American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021

American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR)

e-ISSN :2378-703X
Volume-5, Issue-4, pp-119-135
[Link]
Research Paper Open Access

THE EFFECTS OF OIL SPILL IN AQUATIC LIVES AND

PROPERTY IN KALABARI IN RIVERS STATE OF NIGERIA
Evelyn Tyger, Prof Victor . A. Akujuru
ABSTRACT: This study investigates the causes and impacts of oil spill in Kalabar region in Rivers state of
Nigeria to identify the suitable land management systems that will control oil spill so as to reduce it impacts on
the Niger delta region of Nigeria.. The study adopts a qualitative and quantitative research through interviews,
fishermen, periwinkle(Isam) pickers and the youths to identify oil spill impacts on community socio-economic
conditions. The collection of data involves the use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches concurrently.
This was possible because the study focused on the effects of oil spill on aquatic lives and property. Purposive
sampling Techniques, and Snow Ball sampling was used in selecting the sample size (where one-person links to
another). (189) questionnaire were distributed in nine communities affected by the oil spill in Kalabari region,
Rivers State out of which 138 questionnaire representing 122.45% of the total was retrieved and triangulated
with data Snow ball sampling techniques, interview of selected people affected. The primary data was analysed
using Statistical Packaged for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20).

Key Word:Oil spill, aquatic lives, environment and properties Kalabari region

I. INTRODUCTION
This research is centred on the effect of Oil spillage on aquatic lives and property value as it relates to
the escape of crude oil and related products in to the environment.
Oil spill is a form of pollution described as the release of a liquid Petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially marine areas, due to human activities. Oil spills may be due to release of crudeoil from tankers,
pipelines,railcars, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products and
their by-products, heavy fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.
Spilled oil can penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing their
insulating ability and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the
water Ismail & Lewis, 2006; Jernelov, (2010).

1.2 The Concept of Oil Spillage

Since the discovery of oil in the 1950s in the Niger delta region of Nigeria, there have been varying
adverse environmental implications brought about by oil production activities in the region. The rapid
development and production of crude oil has elevated population in the oil producing area and it has affected the
ravage of producing state like the Kalabari region of Rivers state. (Badejo and Nwilo, 2004) Earlier surveys in
Rivers state have shown an increasing number of recorded oil spills leading to the damage of environment.
According to the National Environmental Study Team (NEST) (1991), the greatest single environmental
problem connected with petroleum exploitation in Rivers state is oil spillage, both onshore and [Link]
spillage can be said to be the process of oil, accidentally coming out or seeping out from pipe or any other
container containing oil, oil spill is an accidental or intentional discharge of oil which may water bodies or any
part of the land.
In Kalabari region of Rivers State vandalism of pipeline and thefts of oil are serious problems in the
Kalabariregion of rivers state, Some people damage pipes while trying to steal small quantities of oil for sale at
local markets or for personal use. According Ekpenyong and Udofia (2015) , One of the major causes of oil
spill is lack of impatient of the youths.
This was earlier noted by Etikerente (2000)when the said occurrence of oil spillage can never be ruled
out completely even if government provides employment. Oil spillage is an event that cannot be totally
eliminated in the course of oil production activities, it is a necessary event that must be occur in the oil
exploitation and exploration activities. Oil spillage has caused fishing output to be decline, due to widespread

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 119

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
pollution environmental challenges include coastal erosion and rising sea level, which has led to a large portion
of landmass being error, which damage roofs and respiratory and other medical problems.
According to (Ngene 2014) such lands also become no useful for real estate development process. This
has resulted to project abandonment in some cases and even collapse of buildings in others, thereby resulting in
loss of value of land.
Omuofine(2005) labelled oil spill as discharge of Petroleum products to the surface of water or oceans.
The United Nation Environment Program UNEP( 2011) Opined that when there is an oil spill all the
aquatic lives tends to leaves the polluted areas in search of cleans water while Fishermen also, move to other
area in search of fishes and other aquatic lives, and set up fishing ponds which they later come back to their area
to sell and it affects property value.
According to Takon (2014)who observed that oil spillage which involves blowouts is caused by the
youths,equipment failure, human error and releases crude oil to the [Link] similar opinion is
Atubi (2015) alsoobserved that oil operations includethe release of toxic chemicals that affects aquatic lives and
property value.
According to Osuji, (2004),oil spill is a release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment
due to human activity, such as bunker fuel which is form of pollution, Oil spills include releases of crude oil
from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells as spills of refined petroleum products (such as
gasoline, diesel) and their by-products.
According to Ifunanya(2010) who opined that Oil spillage are caused by transportation of crude oil
which release unwanted pollution and affects resources, marine life and also human [Link]
andSalanu(2015).Study that oil spill is the greatest occurrence that hinder all activities in the affected
[Link],Suji and Ezebuiro, (2006). Stated that Oil spill occurs as Petroleum substance that is
uncontrollable, release of waste petroleum into the environment as a result of equipment failure, operational
mishaps, or intentional damage to facilities. (Blank, 2003). Suggest that the poor are often illiterate, in poor
health, and may have short life span due the evaporation of gas flare and of which they have no access to basic
necessities and to meet socio economic and laws. Lack of skills are unable to use their skill as in the case of the
fishermen, periwinkle (Isam) pickerswhich led to lack of unemployment.
Nwankwo and Ifeadi (1988). Identified oil spills contaminate in the streams and rivers; forest
destruction and biodiversity loss; property,the effect of gas flaring as some of the pollution problems associated
with oil exploration and production in the Kalabari region in Rivers State which has affected development of the
[Link] spill may be due to release of crude oil from tankers,offshore platforms,drilling rigs and wells
as well as spills of refined petroleum products such a gasoline, diesel and their by product, heavier fuels, used
by large ships such as bunker fuel.
According Aina (1992) stated that Oil spills is the highest factor affecting property value of all
environmental degradation.

