Data Structures R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE
CSE 247 – F ALL ’2024
M ERGESORT
‣ mergesort
‣ bottom-up mergesort
‣ sorting complexity
‣ comparators
‣ stability
Slides adapted from Sedgewick and Wayne
COS226 Algorithms – Princeton University
https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/lectures/
Two classic sorting algorithms: mergesort and quicksort
Critical components in the world’s computational infrastructure.
・Full scientific understanding of their properties has enabled us
to develop them into practical system sorts.
・Quicksort honored as one of top 10 algorithms of 20 th century
in science and engineering.
Mergesort. [this lecture]
...
Quicksort. [next lecture]
...
2
M ERGESORT
‣ mergesort
‣ bottom-up mergesort
‣ sorting complexity
‣ comparators
‣ stability
Mergesort
Basic plan.
・Divide array into two halves.
・Recursively sort each half.
・Merge two halves.
4
Abstract in-place merge demo
Goal. Given two sorted subarrays a[lo] to a[mid] and a[mid+1] to a[hi], replace with sorted subarray a[lo] to a[hi].
Goal. Given two sorted subarrays a[lo] to a[mid] and a[mid+1] to a[hi],
replace with sorted subarray a[lo] to a[hi].
lo mid mid+1 hi
a[] E E G M R A C E R T
sorted sorted
lo hi
a[] A C E E E G M R R T
sorted
5
Merging
Q. Use
A. Howan
toauxiliary
combinearray.
two sorted subarrays into a sorted whole.
Q. How to combine two sorted subarrays into a sorted whole.
A. Use an auxiliary array.
6
Merging: C++ implementation
template<typename T>
void merge(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int mid, int hi) {
for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++)
copy
aux[k] = a[k];
int i = lo, j = mid+1;
for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
if (i > mid) a[k] = aux[j++];
else if (j > hi) a[k] = aux[i++]; merge
else if (aux[j] < aux[i]) a[k] = aux[j++];
else a[k] = aux[i++];
}
}
lo i mid j hi
aux[] A G L O R H I M S T
k
a[] A G H I L M
7
Mergesort: C++ implementation
void merge(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int mid, int hi)
{ /* as before */ }
void sort(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int hi) {
if (hi <= lo) return;
int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
sort(a, aux, lo, mid);
sort(a, aux, mid+1, hi);
merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
}
void sort(vector<T>& a) {
int N = std::size(a);
vector<T> aux(N);
sort(a, aux, 0, N - 1);
}
lo mid hi
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
8
Mergesort: trace
result after recursive call
9
Mergesort: animation
50 random items
algorithm position
in order
current subarray
not in order
http://www.sorting-algorithms.com/merge-sort
10
Mergesort: animation
50 reverse-sorted items
algorithm position
in order
current subarray
not in order
http://www.sorting-algorithms.com/merge-sort
11
Mergesort: empirical analysis
Running time estimates:
・Laptop executes 10 compares/second.
8
・Supercomputer executes 10 compares/second. 12
insertion sort (N2) mergesort (N log N)
computer thousand million billion thousand million billion
home instant 2.8 hours 317 years instant 1 second 18 min
super instant 1 second 1 week instant instant instant
Bottom line. Good algorithms are better than supercomputers.
12
Mergesort: number of compares
Proposition. Mergesort uses ≤ 𝑁 lg 𝑁 compares to sort an array of length
𝑁.
Pf sketch. The number of compares 𝐶 (𝑁) to mergesort an array of length
𝑁 satisfies the recurrence:
𝐶(𝑁) ≤ 𝐶 𝑁/2 + 𝐶 𝑁/2 + 𝑁 for 𝑁 > 1, with 𝐶 (1) = 0.
left half right half merge
We solve the recurrence when N is a power of 2: result holds for all N
(analysis cleaner in this case)
𝐷 (𝑁) = 2𝐷 (𝑁/2) + 𝑁, for 𝑁 > 1, with 𝐷 (1) = 0.
13
Divide-and-conquer recurrence: proof by picture
Proposition. If 𝐷 (𝑁) satisfies 𝐷(𝑁) = 2 𝐷(𝑁/2) + 𝑁 for 𝑁 > 1, with
𝐷 (1) = 0, then 𝐷 (𝑁) = 𝑁 lg 𝑁.
