]

6 (a) Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem functions in cyclic
photophosphorylation. [9]

• arranged in light harvesting clusters ; A system

• primary pigments / chlorophyll a ;
• at reaction centre ;
• P700 / P1, absorbs at 700(nm) ;
• P680 / P11, absorbs at 680(nm) ;
• accessory pigments / chlorophyll b / carotenoids ; ignore ref to chlorophyll a
• surround, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
• absorb light ; linked to 6
• pass energy to, primary pigment / reaction centre / ; chlorophyll a ;
• P700 / PI, involved in cyclic photophosphorylation ;
• (light absorbed results in) electron excited / AW ;
• emitted from chlorophyll ;
• chain of electron carriers / ETC ;
• ATP synthesis ;
• electron returns to, P700 / P1 ;
[9 max]
(b) Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage of
photosynthesis and is used in the light-independent stage. [6]
• photolysis of water ;
• releases H+ ; R H / hydrogen atoms
• by, P680 / PII ;
• e- released ;
• by, P700 / PI ;
• both combine with NADP ;
• (reduced NADP)
• reduces, GP / PGA ;
• to TP ;
• ATP used ;
• NADP, regenerated / oxidised ; [6 max]

7 (a) Explain how meiosis and fertilisation can result in genetic variation amongst offspring. [7]
• chiasma / crossing over ;
• between non-sister chromatids ;
• of, homologous chromosomes / bivalent ;
• in prophase 1 ; linked to 1
• exchange of genetic material / AW ; R genes unqualified
• linkage groups broken ;
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 • new combination of alleles ;
• independent assortment ; R random assortment
• metaphase 1 ; linked to 8
• detail of independent assortment ;
• possible mutation ;
• random mating ;
• random fusion of gametes ; [7 max]

(b) Explain, using examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of an organism. [8]

• phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment / VP =

VG+ VE ;
• environment may limit expression of gene(s) / AW ;
• e.g. for size / mass / height ;
• because, food / nutrients / ion, missing / malnutrition ;
• named, nutrient / ion / mineral, missing ;
• environment may, trigger / switch on, gene ;
• ref. low temperature and change in animal colour ;
• ref. high temperature and, curled wing in Drosophila / gender in crocodiles ;
• ref. UV light and melanin production ;
• ref. wavelength of light and, flowering / germination / fruit colour ;
• other named trigger plus example ;
• environment effect usually greater on polygenes / ora ;
• environment may induce mutation affecting phenotype ; [8 max]

8 (a) Describe how the structure of neurones speeds up the transmission of action potentials. [6]
• myelin sheath / schwann cell ;
• insulates, axon / dendron ;
• impermeable to Na+ / K+ ;
• depolarisation only at nodes of Ranvier ;
• ref. local circuits ;
• action potentials ‘jump’ from node to node ;
• saltatory conduction ;
• speed increased by 50 times / 0.5 ms-1 to 100 ms-1 ;
• axons with large diameter / giant axon ;
• reduce resistance ;
• elongated, axon / dendron / neurone ; 6 max
(b) Explain, using a named example, how sensory receptors in mammals convert energy into action
potentials. [9]
• ref. specific example ; e.g. pacinian corpuscle / rod / cone / hair cell
• correct stimulus ; e.g. touch / pressure light / sound
• detail of receptor response ; e.g. deformation of pacinian corpuscle membrane
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 • stimulus causes Na+ channels to open ;
• Na+ enters cell ;
• K+ channels open ;
• K+ leaves cell ;
• depolarisation ;
• receptor / generator potential ;
• greater than threshold leads to, action potential / impulses ;
• less than threshold only localised depolarisation ;
• increased stimulus leads to increased frequency of action potentials ;
• AVP ;

9 (a) Describe the transfer of energy to ATP during photosynthesis. [6]

• light absorbed by chlorophyll / AW ;
• ref. photosystems ;
• ref. harvesting clusters / accessory pigments ;
• reaction centre / P680 / P700 ;
• excitation of electrons / AW ;
• ETC ;
• idea of different energy levels ;
• ADP + Pi → ATP ;
• cyclic / non-cyclic, photophosphorylation ;
• chemiosmosis / ATP synthase / description ; 6 max

(b) Describe the process of oxidative phosphorylation. [9]

• reduced NAD / FAD ;
• passed to ETC ;
• hydrogens removed ; R H2
• split into H+ and e- ;
• e- passed to carriers ;
• H+ stays in mitochondrial matrix ;
• oxygen final e- carrier ;
• joins with H+ / reduced ; R H2 / hydrogen
• forms water ;
• ref. energy levels of carriers ;
• energy available to convert ADP and Pi to ATP ;
• occurs three times ( for each reduced NAD ) / ref. total yield ;
• chemiosmosis / ATP synthase / description ; 9 max

10 (a) Describe how the structure of a dicotyledonous leaf is related to its functions in photosynthesis.
[8]
• thin / flat to give large surface area to volume ratio ;
• held at right angles to sun to allow max. light absorption ;
• ref. to arrangement of cells in palisade mesophyll ;
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 • ref. to spongy mesophyll large surface area for CO2 uptake / gaseous exchange
• ref. to stomata / guard cells and entry of CO2 ;
• ref. to moist surfaces ;
• ref. to xylem and supply of water / mineral ions ;
• and support ;
• ref. to phloem and translocation of products of photosynthesis ;
• ref. to cuticle on upper surface ; [8 max]
(b) Discuss the effects that variations in carbon dioxide concentration and light intensity have on the
rate of photosynthesis. [7]
• carbon dioxide 0.03% ;
• most likely limits / major limiting / implied low in atmosphere ;
• increase in carbon dioxide concentration and increase in rate ;
• during day when light and warm ;
• ref. to variations in conc. e.g., within canopy / at soil surface ;
• light intensity
• ref. to wavelengths of light ;
• light saturated below full sun ;
• idea of limiting and saturation, with other key factor limiting ;
• light and stomatal aperture ;
• and temperature of leaf ;
• day length and season / morning and evening ;
• high light and damage to pigments ;
• ref. to light exciting electrons in chlorophyll [7 max]

11 (a) Describe the main features of the Krebs Cycle. [9]

• occurs in the matrix of mitochondrion;
• Where acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate;
• 4C to 6C;
• decarboxylation/produce CO2;
• dehydrogenation/oxidation;
• 2CO2 released;
• reduced NAD produced;
• reduced FAD produced;
• ATP produced;
• series of steps/intermediates;
• enzyme catalysed reactions;
• oxaloacetate regenerated;
• AVP; 9 max
(b) Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]
• NAD is a coenzyme for dehyrogenase;
• When reduced carries electrons and protons/H+/H/hydrogen;
• from Krebs cycle and from glycolysis;
• to cytochromes/electron transfer chain;
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 • NAD is then reoxidised/regenerated;
• Resulting in the production of ATP;
• 3 molecules of ATP are produced per reduced NAD; 6 max

12 (a) Describe the use of recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin by
bacteria [9]
• mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin;
• from beta cells of islets of Langerhans/pancreas;
• reference to reverse transcriptase;
• to cDNA;
• reference PCR/DNA polymerase/double strand;
• reference sticky ends/AW;
• use of vector/virus/plasmid;
• reference endonuclease/restriction enzymes;
• to cut plasmid;
• reference DNA ligase to join DNA;
• inserted into suitable host cell/[Link]/bacteria;
• reference method of insertion;
• identification of modified bacteria;
• reference growth/culture of engineered bacteria in fermenters; 9 max
(b) Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by genetic engineering
[6]
• constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply;
• less risk of contamination/infection;
• identical to insulin produced in the body;
• less/no risk of allergic reaction;
• does not stimulate the immune system;
• fewer side effects;
• can be produced without the killing of animals/ethical reason;
• cheaper/easier to extract and purify;
• more available/large amount;
• more rapid response; 6 max

13 (a) Explain how a synapse functions. [9]

• depolarisation/action potential ;
• of presynaptic membrane,/synaptic knob ;
• opening calcium ion channels ;
• calcium ions in ;
• vesicles containing transmitter / acetylcholine ;
• fuse with membrane ;
• contents emptied into synaptic cleft / exocytosis ;
• transmitter / acetylcholine diffuses across synaptic cleft ;
• transmitter / acetylcholine binds to receptor ; R protein channel
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 • on post synaptic membrane ;
• Na+ channels open / Na+ enters ;
• depolarises post synaptic membrane ;
• action potential set up / impulse transmitted ;
• breakdown / hydrolysis of transmitter / acetylcholine by enzyme /
• cholinesterase ; 9 max

14 (a) Outline the main features of the Calvin Cycle. [9]

• RuBP (5C) combines with carbon dioxide
• In the presence rubisco ;
• to form an unstable 6C compound ;
• The unstable 6C compound which forms 2 X GP (PGA) ;
• ATP is used as an energy source
• and reduced NADP to forms TP (GALP) ;
• TP used to form glucose / carbohydrates;
• TP used in regeneration of RuBP
• requires ATP ;
• as source of phosphate ;
• light independent ;

(b) Explain the role of NADP in photosynthesis. [6]

• coenzyme ;
• reduced ;
• carries protons ;
• and (high energy) electrons ;
• from photosystem7light stage ; R photosystem II
• on thylakoid membrane grans ;
• to stroma / Calvin cycl~
• ref. regeneration of NADP ; 6 max

15 (a) Describe why variation is important in natural selection. [6]

• ref. continuous / discontinuous variation ;
• genetic / inherited variation ;
• variation in phenotype / characteristics / AW ;
• (can be due to) interaction of genotype and environment ;
• e.g. of characteristic that influences survival ;
• ref. intraspecific competition / struggle for existence ;
• those with favourable characteristics survive / AW ;
• pass on favourable characteristics to offspring ;
• those with disadvantageous characteristics die ; 6 max

(b) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [9]
• ref. to definition of species ;
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 • ref. allopatric ;
• geographical isolation ;
• ref. to examples e.g. islands / lakes / mountain chains / idea of barrier ;
• ref. to example organism ;
• ref. to populations prevented from interbreeding ;
• isolated populations subjected to different selection pressures / conditions ;
• over time sufficient differences to prevent interbreeding ;
• ref. sympatric ;
• ref. to reproductive isolation ;
• ref. behavioural barriers (within a population) ;
• e.g. day active / night active ;
• correct ref. to gene pool ;
• change in allele frequencies ; 9 max