1.3Causes of oil spillage

Okechukwu (2012) Noticed new causes of oil spillage and the reasons why pipelines are damaged from
1990s to date, the causes of oil spillage observed, are the sabotage by the youths who are angry for lack of
employments from government and that of the existing companies which refuse to pay stipends,vanadalisation
of pipeline to make money from multinational oil and gas companies or disrupt oil production and distribution.
The militant groups who are involved in oil bunkering for economic benefits. Omajemite reported in (2012) that
within 1993 to 2006 several cases of vandalisation has occurred with several reasons. Vandalistion of the
pipeline by the by the local inhabitant(Nwilo and Badejo 2005).Oil spill is divided into four groupsaging of the
pipelines,oil blow outs from station, cleaning of cleaning of tanker on high sea,disposal of used oil into the
sea,tanker accident. Oil spills causes destruction to the livelihood of many inhabitants in the oil producing areas.
Egbe and Thompson (2010) have identified eight causes of oil spills as follows;
 Blowout: Oil well blow out occurs when the well is not well kept under control that is to be behave in such
a way that the hydrostatic mud head counter balances the formation pressure and prevents the formation
fluid from entering the well formation during drilling operations.
 Sabotage: When the cause of spill is mischievously deliberate and not accidental.
 Corrosion: when the causes of leakage is rusty equipment.
 Ageing of oil pipeline:is the outdated age of pipeline.
 Operation/Maintenance Error: Bad oil operation practices like untrained personnel and lack of
maintenance of the equipment.
 Natural causes: Oil spillage: Oil spill could result as a result of natural causes; they are causes which are
not manmade or induced thus, occurring without any faulty of man (Examples motion of tectonic plates,
rain,flood,)

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 120

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
 War: This is another causes of the oil spills in communities most communities within the Kalabari regions
are very rich in oil, sometimes led to unending fight between the militants and government soldiers. This
has led to the disruption of normal activities in the communities. In additional due to many oil wells hence,
smuggling has been a key financial route for the militants. This has caused massive oil spills.

Unknown Causes
Oils spill have been blamed for numerous adverse environmental impacts on the soil, water, plants and animals
ecosystem of the oil producing communities. Oil exploration and production activities affect the physical
biological and aesthetic value of the environment and the economics life and health of the people in Kalabari
region.\
Worgu (2000). Note that oil spill in rural communities such as Kalabari region can have serious effects
on lives of residents in the those communities. Oil spill affects land fertility, agriculture in different aspects.
According to (Islam and Tanka 2004). The disaster of oil spills can be effective based on the quantity
of oil spill that floats to the river.
Elum (2016).Observed that oil spill affects the socio economic to the environment and infrastructure.
Spills and the attendant youth restiveness resulting from deprivation.

Table 1: Reported oil spill 199-2001

Year Total numbers reported oil spill Quantity in Barrel
1997 339 59.272
1998 390 -
1999 319 -
2000 637 84,072
2001 412 20.976
Table [Link] an illustration of the numbers of oil spill and the reported volumes of oil spilled into the
ecosystems over the period (1997-2001). The major causeof oil spill in Kalabar region in Rivers State are
vandalisation of pipelines by the youths,ageing of the pipeline,oil blow out from the flow station,equipment
failure.

1.4 Factors Responsible for the Causes of Oil Spill

The causes responsible for oil spill are due to several reasons for control of where possible. Poverty,
Unemployment Policy and Negligence are also the factors of oil spills in the environment.
According to (Nwilo and Badejo 2005) Lack of livelihood has essentially contributed to youths
restiveness, cultism, thief. Social tension,they live in survival of the fittest theory which have negatively affects
the people. The people are physically mental and emotionally frustrated and there enmity and lack of trust and
transparency between communities and oil companies which hugely influence factor [Link], the divide
and rule and double standard theory by the oil companies where they engage youths and some comprised elders
to protect them and their facilities by equipping them with weapons has contributed to restiveness.
According to Omuofine (2005). Describe an oil spill as the release of petroleum into the surface
waters’’ .oil spill contribute negatively to our environment and it also affects property causing deterioration on
building, causing easily dilapidation on buildings.
According to (Mba,2013) Observe that in oil affected areas of the Niger Delta , after all the damages of
pipelines and sabotage by the youths ,compensation and clean up contract from companies or government of
the environment is the only way the people can achieve their [Link] activities of illegal bunkering by the
youths and companies are major causes of oil spillage in the regions.
World Bank (2005) Describe that air pollution is the atmosphere of contaminated environment which dissipate
(such as dust,fumes,odor smokes or vapour) .The atmosphere halts enjoyment of habitant property.