Pf 1. [assuming N is a power of 2]
𝐷 (𝑁) 𝑁 = 𝑁
𝐷 (𝑁 / 2) 𝐷 (𝑁 / 2) 2 (𝑁/2) = 𝑁
lg 𝑁
𝐷(𝑁/4) 𝐷(𝑁/4) 𝐷(𝑁/4) 𝐷(𝑁/4) 4 (𝑁/4) = 𝑁
𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 𝐷(𝑁/8) 8 (𝑁/8) = 𝑁
⋮ 𝑇(𝑁) = 𝑁 lg 𝑁
14
Divide-and-conquer recurrence: proof by induction
Proposition. . If 𝐷 (𝑁) satisfies 𝐷(𝑁) = 2 𝐷(𝑁/2) + 𝑁 for 𝑁 > 1, with
𝐷 (1) = 0, then 𝐷 (𝑁) = 𝑁 lg 𝑁.
Pf 2. [assuming N is a power of 2]
・Base case: 𝑁 = 1.
・Inductive hypothesis: 𝐷 (𝑁) = 𝑁 lg 𝑁.
・Goal: show that 𝐷 (2𝑁) = (2𝑁) lg(2𝑁).
𝐷 (2𝑁) = 2 𝐷 (𝑁) + 2𝑁 given
= 2 𝑁 lg 𝑁 + 2𝑁 inductive hypothesis
= 2 𝑁 (lg(2𝑁) – 1) + 2𝑁 algebra
= 2 𝑁 lg(2𝑁) QED
15
Mergesort: number of array accesses
Proposition. Mergesort uses ≤ 6 𝑁 lg 𝑁 array accesses to sort an array of
length 𝑁.
Pf sketch. The number of array accesses 𝐴 (𝑁) satisfies the recurrence:
𝐴(𝑁) ≤ 𝐴 𝑁/2 + 𝐴 𝑁/2 + 6𝑁 for 𝑁 > 1, with 𝐴 (1) = 0.
Key point. Any algorithm with the following structure takes 𝑁 log 𝑁 time:
void linearithmic(int N)
{
if (N == 0) return;
linearithmic(N/2); solve two problems
linearithmic(N/2); of half the size
linear(N); do a linear amount of work
}
Notable examples. FFT, hidden-line removal, Kendall-tau distance, …
16
Mergesort analysis: memory
Proposition. Mergesort uses extra space proportional to 𝑁.
Pf. The array aux[] needs to be of length 𝑁 for the last merge.
two sorted subarrays
A C D G H I M N U B E F J O P Q R S T
V
A B C D E F G H I J M N O P Q R S T U V
merged result
Def. A sorting algorithm is in-place if it uses ≤ 𝑐 log 𝑁 extra memory.
Ex. Insertion sort, selection sort, shellsort.
Challenge 1 (not hard). Use aux[] array of length ~ ½ 𝑁 instead of 𝑁.
Challenge 2 (very hard). In-place merge. [Kronrod 1969]
17
Mergesort: practical improvements
Use insertion sort for small subarrays.
・Mergesort has too much overhead for tiny subarrays.
・Cutoff to insertion sort for ≈ 10 items.
void sort(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int hi) {
if (hi <= lo + CUTOFF - 1) {
insertion_sort(a, lo, hi);
return;
}
int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
sort(a, aux, lo, mid);
sort(a, aux, mid+1, hi);
merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
}
18
Mergesort with cutoff to insertion sort: visualization
19
Mergesort: practical improvements
Stop if already sorted.
・Is largest item in first half ≤ smallest item in second half?
・Helps for partially-ordered arrays.
A B C D E F G H I J M N O P Q R S T U V
A B C D E F G H I J M N O P Q R S T U V
void sort(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int hi) {
if (hi <= lo) return;
int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
sort(a, aux, lo, mid);
sort(a, aux, mid+1, hi);
if (a[mid+1] >= a[mid]) return;
merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
}
20
Mergesort: practical improvements
Eliminate the copy to the auxiliary array. Save time (but not space)
by switching the role of the input and auxiliary array in each recursive call.
void merge(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int mid, int hi) {
int i = lo, j = mid+1;
for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
if (i > mid) aux[k] = a[j++];
else if (j > hi) aux[k] = a[i++];
merge from a[] to aux[]
else if (a[j] < a[i]) aux[k] = a[j++];
else aux[k] = a[i++];
}}
void sort(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int hi) {
if (hi <= lo) return; assumes aux[] is initialize to a[] once,
int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2; before recursive calls
sort(aux, a, lo, mid);
sort(aux, a, mid+1, hi);
merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
}
switch roles of aux[] and a[] 21
M ERGESORT
‣ mergesort
‣ bottom-up mergesort
‣ sorting complexity
‣ comparators
‣ stability
Bottom-up mergesort
Basic plan.