16 (a) Describe the role of natural selection in evolution. [8]

• individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;

• numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
• many fail to survive / die ;
• do not reproduce ;
• due to environmental factors / named factor ;
• variation in members of population ;
• those best adapted survive ;
• reproduce / pass on alleles ; R genes
• genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
• ref: changes in gene pool ;
• over time produces evolutionary change ;
• new species arise from existing ones [8 max]

(b) Explain, using named examples, how mutation can affect phenotype. [7]
• gene) example ; (sickle cell / PKU )
• change in gene / DNA / base change ;
• different amino acid ;
• different polypeptide / different protein / non-functional protein ;
• AVP ; details
• AVP ; details
• (chromosome) example ; (Down’s, Turner’s syndromes)
• structural changes in chromosomes ;
• change in number of chromosomes ;
• change in sets of chromosomes / ref. polyploidy ;
• AVP ; details
• AVP ; details

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17 (a) Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse. [9]
• action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane ;
• calcium (ion) channels open / presynaptic membrane becomes more permeable to
Ca2+ ;
• Ca2+ flood into presynaptic neurone ; R membrane
• this causes vesicles of (neuro)transmitter to move towards presynaptic membrane ;
• ref. acetylcholine / ACh ;
• vesicle fuses with presynaptic membrane / exocytosis ;
• ACh released into synaptic cleft ;
• ACh diffuses across (cleft) ;
• ACh binds to receptor (proteins) / AW ;
• on postsynaptic membrane ; R neurone
• proteins change shape / channels open ;
• sodium ions rush into postsynaptic neurone ; R membrane
• postsynaptic membrane depolarised ;
• action potential / nerve impulse ;
• AVP ; e.g. action of acetylcholinesterase

(b) Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system. [6]

• ensure one-way transmission ;
• receptor (proteins) only in postsynaptic, membrane / neurone ; ora
• vesicles only in presynaptic neurone ; ora
• ref. adaptation ;
• increased range of actions ;
• due to interconnection of many nerve pathways ;
• ref. inhibitory synapses ;
• involved in memory / learning ;
• due to new synapses being formed ;
• AVP; e.g. summation / discrimination

18 (a) Describe the structure of a chloroplast. [9]

• biconvex disc ;
• 3-10 μm diameter ;
• double, membrane / envelope ;
• internal membrane system ;
• flattened or fluid-filled sacs / thylakoids ;
• arranged in stacks / grana ;
• hold pigments / named pigment ;
• ref. clusters of pigments / AW ;
• (membrane of grana) hold ATP synthase ;
• intergranal lamellae ;
• stroma / ground substance ;
• lipids / starch grains ;
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 • contains enzymes of Calvin cycle ;
• stroma contains ribosomes / DNA etc ;
• AVP ; e.g. variation in shape between species [9 max]
• accept on labelled diagram

(b) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [6]
• closely packed -- to absorb more incident light / AW ;
• palisade mesophyll near upper surface of leaf -- to maximize light interception ;
• arranged at right angles to leaf surface -- to reduce number of light absorbing walls ;
• cylindrical cells -- producing air spaces between cells ;
• air spaces -- act as reservoir of carbon dioxide ;
• large surface area -- for gas exchange ;
• cell walls thin -- so short diffusion pathway ;
• large vacuole -- pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
• chloroplasts on periphery -- to absorb light more efficiently ;
• large number of chloroplasts -- to maximise light absorption ;
• chloroplasts can move within cells -- towards light ;
• chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity -- to avoid damage ;
• AVP ; [6 max]

19 (a) Describe the process of oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrion. [9]

• reduced, NAD / FAD ;
• passed to ETC ;
• inner membrane / cristae ;
• hydrogen released (from reduced, NAD / FAD) ; R H2
• split into electrons and protons ;
• protons in matrix ;
• electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ;
• ref. redox reactions ;
• ref. energy gradient ;
• energy released ; R produced
• protons (pumped) into intermembrane space ;
• proton gradient ;
• protons pass through (protein) channels ;
• ATP synthase / stalked particles ;
• ATP produced ;
• chemiosmosis ;
• electron transferred to oxygen ;
• addition of proton (to oxygen) to form water / (oxygen) reduced to water ; [9 max]

(b) Explain the roles of NAD in anaerobic respiration in both plants and animals. [6]
in cytoplasm
• NAD, becomes reduced / accepts H;
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 • during glycolysis;
in plants
• pyruvate converted to ethanal;
• ethanal reduced;
• by reduced NAD;
• ethanol formed ;
in animals
• pyruvate converted to lactate ;
• by reduced NAD ;
• in, liver / muscles ;
• allows glycolysis to continue ; [6 max]

20 (a) Compare the roles of the endocrine and nervous systems in control and coordination in animals.
8]
endocrine
• hormones ;
• chemical messengers ; A chemicals that transfer information
• ductless glands / (released) into blood ;
• target, organs / cells ;
• ref. receptors on cell membranes ;
• example of named hormone and effect ;
nervous
• impulses / action potentials ; R electrical, signals / current
• along, neurones / nerve fibres ; R nerves
• synapse (with target) / neuromuscular junction ;
• ref. receptor / effector / sensory / motor, neurones ;
differences – endocrine
• slow effect / ora ;
• long lasting effect / ora ;
• widespread effect / ora ;
• AVP ; e.g. extra detail of synapse [8 max]

21 (a) Explain how changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may affect the amino acid
sequence in a protein. [7]
• code is three, bases / nucleotides ; A triplet code
• (gene) mutation ; R chromosome mutation
• base, substitution / addition / deletion ;
• addition / deletion, large effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
• frame shift ;
• completely new code after mutation / alters every 3 base sequence which follows ;
• (substitution) often has no effect / silent mutation ;
• different triplet but same amino acid / new amino acid in non-functional part of
protein ;
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 • (substitution) may have big effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
• could produce ‘stop’ codon ;
• sickle cell anaemia / PKU / cystic fibrosis ;
• reference to transcription or translation in correct context ; A description
• AVP ; e.g. protein produced, is non-functional / not produced / incomplete [7 max]

(b) Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution. [8]
• individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;
• numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
• variation in members of population ;
• environmental factors / named factor (biotic or abiotic) ; linked to 17 and 18
• (cause) many, fail to survive / die / do not reproduce ;
• those best adapted survive / survival of the fittest ;
• (reproduce to) pass on alleles ; R genes
• genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
• ref: changes in, gene pool / allele frequency ;
• over time produces evolutionary change ;
• new species arise from existing ones / speciation ;
• directional / stabilising, selection ; [8 max]

22 (a) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [8]
• closely packed to absorb maximum light ;
• vertical/at right angles to surface of leaf to reduce number of cross walls ;
• large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell;
• chloroplasts at edge short diffusion path for carbon dioxide;
• chloroplasts at edge to absorb maximum light;
• large number of chloroplasts to absorb maximum light;
• cylindrical cells or air spaces to circulate gases/provide a reservoir of CO2;
• large surface area for diffusion of gases;
• moist cell surfaces for diffusion of gases;
• cell walls thin for maximum light penetration/diffusion of gases;
• chloroplasts can move towards light;
• chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity to avoid damage ; [8 max]

(b) Outline the light-independent stage of photosynthesis. [7]

• Calvin cycle/stroma ;
• carbon dioxide fixed by RuBP ;
• rubisco ;
• 2 molecules of GP formed ; A PGA
• (GP) forms TP ; A GALP/PGAL
• use of ATP ;
• use of, reduced NADP/NADPH ;
• from light dependent stage ;
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 • some TP forms, hexose/sucrose/starch/cellulose/glycerol ;
• some TP converted to acetyl CoA ;
• some TP used to regenerate RuBP ;
• using ATP ;
• allow either mp 18 or mp 24
• marks can be awarded on a diagram [7 max]

23 (a) Describe how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP and reduced NADP. [9]
• photosystem I (PI) and photosystem II (PII) involved ;
• light harvesting clusters ;
• light absorbed by accessory pigments ;
• primary pigment is chlorophyll a ;
• energy passed to, primary pigment / chlorophyll a ;
• electrons, excited / raised to higher energy level ;
• (electrons) taken up by electron acceptor ;
• (electrons) pass down electron carrier chain (to produce ATP) ;
• PII has (water splitting) enzyme ;
• water split into protons, electrons and oxygen ; A equation
• photolysis ;
• electrons from PII pass to PI / electrons from water pass to PII ;
• to replace those lost ; give either in relation to PI or PII
• protons and electrons combine with NADP (to produce reduced NADP) ;
can award these marking points from a diagram [9 max]

(b) Outline the steps of the Calvin cycle. [6]

• RuBP combines with carbon dioxide ;
• rubisco ;
• forms unstable 6C compound ;
• produces two molecules of, GP / PGA ;
• GP / PGA, converted to TP ;
• by reduced NADP and ATP ;
• from light dependent stage ;
• TP used to regenerate RuBP ;
• using ATP ;
• TP can form, hexose / fatty acids / acetyl CoA [6 max]

24 (a) Describe how ATP is synthesized by oxidative phosphorylation. [8]

• reduced, NAD / FAD ;
• passed to ETC ;
• inner membrane / cristae ;
• hydrogen released (from reduced, NAD / FAD) ; R H2
• split into electrons and protons ;
• electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ;
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 • ref. energy gradient ;
• energy released pumps protons into intermembrane space ;
• proton gradient ;
• protons pass through (protein) channels ;
• ATP synthase / stalked particles ;
• (ATP produced from) ADP and inorganic phosphate ;
• electron transferred to oxygen ;
• addition of proton (to oxygen) to form water / (oxygen) reduced to water ;[8 max]

(b) Using examples, outline the need for energy in living organisms. [7]

• organisms need energy, to stay alive / for metabolism / AW ;

