Soil Chemistry

BS Civil Engineering
Nature and Composition of Soil
Importance of soil:
● Production of food
● Maintaining the balance of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus
● Construction of building materials, etc.
Nature and Composition of Soil
• The chemical nature of the soil is that it is a mixture of:
• Weathered rocks and minerals;
• Decayed plants and animal material (humus and detritus); and
• Small living organisms which include plants, animals, and
bacteria.
• Soil also consists of water and air.
Nature and Composition of Soil
• A typical productive soil has a
solid fraction of almost five
(5) percent organic matter and
ninety-five (95) percent
inorganic matter.
• There are other soils which
has as at least one (1) percent
organic matter but some soil
Peat soil consists of partially decomposed organic
such as peat soils may contain matter, derived mostly from plant material, which
as much as ninety-five (95) has accumulated under conditions of waterlogging,
oxygen deficiency, high acidity, and nutrient
percent organic matter. deficiency.
Distinctive Layers of a Typical Soil
• The topsoil which is the top layer of soil is several inches in
thickness. Maximum biological activity in the soil happens in this
layer. This layer also contains most of the soil organic matter
and is important in the productivity of plants.
Distinctive Layers of a Typical Soil
• The subsoil may contain some broken-down organic matter,
but it is mostly made of weathered rocks and clay minerals.
Plants send their roots into both of these layers to find water
stored in the soil and to find nutrients that they need to grow
and to use for photosynthesis.
Distinctive Layers of a Typical Soil
• The subsoil may contain some broken-down organic matter,
but it is mostly made of weathered rocks and clay minerals.
Plants send their roots into both of these layers to find water
stored in the soil and to find nutrients that they need to grow
and to use for photosynthesis.
• Bedrock is the hard, solid rock beneath surface materials such
as soil and gravel.
Distinctive Layers of a Typical Soil
Water and Air in Soil
• Water is part of the three-
phase, solid−liquid−gas
system making up soil. It is
the basic transport medium
for carrying essential plant
nutrients from solid soil
particles into plant roots and
to the farthest reaches of the
plant’s leaf structure.
Water and Air in Soil
• The water in a plant
evaporates into the
atmosphere from the plant’s
leaves, a process called
transpiration.
Water and Air in Soil
• Water
• The water phase is not totally independent of soil and matter
because of the presence of small capillaries and pores in the soil and
generally because of its small size particles.
• Water present in larger spaces of soil is relatively more available
to plants and readily drains away.
Water and Air in Soil
• Water
• Soils containing high organic matter may hold more water than
other soils, but it is somewhat less available to plants because of
physical and chemical sorption of the water by the organic
matter.
• A much strong interaction between clays and water in soil do
exist, clay particles absorbed water on its surface.
Water and Air in Soil
• Water
• Large amount of water may be bound in this manner because of
the high surface/volume ratio of colloidal clay particles.
• But as soil becomes saturated with water, there will be a direct
change in its physical, chemical, and biological properties.
• Oxygen in such soil is immediately consumed by the respiration
of microorganisms that causes degradation of organic matter in
soil.
Water and Air in Soil
• Water
• The bonds holding soil colloidal particles together are broken,
which causes disruption of soil structure.
• It is known that the excess water in such soils is detrimental to
plant growth, and the soil does not contain the air required by
most plant roots.
• Most important crops (exception of rice) cannot grow on soil
soaked with water.
The Inorganic Components of Soil
• The formation of inorganic colloids from the inorganic soil
components is produced from the weathering of parent rocks
and minerals.
• These colloids are repositories of water and plant nutrients that
can be made available to plants as needed.
• Inorganic soil colloids play a role in the detoxification of
substances that could harm plants because these colloids often
absorb toxic substances in soils.
The Inorganic Components of Soil
• What are colloids?
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture whose particle size is
intermediate between those of a solution and a suspension. The
dispersed particles are spread evenly throughout the dispersion
medium, which can be a solid, liquid, or gas.
• Examples are fog, smog, spray, smoke, and dust in the air, milk,
and mayonnaise.
The Inorganic Components of Soil
• In determining soil productivity, the abundance and nature of
inorganic colloidal material in soil are certainly an important
aspect.
• The uptake of plant nutrients by roots often involves complex
interactions with the water and inorganic phases.
• For example, a nutrient held by inorganic colloidal material has
to traverse the mineral/water interface and then the water/root
interface. This process is often strongly influenced by the ionic
structure of soil inorganic matter.