・Pass through array, merging subarrays of size 1.
・Repeat for subarrays of size 2, 4, 8, ....
23
Bottom-up mergesort: Java implementation
void mergesort_bu(vector<T>& a) {
int N = std::size(a);
vector<T> aux(N);
for (int sz = 1; sz < N; sz = sz+sz)
for (int lo = 0; lo < N-sz; lo += sz+sz)
merge(a, aux, lo, lo+sz-1, std::min(lo+sz+sz-1, N-1));
}
but about 10% slower than recursive,
top-down mergesort on typical systems
Bottom line. Simple and non-recursive version of mergesort.
24
Mergesort: visualizations
top-down mergesort (cutoff = 12) bottom-up mergesort (cutoff = 12)
25
Natural mergesort
Idea. Exploit pre-existing order by identifying naturally-occurring runs.
input
1 5 10 16 3 4 23 9 13 2 7 8 12 14
first run
1 5 10 16 3 4 23 9 13 2 7 8 12 14
second run
1 5 10 16 3 4 23 9 13 2 7 8 12 14
merge two runs
1 3 4 5 10 16 23 9 13 2 7 8 12 14
Tradeoff. Fewer passes vs. extra compares per pass to identify runs.
26
Timsort
・Natural mergesort.
・Use binary insertion sort to make initial runs (if needed).
・A few more clever optimizations.
Tim Peters
Intro
-----
This describes an adaptive, stable, natural mergesort, modestly called
timsort (hey, I earned it <wink>). It has supernatural performance on many
kinds of partially ordered arrays (less than lg(N!) comparisons needed, and
as few as N-1), yet as fast as Python's previous highly tuned samplesort
hybrid on random arrays.
In a nutshell, the main routine marches over the array once, left to right,
alternately identifying the next run, then merging it into the previous
runs "intelligently". Everything else is complication for speed, and some
hard-won measure of memory efficiency.
...
Consequence. Linear time on many arrays with pre-existing order.
Now widely used. libc++, Python, Java 7, GNU Octave, Android, ….
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The Zen of Python
http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/
28
M ERGESORT
‣ mergesort
‣ bottom-up mergesort
‣ sorting complexity
‣ comparators
‣ stability
Complexity of sorting
Computational complexity. Framework to study efficiency of algorithms
for solving a particular problem X.
Model of computation. Allowable operations.
Cost model. Operation count(s).
Upper bound. Cost guarantee provided by some algorithm for X.
Lower bound. Proven limit on cost guarantee of all algorithms for X.
Optimal algorithm. Algorithm with best possible cost guarantee for X.
lower bound ~ upper bound
Example: sorting.
・Model of computation: decision tree. can access information
only through compares
・Cost model: compares. (e.g., Java Comparable framework)
・Upper bound: ~ N lg N from mergesort.
・Lower bound:
・Optimal algorithm:
30
Decision tree (for 3 distinct keys a, b, and c)
a<b
height of tree =
yes no worst-case number
code between compares of compares
(e.g., sequence of exchanges)
b<c a<c
yes no yes no
abc bac b<c
a<c
yes no yes no
acb cab bca cba
each leaf corresponds to one (and only one) ordering;
(at least) one leaf for each possible ordering 31
Compare-based lower bound for sorting
Proposition. Any compare-based sorting algorithm must use at least
lg ( N ! ) ~ N lg N compares in the worst-case.
Pf.
・Assume array consists of N distinct values a through a .
1 N
・Worst case dictated by height h of decision tree.
・Binary tree of height h has at most 2 leaves.
h
・N ! different orderings at least N ! leaves.
32
Compare-based lower bound for sorting
Proposition. Any compare-based sorting algorithm must use at least
lg( 𝑁! ) ~ 𝑁 lg 𝑁 compares in the worst-case.
Pf.
・Assume array consists of 𝑁 distinct values 𝑎1 through 𝑎𝑁 .
・Worst case dictated by height ℎ of decision tree.
・Binary tree of height ℎ has at most 2 leaves.ℎ
・𝑁! different orderings at least 𝑁! leaves.
2ℎ ≥ # leaves ≥ 𝑁!
⇒ ℎ ≥ lg( 𝑁! ) ~ 𝑁 lg 𝑁
Stirling's formula
33
Complexity of sorting
Model of computation. Allowable operations.
Cost model. Operation count(s).
Upper bound. Cost guarantee provided by some algorithm for X.