• ATP as, (universal) energy currency / described ;
• light energy for photosynthesis ; A light dependent stage
• light-dependent stage detail ;
• light-independent stage detail ;
• chemical energy ;
• for anabolic reactions ;
• named reaction; e.g. protein synthesis / starch formation
• activation of glucose in glycolysis / described ;
• active transport ;
• detail; e.g. sodium - potassium pump /movement against a concentration gradient
• mechanical energy / movement ;
• detail ; e.g. muscle contraction / spindle
• temperature regulation ;
• 29. AVP ; e.g. bioluminescence / electrical discharge [7 max]

25 (a) Explain the need to maintain biodiversity in an ecosystem such as a tropical rainforest.
[7]
• cultural/aesthetic / leisure, reasons;
• moral/ethical, reasons ; e.g. right to exist/prevent extinction;
• resource material ; e.g. wood (for building)/fibres for clothes/food for
• humans/(herbal) medicine
• (eco)tourism;
• economic benefits;
• ref. resource / species, may have use in future/AW;
• e.g. medical use
• maintains, food webs / food chains;
• A description
• nutrient cycling;
• protection against erosion;
• climate stability;
• maintains, (large) gene pool/genetic variation;
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 • scientific research; [max 7]
(b) Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of captive breeding programmes for
mammals. [8]
advantages (max 5)
• can monitor health of mother;
• can monitor development of foetus;
• storage of, sperm/eggs/gametes;
• artificial insemination;
• IVF;
• ref. surrogate mothers;
• international cooperation;
• genetic records kept;
• can prevent extinction/extend range of a species/used in restoring ecosystem;
disadvantages (max 5)
• unnatural environment;
• stress in captivity;
• behavioral changes;
• reproductive cycles disrupted;
• may reject selected mate;
• examples of problems with release;
• difficulty in finding food
• may not integrate into groups
• more susceptible to disease
• very little natural habitat left to release animals into [max 8]
26 (a) Explain how the physiology of the leaves of a C4 plant, such as maize, is adapted for efficient
carbon fixation at high temperatures. [7]
• in C3 plants at high temperature
• rubisco combines with oxygen;
• less rubisco to combine with CO2;
• in C4 plant such as maize
• idea of spatial separation of light-dependent stage from carbon fixation;
• rubisco/RuBP, in bundle sheath cells;
• kept away from, oxygen/air;
• mesophyll cells, absorb CO2;
• CO2 released to combine with RuBP;
• avoid/reduce, photorespiration;
• high optimum temperatures of enzymes involved;
• Calvin cycle can continue;
• AVP ; e.g. CO2 reacts with PEP
• PEP carboxylase [max 7]

(b) Describe how, in photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy, in the form of ATP.
[8]
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 • light energy absorbed by chlorophyll;
A photosystems/pigments
• electron, excited/raised to higher energy level;
• (electron) emitted by chlorophyll;
A photosystems/pigments
• passes to electron, acceptor/carrier;
• passes along, chain of electron carriers/ETC/Electron Transfer Chain;
• energy released used to pump protons;
I ATP production here
• into thylakoid space;
• thylakoid membrane impermeable to protons;
• proton gradient forms;
• protons move down gradient;
• through/using, ATP synthase/ATP synthetase;
R ATPase
• enzyme rotates;
• ATP produced from ADP and Pi; [max 8]

27. (a) Outline the roles of membranes at the surface of cells and within cells. [9]
At surface
• Separate cell from environment;
• Control entry /exit (of molecules/ions/suitable substance);
A selective/ partial
• Movement of substance is by facilitated diffusion;
• Active transport
• Phagocytosis/pinocytosis/endocytosis/exocytosis
• Cell recognition/ cell surface antigens;
• Receptor (for hormones/ neuroyransmitters etc.)
• Microvilli increase surface area of cell
• enzyme attachement
within
• complartmentalise /surrounds organelles
• prevents disruption of, reactions / process
• e.g reaction/ process, and organelle
• reactions take place on membraines
• enzymes attached to membranes
• isolates/ separates, DNA /nucleus;
• (nuclear pole) permits RNA to leave nucleus;
• (forms) ER / (golge) vesicles/ lysosomes/ other named organelle;
• Attachment of ribosomes;
• Intracellular transport;
• Protects cells from contents of lysosomes;
• (tonoplast) surrounds / controls content of vacuole;
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 • Increase (internal) surface area of organelle;
• Attachment of pigments
• Formation of mesosomes

(b) Explain how spermatogenesis increases genetic variation in the offspring. [4]
• independent / random, orientation;
• at metaphase, l / ll;
• independent / random, assortment;
• at anaphase, l / ll;
• crossing over; R chiasma formation
• at prophase l;
• mutation;
• random fertilisation / AW;

(c)Explain why it is necessary to have a meiotic phase in the life cycle of all sexually reproducing species.
[4]
• fertilization involves fusion of two sets chromosomes / avoids doubling
• chromosome number;
• need to be haploid (to avoid doubling) / haploid to diploid / AW;
• AVP; R variation
(d) freshly ejaculated sperms must undergo a process called capacitation before they can fertilize an
oocyte.
Explain what happens during capacitation. [4]
• removal of, the glycoprotein / plasma protein;
• from the outer surface / head of the sperm;
• enzymes / proteases / named;
• specific to / active site matches, glycoprotein / plasma protein;
• break peptide bonds;
• to produce, polypeptides / peptides / amino acids;
• (makes plasma membrane) more permeable / more sensitive;
• to Ca2+ / chemical signals from oocyte / other function;

28 (a) Outline the ethical issues raised by abortion. [8]

• reduces the number of unwanted pregnancies;
• less children require, care / foster homes / adoption;
• fetus murdered / AW / fetal right to life;
• religious objection qualified; R 'playing God'
• doctor / medical staff, have to take life;
• at 24 weeks fetus, fully formed / can survive out of uterus;
• not known when fetus may feel pain / AW;
• mother's right to choose / may need counselling / suffer emotional distress;
• father's rights;
• physical health of mother;
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 • age of mother / teenage pregnancies;
• victims of, rape / incest;
• selective abortion may increase chance of other fetuses surviving;
• gender selection / eugenics / selection for specific purpose / described;
• may be used as birth control;
• AVP;

(b) distinguish between filicinophyta and bryophyta. [8]

Bryophyta Filicinophyta
Lacks vascular bundles Has vascular bundles
Gametophyte dominant Sporophyte dominant
Produces spores in capsule Produces spores in sporangia
No wax cutile Wax cuticle / ramesta
No true roots / rhizhoids True roots
No true stem True stem
No true leaves True leaves /fronds
Small size few (mm)/ no ligin for support Broad range of structures from (0.5cm-10m) of
height/ ligin present
Gametophyte not prothallus/thallus Gametophyte prothallus
Sporangia terminal Sporangia on the underside of leaf frond

29.(a) describe the structure and Function of the Nucleus. [6]

• It is the largest organelle in a (plant;animal) cell
• Spherical structure 10-20 micrometers in diameter
• Surrounded by a double membrane called nuclear envelope
• Contains nucleoplasm
• Nuclear envelope comportmentalises chemical reactions taking place in the nucleus
• Nucleoplasm contains chromosomes and nucleoli
• Chromosomes contain DNA attarched to proteins (histones)
• Nucleoplasm also contains RNA (3 types of RNA)
• Nucleus functions to control the synthesis of proteins
• Controls the cell’s activities
• Devide at the start of cell division ,ensuring that daughter cells have exact copies of
the cell’s genetic material
• To assemble ribosomes
(b) Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and outline its function in a plant cell. [8]
• 0.5–1.0 μm, diameter / width;
• double membrane;
• inner membrane folded / cristae;
• hold, stalked particles / ATP synthase / ATP synthetase;
• site of ETC;
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 • ref. H+ and intermembrane space;
• ATP production;
• oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis;
• matrix is site of, link reaction / Krebs cycle;
• enzymes in matrix;
• 70S ribosomes;
• (mitochondrial) DNA;
• They are envelope bound and the inner membrane folds to form cristae.
• It consists of a matrix with few ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule and phosphate
granules.
• In aerobic respiration, cristae are the sites for oxidative phosphorylation and electron
transport chain.
• Matrix is the site for Krebs’s cycle of enzymes.

30. (a) Relate the structure of the chloroplast to their roles in photosynthesis. [7]
• Are large organelles containing their own DNA and have a double membrane.
• Chloroplasts have a folded inner membrane which gives a greater surface area for
biochemical reactions to occur.
• Thylakoid membranes contains pigments/ electron carriers/ enzymes
• Used in cyclic and non – cyclic photophoshorilation/ light dependent reactions
• Stroma (contain enzymes) for the calvin cycle/ dark reaction
• Grana a network of proteins holding pigments into photosynthesis
• Light reactions on thylakoid which contain ATP/ stalked particles
• Membraine system separates the reactions of photosynthesis from other cell
reactions
• Stroma fluid which surrounds grana so that products light dependent stage can easily
pass into stroma.
• Contain DNA /ribosomes for manufacture of proteins needed for protein synthesis
• Granna are interconnected by membranes called lamella.

(b) List any 3 structural similarities between a mitochondrion and a chloroplast. [3]
• Circular DNA
• Double membranes
• 70s ribosomes
31. (a) distinguish between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. [8]
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Cell division Binary fission. Mitosis and meiosis.
No spindle Spindle in animal cells.
Genetic material. DNA is circular and lies free in DNA is linear , often associated
the cytoplasm . with proteins to form
No true nucleus. chromosomes .
It is contained in the nucleus.
Protein synthesis. 70s ribosomes. 80s ribosomes.
No ER present.

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 ER present and ribosomes may
be attached to ER.
Organelles. Few organelles. Many organelles ,.
None envelope bound. Envelope bound organelles e.g.
nucleus.
Cell walls. Rigid, contain polysaccharides Rigid , contain polysaccharides ,
of amino acids , murein is the lignin is the main strengthening
main strengthening compound. material.
Respiration Use mesosomes except blue Use mitochondria for aerobic
green bacteria cytoplasmic respiration.
membranes.
Photosynthesis No chloroplasts Contain chloroplasts
Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability None have the ability.