The Inorganic Components of Soil
• The most common elements on the earth’s crust are:
• Oxygen
• Silicon
• Aluminum
• Iron
• Calcium
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Magnesium
• Therefore, minerals composed of these elements—particularly
silicon and oxygen—constitute most of the mineral fraction of
the soil.
The Inorganic Components of Soil
• Common soil mineral constituents are:
• Finely divided quartz: SiO2
• Orthoclase: KAlSi3O8
• Albite: NaAlSi3O8
• Epidote: Ca2(Al,Fe)Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
• Goethite: FeO(OH)
• Magnetite: Fe3O4
• Calcium and magnesium carbonates: CaCO3 and MgCO3
• Oxides of manganese and titanium.
Organic Matter in Soil
• Organic matter mostly determines soil productivity even
though it typically constitutes less than five percent of
productive soil.
• The importance of organic matter in soil are:
• Source of food for microorganisms,
• Undergoes ion exchange chemical reaction,
• Contribute to the weathering of mineral matter (the process by
which soil is formed)
• An example of this process is when oxalate ion (C2O42-) is
produced as a soil fungi metabolite which occurs in soil as the
calcium salts whewellite and weddellite.
Organic Matter in Soil
• Oxalate in soil dissolves minerals, therefore speeding the
weathering process and increasing the availability of nutrient
ion species. Oxalate complexation of iron or aluminum in
minerals which is involved in the weathering process is
expressed by the reaction:

• in which M is Al or Fe. Some soil fungi produce citric acid and

other chelating organic acids that react with silicate minerals
and release potassium and other nutrient metal ions held by
these minerals.
Organic Matter in Soil
• The build-up of organic matter in soil is greatly influenced by
temperature and by the availability of oxygen.
• Since the rate of biodegradation decreases with decreasing
temperature, organic matter does not degrade rapidly in colder
climates and tends to build up in soil.
Organic Matter in Soil
• In water and in waterlogged soils, decaying vegetation does not
have easy access to oxygen, and organic matter accumulates.
• The organic content may reach 90% in areas where plants grow
and decay in soil saturated with water.
Soil Humus
• Humus is composed of a base-soluble fraction called humic and
fulvic acids (an organic material that remains in the acidified
solution), and an insoluble fraction called humin (residue left
when bacteria and fungi biodegrade plant material).
Soil Humus
• Humic substances
• Has an influence on the properties of soil even though it has a small
percentage in soil composition.
• Have an acid-base character which serves as a buffers in soil, and
they significantly increase the water-holding capacity of soil.
• Strongly bind metals and serve to hold micronutrient metal ions in the
soil.
Soil Humus
• Soil solution
• Aqueous portion of soil that contains dissolved matter from the
chemical and biochemical processes in soil and from the exchange
with the hydrosphere and biosphere.
• Transports chemical species to and from soil particles and
provides contact between the solutes and the soil particles.
• Important pathway for the exchange of plant nutrients between
roots and solid soil aside from water which is vital for plant
growth.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• The mineral and organic portions of soils both exchange cations.
• Clay minerals undergo this process because of the presence of
negatively charged sites on the minerals resulting from the
substitution of an atom of lower oxidation number for one of
higher number (e.g., magnesium for aluminum).
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• Cation exchange in soil is the mechanism by which potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and essential trace-level metals are made
available to plants.
• When nutrient metal ions are taken up by plant roots, hydrogen
ion is exchanged for the metal ions.
• This process, plus the leaching of calcium, magnesium, and
other metal ions from the soil by water containing carbonic acid,
tends to make the soil acidic:
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• The buffering capacity of soil depends upon its type wherein
the soil acts as a buffer and resists changes in pH.
• Most common plants grow best in soil with a pH near neutrality. If
the soil becomes too acidic for optimum plant growth, it may be
restored to productivity by liming through the addition of
calcium carbonate:
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• In areas of low rainfall, soils may become too basic (alkaline)
due to the presence of basic salts such as Na2CO3. Alkaline soils
may be treated with aluminum or iron sulfate, which release
acid during hydrolysis:
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• Sulfur added to soils is oxidized by bacterially mediated
reactions to sulfuric acid:

• And sulfur is used, therefore, to acidify alkaline soils.

Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• The concentrations of chemicals in soil are given in mass units:
• Parts per million (ppm)
• Milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg)
• Micrograms per kilogram (ug/kg)
• The units vary somewhat based on the magnitude of the mass
of chemicals present per unit mass (usually kilograms) of soil.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• For example, when dealing with carbon, the concentration is
usually given in percent because carbon generally accounts for
about 1 to 25% of soil material.
• On the contrary, when working with nutrient concentrations
(e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) units of milligrams per
kilogram are used.
• When working with many hazardous wastes, whose
concentrations are usually small, we use units of parts per
billion or micrograms per kilogram.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• The movement of ionic nutrients such as nitrate, ammonia, and
phosphate is governed by ion-exchange reactions.
• For example, sodium ions may be attached to the soil surface by
electrostatic interactions. If water containing calcium is passed
through the soil, the calcium will be preferentially exchanged
for the sodium according to this reaction.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• By this reaction, two sodium ions are released for every ion of
calcium exchanged; thus, maintaining the charge balance. Thus,
an important characteristic of soil is its exchange capacity.
• Exchange capacity is, essentially, the extent to which a unit
mass of soil can exchange a mass of a certain ion of interest.
• Exchange capacity (reported in units of equivalents of ions per
mass of soil) is an important characteristic of soil in terms of its
ability to leach ions such as magnesium, calcium, nitrate, and
phosphate.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• Another important process that occurs in soils is sorption.
Sorption is essentially the attachment of a chemical to either the
mineral or organic portions of soil particles and includes both
adsorption and absorption.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• With low concentrations of pollutants, sorption can be
described mathematically by a linear expression.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• The partition coefficients of various organic pollutants can vary
over at least eight orders of magnitude, depending
predominately on the chemical characteristics of the pollutant,
but also on the nature of the soil itself.
• With most neutral organic chemicals, sorption occurs
predominately on the organic fraction of the soil itself (as long
as the fraction of organic material on the soil is “significant”).
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
• In these cases,
Macro-Micronutrients in the Soil
• Macronutrients in Soil
• Elements that occur in substantial levels in plant biomass and
fluids are called macronutrients.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• The elements that are usually • These macronutrients can be
recognized as essential absorbed from the atmosphere
macronutrients include: (carbon, hydrogen, and
• Carbon hydrogen) while others which
• Phosphorus are also essential
• Hydrogen
macronutrients can be
obtained from soil. But
• Potassium
nitrogen, phosphorus, and
• Oxygen
potassium are commonly added
• Calcium
to soil as fertilizers.
• Nitrogen
• Magnesium
• Sulfur
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Calcium
• Calcium-deficient soils are relatively uncommon.
• Application of lime, a process used to treat acid soils provides a
more than adequate calcium supply for plants.
• Calcium uptake by plants and leaching by carbonic acid (H2CO3)
may produce a calcium deficiency in soil.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Calcium
• Acid soils may still contain an appreciable level of calcium which,
because of competition by hydrogen ions, is not available to
plants.
• Treatment of acid soil to restore the pH to near neutrality
generally remedies the calcium deficiency.
• In alkaline soils, the presence of high levels of sodium,
magnesium, and potassium sometimes produces calcium
deficiency because these ions compete with calcium for
availability to plants.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Sulfur
• Sulfur is assimilated by plants as the sulfate ion.
• Lack of sulfur in the soil does not support plant growth well,
largely because sulfur is a component of some essential amino
acids and of thiamin and biotin.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Sulfur
• Sulfate ion is generally present in the soil as immobilized
insoluble sulfate minerals or as soluble salts that are readily
leached from the soil and lost as soil water runoff.
• Unlike the case of nutrient cations such as potassium ion (K+),
little sulfate is adsorbed to the soil (i.e., bound by ion-exchange
binding), where it is resistant to leaching while still available for
assimilation by plant roots.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Nitrogen
• Organic nitrogen content in soil is over ninety percent (90%)
which is usually the product of the biodegradation of dead
plants and animals.
• It is eventually hydrolyzed to ammonium ions which can be
oxidized to nitrate ions by means of bacterial activities in the soil.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is an important component of proteins and other
constituents of living matter and its attachment to soil humus
(serves as a reservoir of nitrogen required by plants) is essential
in maintaining soil fertility. Whereas, nitrogen is not a
significant product of mineral weathering, unlike potassium or
phosphate.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Nitrogen
• Inorganic nitrogen from fertilizers and rainwater which is often
largely lost by leaching has the additional advantage that its rate
of decay then can release nitrogen to plants, roughly parallels
plant growth. This is of great help since nitrogen-fixing
organisms generally cannot supply sufficient nitrogen to meet
peak demand.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and other
constituents of living matter.