1.5 Oil Spillage and its effects

The effects of oil spill on property is the leakage and vandalising, sabotage of oil pipelines which cause
properties to easily dilapidation before life span of the property. Properties devalue without a correct validation
certificate. Oil spills soaks the brickwork or stonework of building can spread through the drain and affects the
operation of sewage treatment works and septic tanks, it spreads through the ground and affects properties,
pollute rivers, stream and ground water surrounding properties.
According(Aina 1992). Oil spill is one of the highest factor affecting property [Link] spill have
degraded aquatic lives and reduces property value which has turned productive areas into waste lands, causes
destruction of properties, the effects compel both indigene and non-indigene to abandon their lands with or
without adequate compensation and seek alternative means of livelihood in other nearby communities.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 121

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
1.5.1 Effects on Mangrove andAquatic Life
Kalabari communities are all surrounded by watercreeksand ponds from which they fish, bath and
consume. The pollution of these sources of water by oil operation results in dire consequences for inhabitants.
Contamination affects both fresh and underground water. Forexample, if rivers, streams and wellsthat provide
water are contaminated, thepeople in the area will not only find itdifficult to access portable water but thefishes
and other water bodies will alsobe destroyed. The report of the United Nations Environment Programme(2011)
indicated that water taken from wells in communities in Kalabari region is higher than the Nigerian drinking
waterstandard .

1.5.2 Effects of Oil Spill on Economic Activities

Majority of the people of Kalabari engage in fishing and farming for sustenance and also for trading but threats
to this source manifests in thedepletion of aquatic lives, reduction and abandonment of farm lands and loss
ofbiodiversity resulting from over exploitation of existing resources and the resultant pollution. Fishing and
farming produce have reduced drastically as oil and gas operations in the region gained ascendancy (Egbe,
2012). Almost all the riverine dwellers relocate to another communities or state to seek foralternative means of
survival. Akujuru (2014) identified the that the impact of oil operations on economic activities toincludes:
1. Loss of arable land, vegetation and forest resources.
2. Increase in land and water transportation with attendant consequences like aggravation of shore erosion,
disturbances between life and fishing activities.
3. Improper disposal of dredge spoils along water ways, channels causingblockades to bush paths and
waterways used for access to fishing farming parts and timber logging areas.
4. Oil pollution which pollutes drinking water sources destroys fisheries andfarms and generally destroys the
ecosystem.

1.5.3 Effects on Health

Oil operations are known to have deleterious effects on human health especially gas flaring and oil
spillage which contaminates the air, land and water. In Kalabariregion do not have access to portable water but
depend on water from ground water and rain water for sustenance. The hydrocarbons released into the
environment and gases such as CO and CO2 have negative effect on human health. Skin contact with certain
chromium compounds can cause skin ulcers and ingesting large amounts of it can cause stomach upset and
ulcers,kidney and liver damage and even death .According to (Egbe and Thompson, 2010) Environmental
pollution caused by oil spill can cause health problems like respiratory problems, increased blood pressures,
heart rhythm changes, stomach irritation, muscle weakness, changes in nerve reflexes, swelling of brains and
liver, lungs diseases and cancer, kidney and heart damage, diarrhoea, asthma, eyeinfections, bronchitis, skin
infection, headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,eye and throat irritations, as well as breathing difficulties.

1.5.4 The Effects of Oil Spill in Aquatic Lives in the Kalabari region in Rivers State
The effects of oil spill in the region have causes a negative perceptive”Akpan and Akpabio (2003)
The people of the region depend on aquatic live for daily living ,mostly in the form of fishing farming, and
other marine ecosystem. Ever since the discovery of oil spill in the region of Kalabari in 1956 the regions have
been suffering the negative impact of environmental consequences of oil spill. According to Okonkwo (2014)
points made are the effects of oil spills covers violence and frustration, reduction in tourism and hospitality
industries. The harmful effect of oil spill on the aquatic ecosystem are many, the fishing production is an
essential part of the region because it provides income for the people. Olujimi et al,(2011) Observed that
Kalabari region ,pollution of rivers through oil spill have resulted in massive extermination of fishes thereby
threatening the social and economic life the communities whose livelihood depends on the contaminated
water,Ibaba (2001) observed that in the affected area where oil spill occur the aquatic life is virtually castrated
by many years of oil prospecting and exploration. Garrity and Leving (1990).Oil settle on beaches and kills
organism that live there, it also settle on oceans floor and kills benthic bottom –dwelling organisms such as
crabs and other marine ecosystem.”Nwilo and Badejo (2005). In Kalabar region at large area the mangrove was
once a source of firewood for indigenous people and habitat for the area biodiversity but is unable to survive
the oil toxic.
Ogbogbo (2004) stated that the consequences of oil spillage are massive pollution of land, rivers and
streams in the Niger delta. He argued that the aquatic environment and the ecology of the area, which constitute
a major resource for the people, are destroyed