(b) Compare and contrast the structure of a typical animal and plant cell. [6]
Structure Plant cell Animal cell
Cell wall Cellulose No cell wall
Cell membrane Protein/ phospholipid or Protein/ phospholipid or
phospholipid bilayer (same as phospholipid bilayer (same as
animal) animal)
Cytoplasm Fluid with dissolved Fluid with dissolved
substances substances
Vacuole Large central vacuole If present, small and
temporary
Shape Regular Irregular
Chloroplast Present Absent
Mitochondrial Present Present
Plasmodesmata Present Absent

32 (a) Outline four reasons why transport of substances across membranes is vital to a cell. [4]
• To generate ionic gradient for action potentials/ muscle contraction
• To secrete useful substances;
• To excrete waste substances;
• To obtain nutrients;
• To maintain suitable pH/ ionic concentration;
(b) Describe the molecular structure of starch. [8]
• Is a polymer of alpha glucose.
• It is an energy store in plant.
• It has two components which are amylase and amylopectin.
• Both are polymers of alpha glucose
• Amylase have a straight chain and the glucose residues are joined together by 1,4
glycosidic bond.
• Amylase forms 20% of starch
• These bonds cause the chains to coil helically into more compact shape.
• Amylopectin is also more compact as it have many branches formed by 1,4 and 1,6
glycosidic bonds .

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 • Coiled chains (may) contain 1 500 monomers with braches every ten (10) units
• Forms 80% of Starch
• As suspension of amylase in water gives a blue black colour with iodine (potassium
iodide) andamylopectin give a red violet colour .
33 (a) Explain how the molecular structure of triglycerides is related to their functions. [8]
• possess hydrophobic tails of fatty acids;
• which cause the molecule to be insoluble in water;
• they are not so easily dissolved out of the cell;
• this functions to provide the properties of the phospholipid bilayer in cell membranes;
• acts as energy store for the cell;
• due to their higher proportion of hydrogen compared to carbohydrates;
• as a result the breakdown of triglycerides yields ore energy;
• due to the lower proportion of oxygen to carbon that requires more oxygen for
complete oxidation to occur;
• triglycerides also float in water due to their lighter density;
• this enables them to aid in the buoyancy of aquatic animals;
(b) Describe with examples the roles of lipids in an organism. [6]
• Used as high energy stores e.g triglycerides (fat or oil)
• Used in waterproofing coverings e.g. in wax cuticles found in insects and leaves to
prevent water loss while sea birds prune their feathers with oil
• Form an insulating layer against heat loss
• Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes
• Steroids such as cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and nerve
fibres. Steroids form the basis of many hormones
• Lipids form the basis of scents that attract insects for pollination

34. An enzyme, such as amylase, has a specific 3-dimensional shape.’

(a) Explain how DNA structure determines the specific shape of enzymes. [8]
• DNA codes for , protein / polypeptide ;
• transcription and translation (or described) ;
• enzyme is globular (protein) ;
• 3 bases 1 amino acid ;
• sequence of , bases / triplets , determines , sequence of amino acids / primary
• structure ;
• coiling / helix / pleated sheet / particular secondary structure ;
• determines projecting side groups ;
• folding / bonding , for tertiary structure ;
• 3-D structure is tertiary structure ;
• AVP ; e.g. ref. active site related to shape
• 2 or more genes produce quaternary structure
(b) Difference between globular proteins and Fibrous proteins [8]
GLOBULAR PROTEIN FIBROUS PROTEINS

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 It has polypeptide chains with irregular sequence of It has polypeptide chains with regular repetitive
amino acids sequences of amino acids
Its shape is a compact globule of polypeptides It has long chins running parallel
It is chemically less stable and stable its activity if It is chemically stable and relatively unaffected by
affected by factors such as its concentration,pH and temperature, concentration and pH
temperature
Each molecule of the same type of globular Each molecule of the same type of Fibrous
proteins has a specific sequence proteins may vary in length with slightly different
sequences of amino acids
It is water soluble It is insoluble in water
It is involved in various body systems such as the Its roles is mainly in helping to maintain structure
digestive system, the endocrine system and the and providing support.
immune system

35 (a) with reference to a named example, describe one model of enzyme action. [6]
• Enzyme are very specific
• They have a particular shape into which the substrate or substrate fit e.g. the enzyme
amylase will only act on starch converting it to maltose
• Although the enzyme molecule is large, overall, only a small region of it is functional.
• This is known as the active site.
• Active site-small hollow depression
• Substrate –molecule on which enzyme acts e.g starch for the enzyme salvary amylase
• Substrate fits into depression to form an enzyme- substrate complex
• Substrate molecule is held within the active site by bonds that form between certain
amino acids and the active site
• One model, the lock and key model proposes that enzymes work in the same way as a
key operates a lock
• Substrate only fit the active site of one particular enzyme e.g. starch on amylase only
• Shape of substrate exactly fits the active site.
(b) Describe the role of the “active site”. [2]
• The site were enzyme binds
• to substrate/to bacterial cell wall
• by lock and key mechanism/ induced fit theory
• substrate / bacterial cell wall broken down into subunits/products/ smaller units
(c)Explain why enzymes are effective in very small quantities [2]
• not used up in reaction/ can be used up again and again
• often work fast/high turn over
36 (a) Explain the effect of inhibitors on enzyme action. [6]

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 • A variety of small molecules exist which can reduce the rate of an enzyme controlled
reaction
• These are inhibitors
• Inhibition can be
 Competitive
 Non-competitive
• They can also be classified as reversive and non-reversive (permanent)
• Reversive inhibitors-can be competitive or non competitive
• Competitive- have molecular shape similar to substrate
• Fit into active site, substrate prevented from occupying it- no of enzyme substrate
molecules reduced-active site directed inhibitors
• Compete for active site with substrate
• Non- competitive inhibitors bind to other parts of enzyme
• Overall shape of the enzyme molecules including the active site
• Substrate-enzyme complex not formed

(b) Outline the difference between mitosis and meiosis. [8]

STAGE MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Homologues chromosomes Homologues chromosomes
remain separated Pair up in a process called
PROPHASE synapsis.
Crossing over occurs No crossing over
No Formation of chiasmata Formation of chiasmata
Pairs of chormatids line up on Pairs of chromosomes line up on
METAPHASE
spindle equator spindle equator
Centriomeres divide Centromeres don’t divide
Chromatids separate Chromosomes separate
ANAPHASE
Chromatids identical Chromatids may not be identical

Cell contain the same number of Cells contain half the number of
chromosomes as the mother cell the chromosomes .

May occur in haploid and diploid Only occurs in diploid cells

TELOPHASE or polyploidy cells
2 daughter cells identical 4 daughter cells
Genetically identical to parents Genetically different from
parents

37 (a) Outline how artificial selection differs from natural selection. [6]
artificial selection natural selection
selection (pressure by) humans or environmental selection pressure ;
genetic diversity lowered or genetic diversity remains high ;
inbreeding common or outbreeding common ;
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 loss of vigour / inbreeding
depression
or increased vigour / less chance of
inbreeding depression ;
increased homozygosity / decreased
heterozygosity
or decreased homozygosity / increased
heterozygosity ;
no isolation mechanisms operating or isolation mechanisms do operate ;
(usually) faster or (usually) slower ;
selected feature for human benefit or selected feature for organism’s benefit ;
not for, survival / evolution or promotes, survival / evolution ;

(b) Describe the role of natural selection in evolution. [8]

• individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;
• numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
• many fail to survive / die ;
• do not reproduce ;
• due to environmental factors / named factor ;
• variation in members of population ;
• those best adapted survive ;
• reproduce / pass on alleles ; R genes
• genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
• ref: changes in gene pool ;
• over time produces evolutionary change ;
• new species arise from existing ones

38 (a). Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution. [8]
• individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;
• numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
• variation in members of population ;
• environmental factors / named factor (biotic or abiotic) ; linked to 17 and 18
• (cause) many, fail to survive / die / do not reproduce ;
• those best adapted survive / survival of the fittest ;
• (reproduce to) pass on alleles ; R genes
• genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
• ref: changes in, gene pool / allele frequency ;
• over time produces evolutionary change ;
• new species arise from existing ones / speciation ;
• directional / stabilising, selection ; [8 max]

(b) Describe why variation is important in natural selection. [6]

• ref. continuous / discontinuous variation ;

• genetic / inherited variation ;
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 • variation in phenotype / characteristics / AW ;
• (can be due to) interaction of genotype and environment ;
• e.g. of characteristic that influences survival ;
• ref. intraspecific competition / struggle for existence ;
• those with favourable characteristics survive / AW ;
• pass on favourable characteristics to offspring ;
• those with disadvantageous characteristics die ; 6 max

39 (b) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [9]
• ref. to definition of species ;
• ref. allopatric ;
• geographical isolation ;
• ref. to examples e.g. islands / lakes / mountain chains / idea of barrier ;
• ref. to example organism ;
• ref. to populations prevented from interbreeding ;
• isolated populations subjected to different selection pressures / conditions ;
• over time sufficient differences to prevent interbreeding ;
• ref. sympatric ;
• ref. to reproductive isolation ;
• ref. behavioural barriers (within a population) ;
• e.g. day active / night active ;
• correct ref. to gene pool ;
• change in allele frequencies ; 9 max

(b) Explain, using named examples, how mutation can affect phenotype. [7]
• (gene) example ; (sickle cell / PKU )
• change in gene / DNA / base change ;
• different amino acid ;
• different polypeptide / different protein / non-functional protein ;
• AVP ; details
• AVP ; details
• (chromosome) example ; (Down’s, Turner’s syndromes)
• structural changes in chromosomes ;
• change in number of chromosomes ;
• change in sets of chromosomes / ref. polyploidy ;
• AVP ; details
• AVP ; details

40 (a) Explain, using examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of an organism [8]
• phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment /
VP = VG+ VE ;
• environment may limit expression of gene(s) / AW ;
• e.g. for size / mass / height ;
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 • because, food / nutrients / ion, missing / malnutrition ;
• named, nutrient / ion / mineral, missing ;
• environment may, trigger / switch on, gene ;
• ref. low temperature and change in animal colour ;
• ref. high temperature and, curled wing in Drosophila / gender in crocodiles ;
• ref. UV light and melanin production ;
• ref. wavelength of light and, flowering / germination / fruit colour ;
• other named trigger plus example ;
• environment effect usually greater on polygenes / ora ;
• environment may induce mutation affecting phenotype ;