• Plants and cereals grown on nitrogen-rich soils not only provide
higher yields, but are often substantially richer in protein and,
therefore, more nutritious.
• Nitrogen is most generally available to plants as nitrate ion.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Nitrogen
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Phosphorous
• Phosphorus, like nitrogen must be present in a simple inorganic
form before it can be taken up by plants. Although it has a low
percentage of plant material still it is an important component of
plants.
• In the pH range that is present in most soils, dihydrogen
phosphate ion and hydrogen phosphate ion are the predominant
orthophosphate species.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Phosphorous
• Orthophosphate is most available to plants at pH values near
neutrality.
• It is believed that in relatively acidic soils, orthophosphate ions
are precipitated or sorbed by species of Al(III) and Fe(III). In
alkaline soils, orthophosphate may react with calcium carbonate
to form relatively insoluble hydroxyapatite:
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Phosphorous
• In general, because of these reactions, little phosphorus applied
as fertilizer leaches from the soil. This is important from the
standpoint of both water pollution and utilization of phosphate
fertilizers.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Potassium
• For potassium, its high levels are utilized by growing plants.
Potassium activates some enzymes, and it is also essential for
some carbohydrate transformations.
• Lack of potassium in soil can generally reduce crop yields. Due to
this, the higher the productivity of the crop, the more potassium will be
removed from the soil.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Potassium
• For potassium, its high levels are utilized by growing plants.
Potassium activates some enzymes, and it is also essential for
some carbohydrate transformations.
• Lack of potassium in soil can generally reduce crop yields. Due to
this, the higher the productivity of the crop, the more potassium will be
removed from the soil.
Macronutrients in the Soil
• Potassium
• When nitrogen fertilizers are added to soils to increase productivity, the
removal of potassium is enhanced. Therefore, potassium may become
a limiting nutrient in soils heavily fertilized with other nutrients.
Micronutrients in the Soil
• Essential plant micronutrients include:
• Boron
• Chlorine
• Copper
• Iron
• Manganese
• Molybdenum (for nitrogen fixation)
• Zinc
• Low levels of these elements are needed by plants, but usually higher
levels of these micronutrients are toxic to plants.
Micronutrients in the Soil
• Most of these elements function as components of essential
enzymes.
• Manganese, iron, chlorine, and zinc may be involved in
photosynthesis.
• It is possible that sodium, silicon, nickel, and cobalt may also be
essential nutrients for some plants.
Micronutrients in the Soil
• Iron and manganese occur in a number of soil minerals.
• Sodium and chlorine (as chloride) occur naturally in soil and
are transported as atmospheric particulate matter from marine
sprays. Some of the other micronutrients and trace elements are
found in primary (unweathered) minerals that occur in soil.
Micronutrients in the Soil
• Boron is substituted isomorphically for Si in some micas and is
present in tourmaline, a mineral with the formula

• Copper is isomorphically substituted for other elements in

feldspars, amphiboles, olivines, pyroxenes, and micas; it also
occurs as trace levels of copper sulfides in silicate minerals.
Micronutrients in the Soil
• Molybdenum occurs as molybdenite (MoS2)
• Vanadium is isomorphically substituted for Fe or Al in oxides,
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas.
• Zinc is present as the result of isomorphic substitution for Mg,
Fe, and Mn in oxides, amphiboles, olivines, and pyroxenes and
as trace zinc sulfide in silicates.
Micronutrients in the Soil
• Other trace elements that occur as specific minerals, sulfide
inclusions, or by isomorphic substitution for other elements in
minerals are:
• Chromium
• Cobalt
• Arsenic
• Selenium
• Nickel
• Lead
• Cadmium
Fertilizers
• Major components of crop fertilizers are:
• Nitrogen
• Phosphorus
• Potassium
• But magnesium, sulfate, and micronutrients may also be added.
Fertilizers
• Fertilizers are designated by number
• Six (6) for nitrogen (equivalent to 6%) expressed as N
• Twelve (12) for phosphorus (equivalent to 12%) expressed as
P2O5
• Eight (8) for potassium (equivalent to 8%) expressed as K2O.