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 122

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
1.5.5 Effects of oil spillage on Real Estate and the Environment
The oil exploration activities have both negative and positive effect on the property of our environment.
The greatest positive contribution of oil to the development of our environment is through the improvement of
the economy.
Afomata (1997) opined that the whole process contributing to the economy, the whole process of
petroleum exploration service; refining and marketing provided employment for thousands of people.
Udo (1981) suggest in addition to providing road, health facility which have been immense value to the Nigeria,
they contribute to the trailing of mechanics, drillers, seismic operators and laboratory operators, thus developing
the human resources. Not forgetting the availability of energy resource such as petrol, kerosene, diesel ,oil
heavy fuel oil and bottled gas made possible by oil explorers in the state at a relatively low price if compared to
those country that do not have the natural [Link],the negative effects have outwit the positive effects
hence imputing in the layman that the oil wealth is a curse.
Eteng (1997) avers that oil exploration and exploitation has over the last four years impacted
disastrously on the socio-physical environment of Kalabaribearing region massively threatening the subsistent
peasant agricultural economy of this region and the environment and hence the entire livelihood and basic
survival of the people. It is well known that the people of Kalabariregion rivers state of Nigerian are known for
fishing production and other ecosystem and is a major source of income to the [Link] usually cause a lot
of damage to land and buildings, vegetation marine life and other aquatic [Link] resultant effects of this is
that aquatic potentials of the place is greatly minimize leaving the oil producing communities with the little or
nothing to do by way of making a living.
Consequently, Oil spillage on water has grave socio economic effects on the affected communities in
Kalabari region of rivers state in Nigeria. The affected are can easily be identify but the aquatic ecosystem
cannot be identify easily for value (Omuojine.2005).The effects of oil spillage are;

 Damage to or destruction the ecosystems

 Delayed of new fingerlings from the affected area.
 Prevention of natural air leading to death of fishes and others aquatic organism.
 Damage to fishing equipment and ponds.
 Contaminations of ground water.

All these can be summarized in three factors which are:

 Loss of income
 Threaten to human life
 Creation of potentials jeopards
In all the extent of the potential damage that could result from oil pollution which resulted from oil spills
depends on the severity of oil spillage, the toxicity of the oil and the types of environment.

1.5.6 Effects on the General Population and reasons why property value is reduce
The effects of oil spills on humans may be direct and indirect, depending on the type of contact with
the oil spill.
Direct exposure to oil spills – occurs close to where people live or work and where they may come in contact
with oil spill components:
Indirect exposure to oil spills - even when people live in places far from where the actual oil spill took place:
 By bathing in contaminated water - for example swimming in a contaminated water stream - even when
an oil sheen may not be visible, dissolved oil contaminants may exist in the water if it was impacted by an
oil spill.
 By eating contaminated food - some oil compounds bioaccumulation in living organisms and may
become more concentrated along the food chain. Humans may become exposed to concentrations of
contaminants in the food that could be orders of magnitude higher than in the contaminated environment.
This is especially problematic since residents could be exposed even if they live far away from an oil spill if
they consume food coming from a spill affected area.

The main oil spill effects include a variety of diseases, negative economic impact, pollution with crude oil
or petroleum products (distillates such as: gasoline, diesel products, jet fuels, kerosene, fuel oil, as well as heavy
distillates like hydraulic and lubricating oils) and the aesthetic issues that affect the residents of the affected
areas in multiple ways.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 123

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
1.5.7 Effects of Oil Spill on Water Quality in the Kalabari region
Kalabari region in rivers state is awetland and the people of depend on the wetland for food and
source of livelihood . According to Emuedo et al. (2014) oil spills into wetlands have abase the water quality in
Kalabari region. According to Emuedo et al. (2014), the water quality in Kalabri region is unhealthy for human
consumption.

2.1 Management System of Controlling Oil Spill in Kalabari Region

There are many strategies taken by government and non-governmental agencies to effectively manage
oil spill incidents in the region. Some of the measures taken to control oil spill include, setting up of the Niger
Delta Development Commission to tackle the ecological and environmental [Link] have also been laws
regulations introduced to control oil spill exploration and exploitation, The Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) decree No. 1992 was form to protect and sustain our ecosystem. The law enables the development of an
EIA compulsory for any major projects that have adverse effects on the environment. According to
Ntukekpo,(1996) and Olagoke (1996). If enhanced to influence on activities including their direct or in
direct,cumulative, short term and loon term effects and to identify the measures available to reduce the
environmental impacts of proposed activitiesand assessment of those [Link]-governmental agencies, and
the oil companies themselves, have also contributed efforts to curb destruction of biodiversity in the Kalabari
region. In National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), formed the Clean Nigeria Associates (CAN) to help prevent
and control oil spills in the region (Nwilo and Badejo, 2005).
According to Akankali, J A. (1998) there should a monthly allowance for age people within the
communities affected, also infrastructural compensation such as centres for youths training and development,
good roads, and good hospitals, youth participation in decision making and security agency on pipelines.
Eteng (1997) suggests that oil exploration and exploitation has over the last four years impacted
disastrously on the socio-physical environment of Kalabari bearing region massively threatening the subsistent
peasant agricultural economy of this region and the environment and hence the entire livelihood and basic
survival of the people. It is well known that the people of Kalabari region rivers state of Nigerianare known for
fishing production and other ecosystem and is a major source of income to the dwellers.
Oil usually cause a lot of damage to land and buildings, vegetation marine life and other aquatic
animals. The resultant effects of this is that aquatic potentials of the place is greatly minimize leaving the oil
producing communities with the little or nothing to do by way of making a living.
Consequently, Oil spillage on water has grave socio economic effects on the affected communities in Kalabari
region of rivers state in Nigeria. The affected are can easily be identify but the aquatic ecosystem cannot be
identify easily for value (Omuojine.2005).The effects of oil spillage are;
 Damage to or destruction the ecosystems
 Delayed of new fingerlings from the effected area.
 Prevention of natural air leading to death of fishes and others aquatic organism.
 Damage to fishing equipment and ponds.
 Contaminations of ground water.
All these can be summarized in three factors which are:
 Loss of income
 Threaten to human life
 Creation of potentials jeopards