(b) Explain how meiosis and fertilisation can result in genetic variation amongst offspring. [7]
• chiasma / crossing over ;
• between non-sister chromatids ;
• of, homologous chromosomes / bivalent ;
• in prophase 1 ; linked to 1
• exchange of genetic material / AW ; Rgenes unqualified
• linkage groups broken ;
• new combination of alleles ;
• independent assortment ; Rrandom assortment
• metaphase 1 ; linked to 8
• detail of independent assortment ;
• possible mutation ;
• random mating ;
• random fusion of gametes ;

41(a) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [8]
• allopatric speciation ;
• geographical isolation / spatial separation ;
• e.g. of barrier ;
• e.g. of organism ; must relate to 3
• sympatric speciation ;
• example ;
• meiosis problems ;
• polyploidy ;
• behavioural / temporal / ecological / structural, isolation ;
• (isolated) populations, prevented from interbreeding / can only breed
• amongst themselves ;
• no, gene flow / gene mixing, (between populations) ;
• different selection pressures operate ;
• natural selection ;
• change in allele frequencies ;
• different gene pool ;
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 • over time (differences prevent interbreeding) ;
• reproductively isolated ;

(b) Describe and explain, using an example, the process of artificial selection. [7]
• humans ; must be linked to, choosing / selecting / mating etc
• parents with desirable feature ;
• e.g. organism and feature ;
• bred / crossed ;
• select offspring with desirable feature ;
• repeat over many generations ;
• increase in frequency of desired allele(s) / decrease in frequency of
• undesired allele(s) ;
• background genes ;
• loss of hybrid vigour / increase in homozygosity / ref. inbreeding depression ;
AVP; e.g. detail of breeding techniques [7 max]

42 (a). Explain the benefits of maintaining biodiversity. [4]

• cultural / aesthetic / leisure, reasons ;
• moral / ethical, reasons ; e.g. right to exist / prevent extinction
• resource material ; e.g. wood for building / fibres for clothes / food for
• humans
• ecotourism ;
• economic benefits ;
• ref. resource / species, may have use in future / AW ; e.g. medical use
• maintains, food webs / food chains ; A description
• nutrient cycling / protection against erosion ;
• climate stability ;
• maintains, large gene pool / genetic variation ;

(b) Describe the first division of meiosis (meiosis I) in animal cells. [6]

• reduction division / (to) halve number of chromosomes / diploid to haploid / AW ;

• homologous chromosomes pair up / bivalents form ;
• ref. chiasmata / ref. crossing over ;
• homologous chromosome pairs / bivalents, line up on equator ;
• independent assortment ;
• spindle / microtubules, attached to centromeres ;
• chromosomes of each pair pulled to opposite poles ;
• by shortening of, spindle / microtubules ;
• nuclear envelopes re-form ;
• cytokinesis / AW ;

43 (a) Describe how crossing over and independent assortment can lead to genetic variation. [9]
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 • occur during meiosis I ;
• crossing over
• between non-sister chromatids ;
• of, (a pair of) homologous chromosomes / a bivalent ;
• in prophase 1 ;
• at chiasma(ta) ;
• exchange of genetic material / AW ;R genes unqualified
• linkage groups broken / AW ;
• new combination of alleles (within each chromosome) ;
• independent assortment
• of homologous chromosomes pairs / bivalents ;
• each pair lines up independently of others ;
• line up on equator ;
• (during) metaphase 1 ;
• results in gametes that are genetically unique / AW ;
(b) Describe how genetic variation in secondary oocytes arises. [6]
• During / prophase 1;
• Crossing over/ chiasmata formation occurs
• Leads to new combination of alleles;
• During metaphase 1;
• Homologous chromosomes position themselves either way up/ down on equator of
spindles/ AW
• Independent assortment
• Segregation occurs;
44 (a) Explain the different energy values of carbohydrate, lipid and protein as respiratory
substrates.[6]
• idea of lipid > protein > carbohydrate / AW ; A lipid has more energy thaneither
protein or carbohydrate
• comparative figures ; e.g. 39.4, 17.0 and 15.8 accept any two
• kJ g-1 / per unit mass ;
• more hydrogen atoms in molecule, more energy ;
• lipid have more, hydrogen atoms / C-H bonds ;
• (most) energy comes from oxidation of hydrogen to water ;
• using reduced, NAD / FAD ;
• in ETC ;
• detail of ETC ;
• ATP production

(b) Describe the structure and synthesis of ATP and its universal role as the energy currency in all living
organisms. [8]
• nucleotide ;
• adenine + ribose / pentose + three phosphates ;
• loss of phosphate leads to energy release / hydrolysis releases
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 • 30.5 kJ ;
• ADP + Pi ↔ ATP (reversible reaction) ;
• synthesised during, glycolysis / Krebs cycle / substrate level
• phosphorylation ;
• synthesised, using electron carriers / oxidative phosphorylation /
• photophosphorylation ;
• in, mitochondria / chloroplasts ;
• ATP synthase / ATP synthetase ;
• chemiosmosis / description;
• used by cells as immediate energy donor ;
• link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions / AW ;
• active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle / protein synthesis

(a) Describe the transfer of energy to ATP during photosynthesis [6]

• light absorbed by chlorophyll
• An electron from P700 orP680 is boosted to a higher energy level when light strikes
the photosystem;
• the electron which acquires excitation is is accepted by electron acceptor x or y .
• The electrone acceptor x or y become reduced and chlorophylls become oxidized
with positive change.
• The electrons with the excess energy of oxidation are very unstable tend to fall down
to their ground state .
• The electrons then in terms of energy via a series of electrons acceptors.
• The excess energy lose when they fall back to the ground state is coupled is coupled
in the production of ATP.
• The positive change left in the p680 contribute to to the photochemical lysis of water
which releases electrons which lost from electron acceptor X .
• Electrons flow X along a chain of electron carries loosing energy [used to
phospholyate ADP to ATP ] FILLING THE HOLE LEFT IN p700 ,electrons also pass
down from Y to NADP along a chain a chain of electron carries to and combine with
hydrogen ions from water to form reduced NADP.
• This is called non cyclic photophosphorylation .
• In cycle photophosphorylation electrons from Y are recycled to P700 via a electron
chain carries results in ATP being formed

(b) Outline the process of the photolysis of water and describe what happens to the products of
photolysis. [8]
• PII absorbs light;
• enzyme (in PII) involved;
• to break down water / AW;
• 2H2O 4H+ + 4e– + O2;
• oxygen is produced;
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 • used by cells for (aerobic) respiration;
• or released (out of plant) through stomata;
• protons used to reduce NADP;
• with electrons from PI;
• reduced NADP used in, light independent stage / Calvin cycle;
• to convert GP to TP;
• electrons also used in ETC;
• to release energy for photophosphorylation;
• to produce ATP;
• electrons (from PII) go to PI;
• ref. re-stabilise PI;
46 (a) Outline/ describe the main features/reactions of the Calvin Cycle. [9]
• RuBP 5C;
• combines with carbon dioxide;
• rubisco;
• to form an unstable 6C compound;
• which forms 2 X GP (PGA);
• ATP;
• energy source
• and reduced NADP;
• forms TP (GALP);
• TP used to form glucose / carbohydrates 1 lipids / amino acids;
• TP used in regeneration of RuBP
• requires ATP;
• as source of phosphate;
• light independent;
• Grana increase surface area for light absorption

(b) describe the arrangement and location of chloroplast pigments and discuss their effect on absorption
spectra. [8]

• chlorophyll a is primary pigment ;

• carotenoids / chlorophyll b, is accessory pigment ;
• arranged in, light harvesting clusters / photosystems ; A antenna complex
• on, grana / thylakoids ;
• ref. PI and PII ; A P700 and P680
• primary pigment / chlorophyll a, in reaction centre ;
• accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b, surround primary pigment ;
• light energy absorbed by, accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b ;
• (energy) passed on to, primary pigment / chlorophyll a / reaction centre ;
• chlorophyll a and b absorb light in red and blue/violet region ;
• carotenoids absorb light in blue/violet region ;
• ref. absorption spectrum peaks ;
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 • diagram of absorption spectrum ;
• different combinations of pigments (in different plants) give different spectra

47 (a) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [8]
• closely packed -- to absorb more incident light / AW ;
• palisade mesophyll near upper surface of leaf -- to maximize light interception ;
• . arranged at right angles to leaf surface -- to reduce number of light absorbing walls ;
• cylindrical cells -- producing air spaces between cells ;
• air spaces -- act as reservoir of carbon dioxide ;
• large surface area -- for gas exchange ;
• cell walls thin -- so short diffusion pathway ;
• large vacuole -- pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
• chloroplasts on periphery -- to absorb light more efficiently ;
• large number of chloroplasts -- to maximise light absorption ;
• chloroplasts can move within cells -- towards light ;
• chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity -- to avoid damage ;
• AVP ;
(b) Describe what happens to the pyruvate so that the krebs cycle can continue. [8]
• enters mitochondrion;
• active uptake / ATP used;
• into matrix;
• link reaction;
• decarboxylation / carbon dioxide released / AW;
• dehydrogenation / AW;
• reduced NAD formed;
• forms acetyl coenzyme A / combines with coenzyme A; A Co A
• combines with oxaloacetate / forms citrate;

48 (a) Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]

• coenzyme;
• for dehyrogenase;
• reduced;
• carries electrons;
• and protons/H+/H/hydrogen; R H2/hydrogen molecules
• from Krebs cycle;
• and from glycolysis;
• to cytochromes/electron transfer chain;
• reoxidised/regenerated;
• ATP produced;
• 3/2.5 (molecules of ATP) per reduced NAD;

(b) Describe the main features of the Krebs Cycle. [9]

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 • matrix;
• of mitochondrion;
• acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate;
• to form citrate;
• 4C to 6C;
• decarboxylation/produce CO2;
• dehydrogenation/oxidation;
• 2CO2 released;
• reduced NAD produced; accept reduced coenzyme for one mark - annotate 9/10
• reduced FAD produced;
• ATP produced;
• series of steps/intermediates;
• enzyme catalysed reactions;
• oxaloacetate regenerated;
• AVP;