• Farm manure corresponds to an approximately 0.5-0.24
fertilizer.
Fertilizers
• The anhydrous ammonia product has a very high nitrogen
content of 82%. It may be added directly to the soil, for which it
has a strong affinity because of its water solubility and
formation of ammonium ions:
Fertilizers
• A special equipment is needed because of the toxicity of
ammonia gas, that’s why the use of aqua ammonia which is a
thirty percent (30%) solution of NH3 in water must observe
greater safety.
• It is sometimes added directly to irrigation water. It should be
noted that ammonia vapor is toxic and NH3 is reactive in some
substances, and it is considered as a hazardous waste.
Fertilizers
• Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, is a common solid nitrogen fertilizer
which has 33.5% nitrogen.
• It is made by oxidizing ammonia over a platinum catalyst,
converting the nitric oxide product to nitric acid, and reacting
the nitric acid with ammonia.
• Although convenient for its application to soil, it requires
considerable care during manufacture and storage because it is
explosive.
Fertilizers
• One of the common problems that can be produced from the
use of fertilizer is water pollution from agricultural runoff
which is enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium from
fertilizers.
Fertilizers
• A process known as eutrophication can occur.
• It is the excessive growth of algae in the water body which is
caused by the nutrients in fertilizers. Due to this, there would be
algal biomass decay that will consume oxygen, and bodies of
water would be seriously damaged because of oxygen
depletion. As a non-point source of pollution, fertilizer runoff
presents a challenging environmental problem.
Pollutants from Livestock Production
• Livestock production generates significant amounts of
environmental pollutants.
• Livestock manure has a very high BOD and can rapidly deplete
oxygen when it gets into waterways.
• Decomposition of animal waste products produces inorganic
nitrogen that can contaminate water with potentially toxic
nitrate.
Pollutants from Livestock Production
• Inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus released to water from the
decomposition of livestock wastes can cause eutrophication of
water.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) released to the atmosphere from livestock
waste degradation can be an air pollutant.
• Methane generated in the anaerobic degradation of livestock
wastes is a potent greenhouse gas.
Pesticides and their Residues in Soil
• The following are four major concerns regarding pesticides in
soil that need to be considered with respect to their licensing
and regulation:
a. Carryover of pesticides and biologically active degradation
products to crops grown in later seasons
b. Biological effects on organisms in terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems including bioaccumulation and transfer through
food chains
c. Groundwater contamination
d. Effects on soil fertility
Pesticides and their Residues in Soil
• Herbicides are considered as the most common chemicals that
affect soil and organisms that it supports because the effectivity
of herbicides come into direct contact with soil.
Pesticides and their Residues in Soil
• It is well-studied that these pesticides and other foreign
compounds that remain in the soil for a long period of time
have their effects. Some are listed below:
a. The substances become increasingly resistant to the extraction
and desorption process
b. They become significantly less bioavailable to organisms
c. Overall toxicity is decreased
Wastes in Soil
• It is given that large quantities of waste products are received
by soil.
• Sulfur dioxide emitted in the burning of sulfur-containing fuels
ends up as sulfate in soil.
• Nitrogen oxides from the atmosphere that are converted to
nitrates are eventually deposited in soil.
• Particulate lead from the exhaust of an automobile is found at
high concentrations in soil along heavily traveled highways.
Also, elevated levels of heavy metals from mines and smelters
are found on soil near such facilities.
Wastes in Soil
• Soil is the receptor of many hazardous wastes from landfill
leachate, lagoons, and other sources.
• In some cases, land farming of degradable hazardous organic
wastes is practiced as a means of disposal and degradation. The
degradable material is worked into the soil, and soil microbial
processes bring about its degradation.
Wastes in Soil
• Natural organic matter, primarily humic substances, has a
relatively high affinity for organic contaminants and heavy
metal ions.
• Many soils contain elemental carbon, black carbon, material in
the ash left over from the burning of crop residues, including
sugarcane trash, wheat straw, and rice straw. This material is
probably an important repository of organic contaminants in
soil.
Wastes in Soil
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, toluene,
xylenes, dichloromethane, trichloroethane, and
trichloroethylene, may contaminate soil in industrialized and
commercialized areas, particularly in countries in which
enforcement of regulations is not very stringent.