In all the extent of the potential damage that could result from oil pollution which resulted from oil spills
depends on the severity of oil spillage, the toxicity of the oil and the types of environment.
2.2 Sources of Oil spillage in Kalabari Region in Rivers State
Oil spill incidents have occurred at different times along the Kalabari region. Between 1976 and 1996,
a total of 4647 incidents resulted in the spilling of approximately 2,369,470 barrels of oil into the environment.
Of this quantity, an estimated 1,820,410.5barrels (77%) were not recovered. Available records for this period
indicate that approximately 6%, 25%, and 69% respectively,of total oil spilled in the Kalabari region area, were
in land, swamp and offshore environments.
3.1 Research Philosophy and Research Methodology
Creswell (2003) referred to research philosophy as the researcher particular way of thinking about the
subject matter and this orientation is based on the premise that human experience make sense to those who lived
in it prior to all interpretation and theorizing “Whereas Saunders et al (2009) stated “research philosophy is
concerned with the way in which things are viewed in the world”. Hence, the researcher sees research
philosophy as a framework for observation and understanding which shape our thinking about the phenomenon
of investigation.
AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 124
 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
3.2 Research Design and Strategy for the Study
According to Robert (1999) research design is the integrated of plan, structure an strategy for the
purpose of investigating and preferring solution. It is proposed plan of action involving data collection,
presentation, analysis and eventual drawing of valid [Link] and quantitative methods are often
used in exploratory studies (Cooper &Schindler,2003). The combination of qualitative and quantitative methods
of data collection and analysis commonly called mixed method is the current trend on social
research(Cresswel,[Link] research adopt since it has the capacity to provide detailed and comprehension
data in order to achieved the research objectives and answer the research questions. It enables us to identify all
the affect areas in Kalabari region where oil spillage affected and the purpose of this research is to investigate
the effect of oil spillage on aquatic lives and property value which involve visiting the affected communities,
administration of questionnaire and discussing with local government chairman, fishermen, youth’s leaders and
the youth involved in the illegal bunkering.

3.3 Population of Study

The population for this study are fishermen, periwinkle(Isam) pickers, and youthsbecause they are the only
people who depends on marine ecosystem. According to Amanyie (2006) the people have been known for fish
farming activities as their source of livelihood but the land and water on which they depend on have been
threatened by oil spill, leaving the people without any means of livelihood. The chosen population also
possesses the relevant experience for the research question under investigation, having lived and experienced
different kinds of oil spills and operation of the oil and gas industries within the boundary and shores of the
region.
In the Kalabari region, there are three (3) Local Government Area. For the purpose of this studythree (3)
communities each were identified for investigation. The total population for this study is 189 respondents made
up of seven (7) periwinkle farmers, seven (7) fish farmers and seven (7) youths selected from each of the local
governments follows:
Table 3.1: Population Distribution for the Study
LGA/Communities Fishermen Periwinkle Youths Total
Pickers
ASALGA
- Buguma 7 7 7 21
-Abalama 7 7 7 21
- Ifoko 7 7 7 21
AKULGA -
Soku 7 7 7 21
-Idama 7 7 7 21
- Obonoma Ama 7 7 7 21
DELGA -
Oguru-Ama 7 7 7 21
-Bukuma 7 7 7 21
-Kes 7 7 7 21
Total Population 63 63 63 189

3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

This study examined the opinion of a cross section of fishermen, periwinkle(Isam) pickers, and youth.
In determining the sampling techniques, the researcher used purposively sampling techniques to select nine
communities of Kalabari region affected by oil spillage and the Snowball sampling to elicit information from
respondents because it enables the researcher to get one respondent who lead the researcher to get the next for
interviewed. This trends continue uniformly for the rest of the respondents. The snowball sample was used in
selecting 7(seven) respondent each from amongst periwinkle farmers, fish farmers and youths in each of the
three communities of Asalga, Akuku Toru and Delga. In all total of 189 respondents were selected and
interviewed.
3.6 Instrumentation and Data Collection
Data is the basic input to any decision making process in a research study. Data collection involves how data
needed for a research are gathered or brought together in order to achieved the objectives of the research, it is
the process by which the researcher collects the information needed to answer the researcher problem.
Instrumentation refers to the parameters and instruments used for collecting /gathering the relevant data needed
to achieve the objectives of the study or answer the research questions.
AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 125
 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
In this study two types of data were used, which are the primary source data and secondary source data. The
primary data includes suitable information from interview, questionnaire and physical inspection and
[Link] secondary source data includes information obtained from journals, textbooks, published and
unpublished works from the internet that that relate to the research topic.