Lower bound. Proven limit on cost guarantee of all algorithms for X.
Optimal algorithm. Algorithm with best possible cost guarantee for X.
Example: sorting.
・Model of computation: decision tree.
・Cost model: compares.
・Upper bound: ~ 𝑁 lg 𝑁 from mergesort.
・Lower bound: ~ 𝑁 lg 𝑁.
・Optimal algorithm = mergesort.
First goal of algorithm design: optimal algorithms.
34
Complexity results in context
Compares? Mergesort is optimal with respect to number compares.
Space? Mergesort is not optimal with respect to space usage.
Lessons. Use theory as a guide.
Ex. Design sorting algorithm that guarantees ½ 𝑁 lg 𝑁 compares?
Ex. Design sorting algorithm that is both time- and space-optimal?
35
Complexity results in context (continued)
Lower bound may not hold if the algorithm can take advantage of:
・The initial order of the input.
Ex: insert sort requires only a linear number of compares on partially-
sorted arrays.
・The distribution of key values.
Ex: 3-way quicksort requires only a linear number of compares on
arrays with a constant number of distinct keys. [stay tuned]
・The representation of the keys.
Ex: radix sort requires no key compares — it accesses the data via
character/digit compares.
36
M ERGESORT
‣ mergesort
‣ bottom-up mergesort
‣ sorting complexity
‣ comparators
‣ stability
Sort countries by gold medals
38
Sort countries by total medals
39
Sort music library by artist
40
Sort music library by song name
41
Operator overloading: review
operator<(): sort using a type's natural order.
class Date {
private:
const int month, day, year;
public:
Date(int m, int d, int y) : month {m}, day {d}, year {y} { }
bool operator<(const Date& that) const { natural order
if (this->year < that.year ) return true;
if (this->year > that.year ) return false;
if (this->month < that.month) return true;
if (this->month > that.month) return false;
if (this->day < that.day ) return true;
return false;
}
};
44
Custom comparators
Custom comparators in C++: sort using an alternate order.
Required property. Must be a total order.
string order example
natural order Now is the time
case insensitive is Now the time
reverse natural
time the is Now
order
auto iless = [](const std::string& a, const std::string& b) {
auto ichar_less = [](unsigned char a, unsigned char b) {
return std::tolower(a) < std::tolower(b);
};
return std::lexicographical_compare(a.begin(), a.end(),
b.begin(), b.end(), ichar_less);
};
case insensitive string comparator
45
Custom comparators: std::sort
To use with C++ std::sort:
・Create custom comparator.
・Pass as third argument to std::sort().
vector<string> a; uses natural order
... uses alternate order
std::sort(a.begin(), a.end());
...
std::sort(a.begin, a.end(), std::greater{});
...
std::sort(a.begin(), a.end(), iless);
...
Bottom line. Decouples the definition of the data type from the
definition of what it means to compare two objects of that type.
46
Custom comparators: using with our sorting libraries
To support comparators in our sort implementations:
・Pass comparator and use it in instead of < operator.
insertion sort using a custom comparator
template<typename T, typename C>
void insertion_sort(vector<T>& a, C comp) {
int N = std::size(a);
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i; j > 0 && comp(a[j], a[j-1]); j--)
std::swap(a[j], a[j-1]);
}
47
Custom comparators: implementation
auto by_name = [](const student& x, const student& y) {
return x.name < y.name;
};
auto by_section = [](const student& x, const student& y) {
return x.section < y.section;
};
std::sort(a, by_name); std::sort(a, by_section);
Andrews 3 A 664-480-0023 097 Little Furia 1 A 766-093-9873 101 Brown
Battle 4 C 874-088-1212 121 Whitman Rohde 2 A 232-343-5555 343 Forbes
Chen 3 A 991-878-4944 308 Blair Andrews 3 A 664-480-0023 097 Little
Fox 3 A 884-232-5341 11 Dickinson Chen 3 A 991-878-4944 308 Blair
Furia 1 A 766-093-9873 101 Brown Fox 3 A 884-232-5341 11 Dickinson
Gazsi 4 B 766-093-9873 101 Brown Kanaga 3 B 898-122-9643 22 Brown
Kanaga 3 B 898-122-9643 22 Brown Battle 4 C 874-088-1212 121 Whitman
Rohde 2 A 232-343-5555 343 Forbes Gazsi 4 B 766-093-9873 101 Brown
48
M ERGESORT
‣ mergesort
‣ bottom-up mergesort
‣ sorting complexity
‣ comparators
‣ stability
Stability
A typical application. First, sort by name; then sort by section.