49. Receptors are often described as biological transducers, structures which convert energy from one
form into another.
(a) Explain how receptors in mammals convert energy into action potentials. Use named examples of
receptors in your answers.
• rods / cones / retina / photoreceptors, detect light;
• taste buds / olfactory cells / chemoreceptors, detect chemicals;
• Pacinian / Meissner’s corpuscle / mechanoreceptors, detects pressure / touch;
• Ruffini’s endings in skin / thermoreceptors, detect temperature changes;
• proprioreceptors / stretch receptors in muscle, detect mechanical displacement /
AW;
• hair cells / AW, in semicircular canals detect movement;
• hair cells / stereocilia, in cochlea detect sound;
• baroreceptors detect blood pressure changes;
• osmoreceptors detect changes in blood water potential;
• stimulus causes sodium channels to open;
• sodium ions enter cell;
• depolarisation;
• receptor potential / generator potential;
• greater than threshold / all or nothing principle;
• increased stimulus leads to increased frequency of action potentials;
• AVP; e.g. hyperpolarisation in rod cell
• deformity of capsule in Pacinian corpuscle
(b) Describe the structure of a myelin sheath and explain its role in the speed of transmission of a nerve
impulse. [8]
• Schwann cells ;
• wrap around axon ;
• sheath mainly lipid ;
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 • (sheath) insulates axon (membrane) ;
• Na+ / K+, cannot pass through sheath / can only pass through
• membrane at nodes ;
• depolarisation (of axon membrane) cannot occur where there is
• sheath / only at nodes of Ranvier ;
• local circuits between nodes ;
• action potentials ‘jump’ between nodes ;
• saltatory conduction ;
• increases speed / reduces time, of impulse transmission ;
• up to 100 ms-1 ;
• speed in non-myelinated neurones about 0.5 ms-1
50 (a) Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse. [9]
• action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane ;
• calcium (ion) channels open / presynaptic membrane becomes more permeable to
Ca2+ ;
• Ca2+ flood into presynaptic neurone ; R membrane
• this causes vesicles of (neuro)transmitter to move towards presynaptic membrane ;
• ref. acetylcholine / ACh ;
• vesicle fuses with presynaptic membrane / exocytosis ;
• ACh released into synaptic cleft ;
• ACh diffuses across (cleft) ;
• ACh binds to receptor (proteins) / AW ;
• on postsynaptic membrane ; R neurone
• proteins change shape / channels open ;
• sodium ions rush into postsynaptic neurone ; R membrane
• postsynaptic membrane depolarised ;
• action potential / nerve impulse ;
• AVP ; e.g. action of acetylcholinesterase
(b) Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system. [6]
• ensure one-way transmission ;
• receptor (proteins) only in postsynaptic, membrane / neurone ; ora
• vesicles only in presynaptic neurone ; ora
• ref. adaptation ;
• increased range of actions ;
• due to interconnection of many nerve pathways ;
• ref. inhibitory synapses ;
• involved in memory / learning ;
• due to new synapses being formed ;
• AVP; e.g. summation / discrimination
51 (a) Describe the role of sodium ion channels in the transmission of a nerve impulse. [3]
• ref. to voltage-gated sodium ion channels / ref. ligand gated channels ;
• channels change shape (when, pd / voltage, changes) ;
• open when, membrane depolarises / action potential arrives / neurotransmitter
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 • binds to receptors ;
• sodium ions flood in ;
• diffuses / down concentration gradient ;
• channels close when membrane, repolarises / potential reaches +30mV ;
• ref. to sodium-potassium pump

(b) Describe how energy flows in an ecosystem. [8]

• source of energy, the sun
• sun to plants/producers
• conversion of light to chemical energy
• from plants/ producers to primary consumers
• examples of a food chain
• secondary to tertiary consumers
• loss of energy at each tropic level/loss as heat/ respiration /excretion/egestion to the
atmosphere
• dead and waste material to decomposers/destritus feeders to the atmosphere
• unidirectional flow of energy.
52 (a) Describe the role played by microorganisms in the Nitrogen cycle [6]
Emphasis should have been placed on specific organisms and the part they play in the Nitrogen cycle.
The following points are expected:
• saphrophytic bacteria/ fungi feed on dead organisms or waste/ decompose dead
organisms or waste
• releasing ammonium compounds /ammonia
• nitrifying bacteria/ nitrosomonas
• oxidize ammonia or ammonium compounds to nitrates.
• oxidation of nitrates to nitrates by free-living bacteria/ nitrobacter/ nitrococcus
• nitrigen fixing bacteria/ rhizobium/ mutualistic bluegreen bacteria/ nostoc/ free-
living green bacteria/ Azotobacter/ clostridium
• convert (gaseous) nitrogen into ammonia/nitrates
• denitrificans
• converts nitrates (in the soil)into gaseous nitrogen.
(b) Explain the role of nitrifying bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle.
• convert , ammonium / NH4+ , to , nitrate III / nitrite / NO2- ; A ammonia / NH3
• nitrite , converted to , nitrate (V) / NO3- ;
• A one mark for single step ‘ammonium to nitrate (V)’
• requires , aerobic conditions / oxygen / aerated soil ;
• (nitrate (V) ions) can be , taken up / used , by plants ;
(c) Explain the role denitrifying bacteria in the Nitrogen cycle.
• remove nitrate (V) (ions) / convert nitrate (V) (ions) to nitrogen (gas) ;
• in , anaerobic conditions / oxygen poor soil / non-aerated soil ;
• recycles nitrogen / further use of nitrogen (by fixing) ;
• prevents nitrogen being trapped / AW ;
53 (a) Discuss the use and effects of nitrogen containing fertisers in agriculture. [8]
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 • Nitrogen containing fertilizers increase yields
• When a farmer rotate crops nitrogen containing fertilizers do not cause much harm
• When a farmer applies the correct amount of fertilizer no harm occurs;
• Problem arises when excess fertilizer are applied;
• Excess application of fertilizer causes eutrophication of water bodies
• Eutrophication of water bodies cause algal blooms;
• Algal blooms decompose and reduce the amount of oxygen in water bodies;
• Cause death of aquatic organisms;
• Due to lack of oxygen;
• Fertilizer apply no harm occurs when fert application crop is actively growing
/correct time
• Soil becomes acidic and this affects the crumb structure of the soil;

(b) Discuss the Conservation of the African elephant, L. Africana and African cyclotis, with
regard to population numbers, reasons of concern, measures introduced and international co-operation.
[8]
On population
• no serious predators except man
• poaching main problem
• dropped (from +1.0 million to +500 000)
Reasons for concern
• elephant complete with man for land used in agriculture/forestry/settlement/
destruction of vegetation by elephants
• elephant killed for ivory
• mostly males for bigger tasks
Measures introduced
• ban elephant poaching
• sustainable management programme
• culling
• ref to camfire
• ban on illegal trade of elephant products (by CITES)
International co-operation
• ref CITES difficult for all countries to agree on total ban/ culling measures/ sale and
marketing of animal products
• ref to tourism and conservation agreements between countries.

54 (a) outline the reasons why conservationists are concerned about the population of the African
elephant, loxodonta Africana. [8]
• low population of elephants/ref to extinction
• population falling rapidly
• loss of genetic diversity
• conversion of suitable areas of habitat to agricultural use/AW/Human population
rising rapidly
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 • high value of ivory/porverty makes poaching of ivory attractive
• disruption of elephant families/ elephants have a matriachical family system;
elephants threaten human life
• elephants destoy trees/crops/water installations
• AVP

(b) Explain how changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may affect the amino acid sequence in a
protein. [7]
• code is three, bases / nucleotides ; A triplet code
• (gene) mutation ; R chromosome mutation
• base, substitution / addition / deletion ;
• addition / deletion, large effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
• frame shift ;
• completely new code after mutation / alters every 3 base sequence which follows ;
• (substitution) often has no effect / silent mutation ;
• different triplet but same amino acid / new amino acid in non-functional part of
protein ;
• (substitution) may have big effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
• could produce ‘stop’ codon ;
• sickle cell anaemia / PKU / cystic fibrosis ;
• reference to transcription or translation in correct context ; A description
• AVP ; e.g. protein produced, is non-functional / not produced / incomplete [7 max]

55. (a) Describe the ways by which gene mutations can occur. [6]
• change in, base / nucleotide, sequence (in DNA) ;
• during DNA replication ;
• detail of change ; e.g. base, substitution / addition / deletion
• frame shifts / AW ;
• different / new, allele ;
• random / spontaneous ;
• mutagens ;
• ionising radiation ;
• UV radiation / mustard gas ;

(b) Outline the need for energy in living organisms using named examples. [9]
• ATP as universal energy currency ;
• light energy needed for photosynthesis ;
• ATP used conversion of GP to TP ;
• ATP used to regenerate RuBP ;
• (energy needed for) anabolic reactions ;
• protein synthesis / starch formation / triglyceride formation ;
• activation energy ;
• (activate) glucose in glycolysis ;
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 • active transport ;
• example ; e.g. sodium / potassium pump
• movement / locomotion ;
• example ; e.g. muscle contraction / cilia beating
• endocytosis / exocytosis / pinocytosis / bulk transport ;
• temperature regulation;

56 (a) Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by genetic
engineering. [6]

• constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply;

• less risk of contamination/infection;
• identical to insulin produced in the body;
• less/no risk of allergic reaction;
• does not stimulate the immune system;
• fewer side effects;
• can be produced without the killing of animals/ethical reason;
• cheaper/easier to extract and purify;
• more available/large amount;
• more rapid response;

(b) Describe the use of recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human insulin by
bacteria [9]
• mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin;
• from beta cells of islets of Langerhans/pancreas;
• reference to reverse transcriptase;
• to cDNA;
• reference PCR/DNA polymerase/double strand;
• reference sticky ends/AW;
• use of vector/virus/plasmid;
• reference endonuclease/restriction enzymes;
• to cut plasmid;
• reference DNA ligase to join DNA;
• inserted into suitable host cell/[Link]/bacteria;
• reference method of insertion;
• identification of modified bacteria;
• reference growth/culture of engineered bacteria in fermenters;

57 (a) Explain why mammalian cells are used as host cells in recombinant DNA technology during
production of human factor VIII
• human genes contain exons and introns
• mammalian cells have enzymes to remove introns/ enzymes for methylation and
splicing of mRNA;
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 • mammalian cells have enzymes / Golgi apparatus for post –translational modification;
• presence of human regulator genes

(b) State any biological methods other than the use of plasmids; of introducing genes into host cells.
• Liposome transfer
• Electroporation
• Microinjection/ micropipette;
• a DNA gun fires tungsten or gold particles coated with DNA
• ballistic impregnation
• use of vectors

(b) Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and outline its function in a plant cell. [6]
• 0.5–1.0 μm, diameter / width ;
• double membrane ;
• inner membrane folded / cristae ;
• hold, stalked particles / ATP synthase / ATP synthetase ;
• site of ETC ;
• ref. H+ and intermembrane space ;
• ATP production ;
• oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
• matrix is site of, link reaction / Krebs cycle ;
• enzymes in matrix ;
• 70S ribosomes ;
• (mitochondrial) DNA ;
• They are envelope bound and the inner membrane folds to form cristae.
• It consists of a matrix with few ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule and phosphate
granules.
• In aerobic respiration, cristae are the sites for oxidative phosphorylation and electron
transport chain.
• Matrix is the site for Krebs’s cycle of enzymes.