3.7 Source of Data Collection

The source of data collection with regards to this research was derived from both primary and secondary sources
to answer the research questions and achieved the objectives of this study.
i) Primary Source Collection
Primary data refers to data are collected from field work under and the control and supervisor of the
researcher. Primary data is the original data that has been collected specifically by the researcher for
the purpose of the mind, they are generally first-hand information which may be source from methods
namely the formal “etic” method and the formal “etic” This classification is based on the degree of
formality of research design. At the formal end of the spectrum the researcher issue questionnaire
survey while the informal methods of generating primary data includes human observation (participant
observation /direct observation), structural or focus group discussion as well as case studies. This
adopty questionnaire survey and structural interviews to elict information relevant to the study.

ii) Secondary Sources

Secondary source data provide data that are already collected and presented in particular forms and
which could be useful to a large of interested uses. In other words, it involves analysis of data from
existing documents or records. Secondary data are obtained by reviewing textbook, seminar/conference
papers. Journals, websites documented reports etc. relevant to the study or the researcher.

Questionnaire
In this research, a structure survey was conducted with residents (household heads) and fishermen periwinkles
farmers and youths face to face. The questionnaire developed for the study was developed with direction from
the research questionnaire of Andre and Venise (2014). It was designed with closed ended, partially closed-
ended and a 5-points Likert scale for the purpose of extracting the residents, perception and expectation of the
Kalabari fish folk and others.
The research adopted the philosophical stance of social construction since it is aimed at finding the
effects of oil spills on aquatic lives and property.A mixed method approach involving the stimulation use of
both interviews and questionnaire survey was adopted elicit information from the study population. The unit of
analysis was the people who have lived in the communities of all their lives. A case study strategy was used
which allows for the collection techniques analysis. Data for this study was from primary and secondary sources
and the study adopt a purposive sampling technique which allows the researcher to sample of objectives of the
research.

4.1 Preliminary Survey Details

The sample size for this study is 189 comprising Periwinkle picking members, Fishermen and youths
from nine (9) communities across the three Local Government Area of Kalabari Region. A total of 189 semi
structured questionnaires were administered, out of which 138 questionnaires representing 73.02% were
retrieved and used for the analysis.

4.2 Analysis of Field Data

In order to analyse the results from the field work, the collected data from the field were organized and
analysed. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. Frequency table were drawn and from these the data
was presented in chart bars. The questionnaire were rated on a 5- -point Likert scale arrange in ascending order
of 1,2,3, 4 and 5 respectively. Strongly agree is rated the highest and assigned a value of 5 while strongly
disagree rated the least with a value of .one were made simpler with the application of a computer programme
called Statistic Package for Social Science (SPSS Version 21) and Excel software package and closed end-
questions.
Table 1: Educational Qualification of Respondents
CATEGORY Frequency Percentage
Gender
Females 63 45.65%
Males 75 54.35%
Duration of Stay in the Region

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 126

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
10-15 30 21.74%
18-20 62 44.93%
22-30 46 33.33%
Jobs Types
Fishing farming 43 31.16%
Periwinkle farmers 45 32.61%
Youths 50 36.23%
Educational Background
Primary 38 27.54%
Secondary 60 43.49%
BSC 40 28.96%

Respondent Profile 2020

Figure 1: Distribution of Respondent’s Educational Background

Figure 1: revealed the educational status of respondents that; 60% of the respondents are graduates with both
[Link]/OND, while 70% had went to secondary school, and 59% had primary school completed. This means the
respondents are relatively literate. It could be agreed that the rate of unemployment and economic hardship in
Kalabari region is the parent reason for this illegal bunkering and petroleum pipeline vandalisation by the youths
who aggressive by government and the oil producing companies. Odalonu (2015) observe that the causes of
illegal bunkering is restive of the youths who are annoy by government neglect of oil producing communities.
Sabotage and theft of oil are serious problems in the Niger Delta. However, international oil companies are
overstating the case in an effort to deflect attention away from the many oil spills that are due to corrosion and
equipment failure. Moreover, securing oil infrastructure against such acts is – to a substantial extent – the
responsibility of the operator.

Figure 2: Distribution of Respondent’s Gender

Figure2: Revealed that 54.35% of the respondents were males, while 45.65% of the respondents were Females.
This shows that majority of the respondents were male.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 127

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
Figure 3: Distribution of Respondent’s Duration of Stay

Figure 3: Distribution of Respondent’s Job Type

Figure 4 Reveals that 50% of the population fishing famer.

Research Objective 1: To Investigate the various Causes and impact of Oil Spills in the Kalabari region?
To investigate the various causes and impact s of oil spill in the Kalabari region, respondents were
asked to state the factors that are majorly responsible are shown in table 4.2 below:

Table 2: The Causes of Oil Spill in Kalabari Region.