selection_sort(a, by_name); selection_sort(a, by_section);
Andrews 3 A 664-480-0023 097 Little Furia 1 A 766-093-9873 101 Brown
Battle 4 C 874-088-1212 121 Whitman Rohde 2 A 232-343-5555 343 Forbes
Chen 3 A 991-878-4944 308 Blair Chen 3 A 991-878-4944 308 Blair
Fox 3 A 884-232-5341 11 Dickinson Fox 3 A 884-232-5341 11 Dickinson
Furia 1 A 766-093-9873 101 Brown Andrews 3 A 664-480-0023 097 Little
Gazsi 4 B 766-093-9873 101 Brown Kanaga 3 B 898-122-9643 22 Brown
Kanaga 3 B 898-122-9643 22 Brown Gazsi 4 B 766-093-9873 101 Brown
Rohde 2 A 232-343-5555 343 Forbes Battle 4 C 874-088-1212 121 Whitman
@#%&@! Students in section 3 no longer sorted by name.
A stable sort preserves the relative order of items with equal keys.
50
Stability
Q. Which sorts are stable?
A. Need to check algorithm (and implementation).
51
Stability: insertion sort
Proposition. Insertion sort is stable.
template<typename T>
void insertion_sort(vector<T>& a) {
int N = std::size(a);
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i; j > 0 && (a[j] < a[j-1]); j--)
std::swap(a[j], a[j-1]);
i j 0 1 2 3 4
}
0 0 B1 A1 A2 A3 B2
1 0 A1 B1 A2 A3 B2
2 1 A1 A2 B1 A3 B2
3 2 A1 A2 A3 B1 B2
4 4 A1 A2 A3 B1 B2
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2
Pf. Equal items never move past each other.
52
Stability: selection sort
Proposition. Selection sort is not stable.
template<typename T>
void selection_sort(vector<T>& a) {
int N = std::size(a);
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
int min = i; i min 0 1 2
0 2 B1 B2 A
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
1 1 A B2 B1
if (a[j] < a[min])
2 2 A B2 B1
min = j;
A B2 B1
std::swap(a[i], a[min]);
}
}
Pf by counterexample. Long-distance exchange can move one equal item
past another one.
53
Stability: shellsort
Proposition. Shellsort sort is not stable.
void shellsort(vector<T>& a) {
int N = std::size(a);
int h = 1;
while (h < N/3) h = 3*h + 1;
while (h >= 1) {
for (int i = h; i < N; i++) {
for (int j = i; j >= h && (a[j] < a[j-h]); j -= h)
std::swap(a[j], a[j-h]);
}
h 0 1 2 3 4
h = h/3; B1 B2 B3 B4 A1
} 4 A1 B2 B3 B4 B1
} 1 A1 B2 B3 B4 B1
A1 B2 B3 B4 B1
Pf by counterexample. Long-distance exchanges.
54
Stability: mergesort
Proposition. Mergesort is stable.
template <typename T>
void mergesort(vector<T>& a, vector<T>& aux, int lo, int hi) {
if (hi <= lo) return;
int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
sort(a, aux, lo, mid);
sort(a, aux, mid+1, hi);
merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
}
Pf. Suffices to verify that merge operation is stable.
55
Stability: mergesort
Proposition. Merge operation is stable.
void merge(...) {
for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++)
aux[k] = a[k];
int i = lo, j = mid+1;
for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
if (i > mid) a[k] = aux[j++];
else if (j > hi) a[k] = aux[i++];
else if (aux[j] < aux[i]) a[k] = aux[j++];
else a[k] = aux[i++];
}
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
}
A1 A2 A3 B D A4 A5 C E F G
Pf. Takes from left subarray if equal keys.
56
Sorting summary
inplace? stable? best average worst remarks
selection ½𝑁2 ½𝑁2 ½𝑁2 N exchanges
use for small N
insertion 𝑁 ¼𝑁2 ½𝑁2
or partially ordered
/2 tight code;
shell 𝑁 log3 𝑁 ? 𝑐 𝑁3
subquadratic
N log N guarantee;
merge ½ 𝑁 lg 𝑁 𝑁 lg 𝑁 𝑁 lg 𝑁
stable
improves mergesort
timsort 𝑁 𝑁 lg 𝑁 𝑁 lg 𝑁
when preexisting order
? 𝑁 𝑁 lg 𝑁 𝑁 lg 𝑁 holy sorting grail
57