(c) with reference to a named example, describe one model of enzyme action. [6]
• Enzyme are very specific
• They have a particular shape into which the substrate or substrate fit e.g. the enzyme
amylase will only act on starch converting it to maltose
• Although the enzyme molecule is large, overall, only a small region of it is functional.
• This is known as the active site.
• Active site-small hollow depression
• Substrate –molecule on which enzyme acts e.g starch for the enzyme salvary amylase
• Substrate fits into depression to form an enzyme- substrate complex
• Substrate molecule is held within the active site by bonds that form between certain
amino acids and the active site

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 • One model, the lock and key model proposes that enzymes work in the same way as a
key operates a lock
• Substrate only fit the active site of one particular enzyme e.g. starch on amylase only
• Shape of substrate exactly fits the active site.
59 (a) Outline the roles of water in living organisms [8]
The solvent properties of water
• To dissolve chemicals inside the cells/ metabolic reaction + place in aqeous solutions
• Uptake of mineral salts from soil
• Excretion of waste products dissolved in water e.g urine
• Water has high solvent of polar molecules e.g. ionic compounds like NaCL and non
ionic substances like sugar that contain polar group.
• On contact with water the ions and the polar group are surrounded by water
molecules which separate the molecules from each other.
• Biochemical reaction takes place in aqueous conditions.
• Water as a solvent acts as transport medium e.g. in blood, lymphatic system and xylem
and the phloem vessel.
High heat capacity
• Constant environment for aquatic plants
• Constant temperature in cell hence no denaturation of enzymes
• Cooling by evaporation
Contains of the cell do not freeze easily
o Water has high heat capacity i.e. (the total amount of water required to raise water
temperature of 1Kg of water by 1 degree.
o A large amount of heat energy results in a small rise in temperature.
o Temperature changes within water or aqueous unitary therefore minimized.
o Biochemical processes consequently operate over a small temperature range and are
less likely to be affected extremities of temperatures.
o Water also provides a very constant external environment for many cell and
organisms.
High heat of evaporation
o Latent of evaporation is the measure of vaporization is a measure of heat energy
required to vaporize a liquid.
• A large amount of water is required to make water vapour.
• This is due to hydrogen bonding of water molecules.
• Therefore water have usually high boiling point.
• Evaporating water as a result takes a lot of heat energy with them from the
surrounding thus cooling takes place.
• This is made use of in the transpiration, sweating and panting of mammals.
• High heat of evaporation also means that a large amount of heat can be lost with
minimal loss the body, plant etc.
High heat of fusion
• Latent heat of fusion is the measure of the heat energy required to melt a solid i.e. (ice)
• Ice requires a relative large amount of heat energy to thaw it.
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 • Conversely, liquid must loss a relative large amount of heat to freeze.
• Content of a cell and their environment are less likely to freeze.
Density and freezing properties
• Water has highest density at 4 degrees
• Its density increases as the temperature decreases
• Ice therefore tends to float.
• Ice insulates the water below it thus increasing survival chance of organisms below it.
• Since water below 4 degrees tend to rise, this also tends to maintain circulation in
lentx ecosystem.
• This may result in nutrient cycling and colonization of water to greater depth.

High surface tension and cohesion

• Cohesion is the force where individual molecules stick together at the surface, a force
called surface tension between the molecules as they try to occupy the least possible
space (ideally a sphere).
• Water has a higher surface tension which makes it possible for small organism to
skate over its surface.
• The high cohesion of water is important in cell and in the translocation of water in the
xylem vessel.
• Movement of water in the xylem
• Habitat for less dense aquatic organism
Water as a reagent
• Water is biological significant as an essential metabolite that is , it takes part in
chemical reaction of metabolism .

61 (a) outline the need for energy in living organisms. [8]

• Energy is defined as the capacity \ ability to do work.
• Living organisms require a constant supply of energy for them to keep working and
alive.
• Energy required by living organisms for :
• Anabolic reactions e.g growth.
• Active transport of sustains against concentration gradient.
• Phagocytosis, pinocytosis , exocytosis, endocytosis.
• Electrical transmission of nerve impulse.
• Mechanical, contraction of muscles.
• Maintainace of temperature heat from respiration.
• Bioluminescence.
• Electrical discharge
(b) Explain, using named examples, how mutation can affect phenotype. [6]
• gene) example ; (sickle cell / PKU )
• change in gene / DNA / base change ;
• different amino acid ;
• different polypeptide / different protein / non-functional protein ;
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 • AVP ; details
• AVP ; details
• (chromosome) example ; (Down’s, Turner’s syndromes)
• structural changes in chromosomes ;
• change in number of chromosomes ;
• change in sets of chromosomes / ref. polyploidy ;
• AVP ; details
• AVP ; details

(c) Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution. [6]
• individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;
• numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
• variation in members of population ;
• environmental factors / named factor (biotic or abiotic) ; linked to 17 and 18
• (cause) many, fail to survive / die / do not reproduce ;
• those best adapted survive / survival of the fittest ;
• (reproduce to) pass on alleles ; R genes
• genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
• ref: changes in, gene pool / allele frequency ;
• over time produces evolutionary change ;
• new species arise from existing ones / speciation ;
• directional / stabilising, selection ; [6 max]

62 (a) Describe how the structure of a chloroplast is related to its functions. [8]
• Are large organelles containing their own DNA and have a double membrane.
• Chloroplasts have a folded inner membrane which gives a greater surface area for
biochemical reactions to occur.
• Thylakoid membranes contains pigments/ electron carriers/ enzymes
• Used in cyclic and non – cyclic photophoshorilation/ light dependent reactions
• Stroma (contain enzymes) for the calvin cycle/ dark reaction
• Grana a network of proteins holding pigments into photosynthesis
• Light reactions on thylakoid which contain ATP/ stalked particles
• Membraine system separates the reactions of photosynthesis from other cell
reactions
• Stroma fluid which surrounds grana so that products light dependent stage can easily
pass into stroma.
• Contain DNA /ribosomes for manufacture of proteins needed for protein synthesis
• Granna are interconnected by membranes called lamella.

(b)Describe the molecular structure of starch. [6]

• Is a polymer of alpha glucose.
• It is an energy store in plant.
• It has two components which are amylase and amylopectin.
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 • Both are polymers of alpha glucose
• Amylase have a straight chain and the glucose residues are joined together by 1,4
glycosidic bond.
• Amylase forms 20% of starch
• These bonds cause the chains to coil helically into more compact shape.
• Amylopectin is also more compact as it have many branches formed by 1,4 and 1,6
glycosidic bonds .
• Coiled chains (may) contain 1 500 monomers with braches every ten (10) units
• Forms 80% of Starch
• As suspension of amylase in water gives a blue black colour with iodine (potassium
iodide) andamylopectin give a red violet colour .
(c) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [6]
• closely packed -- to absorb more incident light / AW ;
• palisade mesophyll near upper surface of leaf -- to maximize light interception ;
• . arranged at right angles to leaf surface -- to reduce number of light absorbing walls ;
• cylindrical cells -- producing air spaces between cells ;
• air spaces -- act as reservoir of carbon dioxide ;
• large surface area -- for gas exchange ;
• cell walls thin -- so short diffusion pathway ;
• large vacuole -- pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
• chloroplasts on periphery -- to absorb light more efficiently ;
• large number of chloroplasts -- to maximise light absorption ;
• chloroplasts can move within cells -- towards light ;

63 (a) Describe how crossing over and independent assortment can lead to genetic variation. [8]
• occur during meiosis I ;
• crossing over
• between non-sister chromatids ;
• of, (a pair of) homologous chromosomes / a bivalent ;
• in prophase 1 ;
• at chiasma(ta) ;
• exchange of genetic material / AW ;R genes unqualified
• linkage groups broken / AW ;
• new combination of alleles (within each chromosome) ;
• independent assortment
• of homologous chromosomes pairs / bivalents ;

(b) An enzyme, such as amylase, has a specific 3-dimensional [Link] how DNA structure
determines the specific shape of enzymes. [8]
• DNA codes for , protein / polypeptide ;
• transcription and translation (or described) ;
• enzyme is globular (protein) ;
• 3 bases 1 amino acid ;
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 • sequence of , bases / triplets , determines , sequence of amino acids / primary
• structure ;
• coiling / helix / pleated sheet / particular secondary structure ;
• determines projecting side groups ;
• folding / bonding , for tertiary structure ;
• 3-D structure is tertiary structure ;
• AVP ; e.g. ref. active site related to shape
• 2 or more genes produce quaternary structure
(c) Describe what happens to the pyruvate so that the krebs cycle can continue. [4]
• enters mitochondrion;
• active uptake / ATP used;
• into matrix;
• link reaction;
• decarboxylation / carbon dioxide released / AW;
• dehydrogenation / AW;
• reduced NAD formed;
• forms acetyl coenzyme A / combines with coenzyme A; A Co A
• combines with oxaloacetate / forms citrate;
(b)Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]
• coenzyme;
• for dehyrogenase;
• reduced;
• carries electrons;
• and protons/H+/H/hydrogen; R H2/hydrogen molecules
• from Krebs cycle;
• and from glycolysis;
• to cytochromes/electron transfer chain;
• reoxidised/regenerated;
• ATP produced;
• 3/2.5 (molecules of ATP) per reduced NAD;