Factors Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Sabotage 127 92.03 11 7.97
Equipment 49 35.51 98 71.01
failure
Corrosion 36 26.09 102 73.91
Leakage of 111 80.43 27 19.57
pipeline
Maintenance 17 12.32 121 87.68
error
Ageing of 18 13.04 120 86.96
pipeline
Blowout 104 80.43 34 24.64
Natural causes 16 11.59 122 88.41

From the above Table 4.2 shows the responses of the respondents on the various factors causing oil
spill in Kalabari region. On 127 respondent representing 92.03% said yes ,while 11 respondents representing
7.97 said No. On Equipment failure 49 respondents representing 35.51%.said Yes, while 98 respondent
representing 71.01% said No. On corrosion 36 respondent representing 26.09% said Yes and 102 respondent
representing 73.91% said No. On leakage of pipeline 111 respondents representing 80.43% said yes and 27
respondent representing 19.57 % said No. On maintenance 49 respondents representing 35.51% said Yes and
98 respondent representing 71.01% said No. On Ageing of pipeline 18 respondent representing 13.04 said Yes
and 120 respondents representing 13.04% said Yes while 120 respondent representing 86.96% said No. On
Blowout 104 respondent representing 80.43% said Yes while 34 respondent representing 24.64 said No. On
Natural causes 16 respondents representing 11.59% said Yes while 122 respondent representing 88.41% said
No.
Table 3: The impacts of oil spill in Kalabari region.
Rating Frequency Percentage
Strongly Disagree 5 3.62
Disagree 5 3.62
Undecided 7 5.07
Agree 50 36.23
Strongly Agree 71 50.72
Total 138

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 128

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
In the table above show the impacts of oil spill in Kalabari region 71 respondent representing 50.72%
Strong agree that oil spill has huge negative impacts in theKalabari region,50 respondent representing 36.23%
Agree that the oil spills has huge negative impact in the Kalabari region,7 respondents representing 5.075
Undecided that oil spill has negative effects in the region.5 respondent representing 3.62% Disagree that oil spill
has negative effects in the Kalabari region and 5 respondent represnting3.62% Strongly disagree that oil spill
has huge effect in Kalabari region.

What are the Effects of Oil Spill on property in the region?

Table 4: The effect of oil spill on property in the region.
Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Reduce property 100 72.46 38 13.04
value
Turning productive 120 86.96 18 42.03
land into waste
Compels indigene 95 68.84 43 31.16
to abandon their
land property
Destruction in 65.22 48 34.78
property 90
Discolouration of 110 79.71 28 20.29
roofs

The data above shows that there are various effects on oil spill on property value in Kalabari region 120
respondent representing 86.96% said yes that oil spill affect property by causing discolouration of roofs while
18 respondent representing 42.03% said No that it does not cause discolouration on roofs.100 respondents
representing 72.46% said yes that oil spill has reduce property value while 38 respondent representing 27.54%
No that oil spill does not affects property . 95 respondent representing 68.84% said Yes that oil spill compel
indigene to abandon their property ,while 43 respondent representing 31.16% said No. 90 respondent
representing 65.22% said Yes that oil spill has effect on destruction on property,while 48 respondent
represnting34.78% said No that oil spill has no effect on property value(RESP3). That oil spill cause
discolouration of buildings, and reduces property value and can be easily depreciated before the life span. We
therefore agree that many people have moved to nearby communities and state due to the pollution of black sots
as it also affects their health

What are the effects of oil spillage on aquatic lives

Effects Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Reduction in tourism 120 86.96 18 13.04
Destruction of 128 92.75 10 7.24
mangroves
Loss of fishes 138 100 0 0
Kill organisms 115 83.33 23 16.67

The above table shows the response of the respondent on the various effects of oil spill on aquatic lives
in Kalabari region. On loss of fishes in the Kalabari 138 respondent representing0%said Yes that oil spill has no
effect, while nobody said No that oil spill has caused loss of fishes in the Kalabari region. On destruction of
managrove 128 respondent representing 92.75% said Yes that oil spill has destruction of mangroves,while 10
respondent representing 7.24% said No that oil spill has no destruction of mangroves in Kalabari [Link]
reduction of tourism 120 respondent representing 86.96% said Yes that oil spill has effect on the reduction on
tourism,while 18 respondent representing 13.04% said No that oil spill has no effects on tourism. On kills
organism 115 respondent representing 83.33% said yes that oil spill kill organism in the marine,while 23
respondent representing 16.67% said No that oils spill hasa no effects on killing of organism.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 129

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021

Plate 1:Effects of Oil Spill on Aquatic Lives

What are the management systems that can address oil spills challenges in the Kalabari region?

Table 6:Shows the Management System for Addressing Oil Spills Challenge in KalabariRegion in Rivers
State.
Management system for SA A U D SD
addressing oil spill challenges
Youth involvement 58 50 30 0 0
(42.02) (36.23) (21.73)

Creation of employment for the 80 20 10 10 18

youth (57.97) (14.49) (7.24) (7.24) (13.04)
Care of the age elders 40 40 38 10 10
(28.98) (28.98) (27.53) (7.24) (7.24)
Protecting the environment 50 49 39 0 0
from pollution activities (36.23) (36.03) (28.26)

Legislation 8 30 40 39 21
(5.80) (21.74) (28.98) (28.26) (15.21)
Sources: Researchers’ Field Survey 2021