• Some of the sources of these VOCs are:
• Leaking underground storage tanks
• Landfills built before current stringent regulations were enforced
• Improperly discarded solvents
Soil Loss and Degradation
• Soil is a fragile resource that can be lost by erosion or become so
degraded that it is no longer useful to support crops.
• The physical properties of soil and, hence, its susceptibility to
erosion, are strongly affected by the cultivation practices to
which the soil is subjected.
Soil Loss and Degradation
• Desertification refers to the process associated with drought
and loss of fertility by which soil becomes unable to grow
significant amounts of plant life.
• Desertification involves a number of interrelated factors,
including erosion, climate variations, water availability, loss of
fertility, loss of soil humus, and deterioration of soil chemical
properties.
Soil Loss and Degradation
• A related problem is deforestation and, the loss of forests. The
problem is particularly acute in tropical regions, where the
forests contain most of the existing plant and animal species.
• In addition to the extinction of these species, deforestation can
cause devastating deterioration of soil through erosion and loss
of nutrients.
Soil Loss and Degradation
• Soil erosion is the loss of soil by the action of both water and
wind; water is the primary source of erosion.
Soil Preservation and Restoration
• Soil Preservation
• The preservation of soil from erosion is commonly termed soil
conservation.
• There are numerous traditional solutions to the soil problem
which is a well-known agricultural practice such as terracing,
contour plowing, and periodically planting fields with cover crops.
Soil Preservation and Restoration
• For some, crop conservation tillage (no-till agriculture) surely
decreases erosion.
• This practice consists of planting a crop among the residue of
the previous year’s crop without plowing. In the newly planted
crop row, weeds are killed by the application of an herbicide
prior to planting. The surface residue of plant material left on
top of the soil prevents soil erosion.
Agroforestry
• Trees are a known perennial plants which are very effective in
stopping soil erosion. In the past, trees were often allowed to
grow naturally with native varieties without the benefit of any
special agricultural practices such as fertilization.
Agroforestry
• Agroforestry is a promising alternative to sustainable
agriculture in which crops are grown in strips between rows of trees
• The trees help to preserve or balance the soil, particularly on
sloping terrain. For example, by choosing trees with the
capability to fix nitrogen the system can be efficient in this
essential nutrient.
Agroforestry
Soil Restoration
• Soil can be impaired by loss of fertility, erosion, buildup of
salinity, contamination by phytotoxins, such as zinc from
sewage sludge, and other insults. Soil has a degree of resilience
and can largely recover whenever the conditions leading to its
degradation are removed.
• However, in many cases, more active measures called soil
restoration are required to restore soil productivity, through the
application of restoration ecology.
Soil Restoration
• Measures taken in soil restoration may include physical
alteration of the soil to provide terraces and relatively flat areas
not subject to erosion.
• Organic matter can be restored by planting crops the residues of
which are cultivated into the soil for partially decayed biomass.
Nutrients may be added, and contaminants neutralized.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable
Agriculture
• The application of green chemistry to agriculture holds promise
for preventing or alleviating problems such as the following:
a. Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers and their products have
accumulated on agricultural lands and waters leading to
adverse effects on wildlife, the environment, and potentially
humans as well.
b. Nontarget organisms have suffered and insect and weed pests
have built up resistance to agents used in their eradication.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable
Agriculture
• The application of green chemistry to agriculture holds promise
for preventing or alleviating problems such as the following:
c. Poorly trained and inadequately protected personnel in less
developed countries have suffered adverse effects from modern
agricultural products.
d. Disposal problems have arisen with respect to obsolete
pesticides.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable
Agriculture
• Agriculture is a science of living organisms applied to human
needs for food and fiber production.
• So, in attempting to find more sustainable and environment-
friendly approaches to agriculture, it is reasonable to look to
natural ecosystems that have evolved over the years that enable
various species of plants and animals to thrive.
• Such an approach is based upon biomimetics in which humans
attempt to mimic natural life systems.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable
Agriculture
• Pesticides that come from natural sources such as plants or
bacteria are called biopesticides.
• These substances are usually more environmentally friendly
than synthetic pesticides, although the blanket assumption that
anything from a natural source is automatically safer than
synthetic materials should not be made.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable
Agriculture
• Biopesticides has its advantages:
• Generally lower toxicity than conventional pesticides,
• Has high specificity for target pests,
• Effective even in very small quantities and
• Rapid decomposition.
• Biopesticides are commonly most effective when used in
integrated pest management programs.