(c) Describe the main features of the Krebs Cycle. [6]

• matrix;
• of mitochondrion;
• acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate;
• to form citrate;
• 4C to 6C;
• decarboxylation/produce CO2;
• dehydrogenation/oxidation;
• 2CO2 released;
• reduced NAD produced; accept reduced coenzyme for one mark - annotate 9/10
• reduced FAD produced;
• ATP produced;
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 • series of steps/intermediates;
• enzyme catalysed reactions;
• oxaloacetate regenerated;
• AVP;
(b) Describe the molecular structure of glycogen and explain how this structure makes it
suitable for storage. [4]
• polysaccharide
• chains of α-glucose (residues) ; only need α once
• α1–4 glycosidic bonds / links ;
• branches ;
• (because of) α 1–6 glycosidic bonds ; only need glycosidic once
• idea that many ‘ends’ to easily, add / remove, glucose ;
• compact / AW ;
• insoluble ;
• will not affect, water potential / ψ ; AW
• AVP ;
69 (a) Describe the role of the ribosome in translation. [4]
• ref. to, attachment / AW, to mRNA ;
• idea of two codon attachment, sites / space, for six bases or nucleotides ;
• mRNA has code for sequence of amino acids (in a polypeptide) ;
• (ribosome) provides sites for attachment of two tRNA (molecules) ;
A implied
• each tRNA has a specific amino acid / AW ;
• (mRNA) codon – anticodon (tRNA), binding ;
A description in terms of complementary base pairing
A ‘matching’
• formation of peptide bonds (catalysed by peptidyl transferase) ;
• idea of ribosome moving along mRNA one codon at a time ;

(b)Explain why ATP is regarded as the universal energy currency in organisms. [5]
• found in all organisms ;
• loss of phosphate / hydrolysis, leads to, energy release /release of 30.5 kJ (per mole)
• ADP + Pi ATP / reversible reaction ;
• small packets of energy ;
• small / water soluble, so can move around cell ;
• (used by cells as) immediate energy donor ;
• link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions / AW ;
• high turnover ;
• example of use ; e.g. active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle /
• protein synthesis

70 (a) Describe how crossing over and independent assortment can lead to genetic variation [9]
 occur during meiosis I ;crossing over
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 • between non-sister chromatids ;
• of, (a pair of) homologous chromosomes / a bivalent ;
• in prophase 1 ;
• at chiasma(ta) ;
• exchange of genetic material / AW ;
• R genes unqualified
• linkage groups broken / AW ;
• new combination of alleles (within each chromosome) ;
• independent assortment
• of homologous chromosomes pairs / bivalents ;
• each pair lines up independently of others ;
• line up on equator ;
• (during) metaphase 1 ;
• results in gametes that are genetically unique / AW ;

71 (a) Outline the process of the photolysis of water and describe what happens to the
products of photolysis. [10]
 PII absorbs light ;
 enzyme (in PII) involved ;
 to break down water / AW ;
 2H2O 4H+ + 4e– + O2 ;
 oxygen is produced ;
 used by cells for (aerobic) respiration ;
 or released (out of plant) through stomata ;
 protons used to reduce NADP ;
 with electrons from PI ;
 reduced NADP used in, light independent stage / Calvin cycle ;
 to convert GP to TP ;
 electrons also used in ETC ;
 to release energy for photophosphorylation ;
 to produce ATP ;
 electrons (from PII) go to PI ;
 ref. re-stabilise PI ;

(b) The enzyme nitrogenase is found in free-living and symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Nitrogenase
catalyses the reaction:
N2 (g) + 6 e– + 8H+(aq) 2NH4+(aq)
Some nitrogenase enzymes have vanadium ions in their active sites; others have molybdenum ions.
Explain how the enzyme nitrogenase functions in the fixation of nitrogen. [4]
• nitrogen and hydrogen / substrates, bind to / AW, active site ;
• enzyme-substrate complex (forms) ;

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 • ref. lock and key / induced fit, mechanism ;
• activation energy of reaction is lowered ;
• example of how activation energy lowered ;
e.g. strain on (triple) bond of, N2
• / (di)nitrogen
A bond broken between nitrogen (atoms)
• nitrogen and hydrogen ions held close together for bond formation
transfer of electrons
alternative pathway
• product / NH4
• +, leaves active site ;
• ATP, required / used / provided from respiration ;
• ref. anaerobic conditions for enzyme action ;
• suggestion as to use of, vanadium / molybdenum, in active site ;
• e.g. act as cofactor / coenzyme
• transfer of, electrons / protons

82 (a) Explain the need to maintain biodiversity in an ecosystem such as a tropical rainforest. [7]
• cultural/aesthetic / leisure, reasons;
• moral/ethical, reasons ; e.g. right to exist/prevent extinction;
• resource material ; e.g. wood (for building)/fibres for clothes/food for
• humans/(herbal) medicine
• (eco)tourism;
• economic benefits;
• ref. resource / species, may have use in future/AW;
• e.g. medical use
• maintains, food webs / food chains;
• A description
• nutrient cycling;
• protection against erosion;
• climate stability;
• maintains, (large) gene pool/genetic variation;
• scientific research;
(b)Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of captive breeding programmes for mammals.
[8]
Advantages (max 5)
• can monitor health of mother;
• can monitor development of foetus;
• storage of, sperm/eggs/gametes;
• artificial insemination;
• IVF;
• ref. surrogate mothers;
• international cooperation;
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 • . genetic records kept;
• can prevent extinction/extend range of a species/used in restoring ecosystem;
disadvantages (max 5)
• unnatural environment;
• stress in captivity;
• behavioural changes;
• reproductive cycles disrupted;
• may reject selected mate;
• examples of problems with release ;;
• difficulty in finding food
• may not integrate into groups
• more susceptible to disease
• very little natural habitat left to release animals into[max 8]
83(a) Explain how the physiology of the leaves of a C4 plant, such as maize, is adapted for
efficient carbon fixation at high temperatures. [7]
• in C3 plants at high temperature
• rubisco combines with oxygen;
• less rubisco to combine with CO2;
• in C4 plant such as maize
• idea of spatial separation of light-dependent stage from carbon fixation;
• rubisco/RuBP, in bundle sheath cells;
• kept away from, oxygen/air;
• mesophyll cells, absorb CO2;
• CO2 released to combine with RuBP;
• avoid/reduce, photorespiration;
• high optimum temperatures of enzymes involved;
• Calvin cycle can continue;
• AVP ; e.g. CO2 reacts with PEP
• PEP carboxylase [max 7]

(c)Describe how, in photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy, in the form of ATP.
[8]
• light energy absorbed by chlorophyll;
A photosystems/pigments
• electron, excited/raised to higher energy level;
• (electron) emitted by chlorophyll;
A photosystems/pigments
• passes to electron, acceptor/carrier;
• passes along, chain of electron carriers/ETC/Electron Transfer Chain;
• energy released used to pump protons;
ATP production here
• into thylakoid space;
• thylakoid membrane impermeable to protons;
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 • proton gradient forms;
• protons move down gradient;
• through/using, ATP synthase/ATP synthetase;R ATPase
• enzyme rotates;
• ATP produced from ADP and Pi; [max 8]
84 (a) Describe how the two nucleotide chains in DNA are bonded together.
o hydrogen bonds between bases ;
o complementary (base pairs) ;
o purine to pyrimidine ;
o A to T and C to G ;
o H bonds between A and T / 3 H bonds between C and G ;
o DNA polymerase ;

(b)Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis.
 closely packed to absorb more of incident light / idea ;
 columnar shape / arranged at right angles to surface of leaf, to reduce number of light
absorbing cross walls ;
 large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
 chloroplasts on periphery of cell, short (diffusion) path for carbon dioxide ;
 chloroplasts on periphery of cell to absorb light ;
 large number of chloroplasts / much chlorophyll, to absorb light ;
 chloroplasts can move within cells to absorb as much light as possible ;
 chloroplasts can move to prevent damage (in high light intensity) ;
 cylindrical cells resulting in air spaces ;
 air spaces (between cells) to allow circulation of gases ;
 large surface area for, gas exchange / diffusion ;
 cell walls are thin, so short diffusion pathway / (greater) light penetration ;
 air spaces act as reservoir of carbon dioxide ;
 AVP ; e.g. non pigmented vacuole to allow light penetration
 ref to any chloroplast adaptation qualified

85 (a) Describe in detail how chloroplasts are specialised for photosynthesis

• large surface area of chloroplast, qualified; e.g. biconvex shape

• grana / thylakoid(s) (membranes), give large surface area;
• site of, light dependent reactions / photophosphorylation;
• ref to energy, transduction / conversion;
• chlorophyll / pigments, for light absorption / lose excited electrons;
• ref to wavelengths absorbed by chlorophyll (blue + red or 450 + 680 nm);
• ref to (orientation of) chlorophyll in membrane;
• other photosynthetic pigments / named pigment(s);
• absorb different wavelengths of light;

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 • arranged into photosystems / light harvesting complexes (or clusters);
• A quantasomes;
• chlorophyll (a) molecule at centre of, photosystem / reaction centre;
• pigments ‘funnel’ electrons to centre of photosystem (idea of antennae / AW);
• electron carriers / ETC system, in membrane;
• proton pumps / chemiosmosis / ref to movement of hydrogen ions / protons
• into thylakoid space / AW;
• ATP production / synthetase / ATP ase;
• NADP present;
• Calvin cycle / light independent stage, enzymes in stroma;
• ref to rubisco;
• ref to storage of starch or lipid;
• ref DNA / ribosomes, making proteins;
• AVP; e.g. double membrane qualified
• photosystem 1 and 2 have different absorption peaks

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