Table 6 shows that 58 respondents representing 42.02% strongly agree that Youth involvement is a
Management control system for addressing challenges of oil spill in the region, 50respondents representing
(36.23%) said agree, while 30respondents representing (21.73%) were unsure. On Creation of employment for
the youth, 80 respondents representing (57.97) strongly agree, 20 respondents representing (14.49agree, while10
respondents representing(7.24) were unsure, only 10 and 18 respondents representing 7.24%) and (13.04%)
disagree and strongly disagree respectively.
AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 130
 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
Similarly on Care of the age elders, 40 respondents representing 28.98% strongly agree, 40respondents
representing (28.98)said agree, while 38 respondents representing27.53% were unsure, only 10 and 10
respondents representing (7.24 & 7.24 %) disagree and strongly disagree respectively. Furthermore on
Protecting the environment from pollution activities, 50 respondents representing (36.23) strongly agree, 49
respondents representing 36.03 agree, while 39 (respondents representing 28.26 were unsure.
Finally, on Legislation, 8 respondents representing 5.80% strongly agree, 30 respondents representing
(21.74) agree, while 40 (respondents representing 28.98 were unsure, only 39 and 21 respondents
representing (28.26) and (15.1)disagree and strongly disagree respectively. However,(RESP 3)said “Federal
Government and oil companies should involve youths as security agencies on pipeline matters and also create
employment”. Another furious youthstated that “the only way to management the region is to pay compensation
on monthly bases as long as oil spill occurs that shell companies has stopped paying saying the youths are the
cause of oil spill”.

4.3 Impacts of Oil Spillage in the region.

Major oil spills contaminate coastal shoreline, causing severe localised ecological damage to the near-
shore communities. Ever since the discovery of oil spills in the region in 1956 in Rivers state, the region has
been suffering disastrous consequences of oil spills.
Oil spills in Kalabari region have been a regular occurrence, and the resultant degradation of the
surrounding environment has caused fears between the people living in the region and companies operating
there. It is only in the past years that environmental groups the Federal Government and foreign companies
operating in the region takes steps to mitigate the impacts. Large area of the mangrove ecosystem has been
destroyed.

4.4 Interpretation and Discussion of Finding

This results obtained from the analyses of the questionnaires.

What are the various Causes and Impacts of Oil spills to environment in the KalabariRegion?
The causes of oil spill are instigated by oil companies,sabotage,equipment failure,corrosion, leakage of
pipeline, maintenance error,ageing of oil pipeline , blowout,Oil spill have a great impact in Kalabari region has
affect the wellbeing of the people, The negative impact of oil spill in Kalabari region. (Table 4.2).This study
investigate that region have lost their tradition,culture,local economic value and means of livelihood (fishing
and periwinkle farmers) to oil spills, these economic losses aggravate the poverty level in the region.(Plate 4. 1).
Ever since the discovering of oil in Kalabari region the people have been suffering the negative impact of oil
spill, oil spill in Kalabari region have been a regular occurrence and between the people living in the region. It is
only in the past years that environmental groups, the Federal Government and the foreign companies mitigate
the impacts. The mangrove was once a source of firewood for the indigenous people and a habitat for the area's
oil spill contributes negatively to our environment and it also affects property causing deterioration on building,
causing easily dilapidation on buildings.
According (Nwilo and Badejo (2005) Oil spills has degradation the livelihood of many inhabitants in
the communities affected . Most spillages occur as a result of corrosion in the pipelines, sabotage and illegal
bunkering.
(Garrity and Levings, 1990). Oil settles on river and kills organisms that live there; it also settles on
ocean floor and kills organisms such as crabs. Oil poisons algae, disrupts major food chains and decreases the
yield of edible crustaceans (Nwilo and Badejo, 2005; Agunobi, 2014). In the Kalabari area, large areas of the
mangrove ecosystem have been destroyed.
(Anifowose,Aroh,2010 and Jike, 2004). Poor governance has been attributed to the region,with weak
governance and poor management of resources can encourage deliberate attacks on its infrastructural facilities.
This is because, these are the major challenges’ most oil producing state are facing. They are the institutional
factor whose inefficiencies can encourage deviant behaviour, especially among the youths.

What are the Basic Factors Responsible for Oil Spills in KalabariRegion?
Oil spill is one of the threatening environmental problems prevalent in the environment which pollution
caused by oil exploration and exploitation by oil companies within area and sabotage, theft and illegal bunkering
carried out by the youths .The factors responsible for oil spill are due to several reasons for control of where
possible. Poverty, Unemployment,youth restiveness,cultism and Negligence by government are also the factors
of oil spills in the environment.(Table4.3) of Basic factors responsible for oil spill in the [Link]
management, legal factors, poor governance, and environmental degradation are the major factors responsible
that cause oil pipeline vandalism in the Kalabari region of Nigeria.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 131

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
The popular argument is that it could only be fair if these groups of people are appropriately
[Link] to (Nwilo and Badejo 2005) Lack of unemployment ,negligence has essentially
contributing factors to youths restiveness, cultism, thief. Social tension, they live in survival of the fittest theory
which have negatively affects the people.
Okonkwo (2014).State that social impacts of oil spill covers violence,frustration,reduction in
[Link], Abangwu, and Nwano (2013) and Onuoha (2007) Finding stated that the weak laws and in
adequate compensation to victims of whose properties were damaged can encourage crime..

Research Question 3: What are the Effect of Oil Spill on Property.

Oil spill basically has affected property due to reduction property value,turning productive land into
waste,compel indigene to abandon their land property, destruction of property and discoloration of roofs.
Bunkering activities evaporate black dust which pollute the air and great effect on property, sometime oil flows
to the land where human are supposed to be occupied. Oil spills dilapidate properties before the life span. The
effect of oil spill on property (Table 4.4)
According to Ngene ( 2014). Such lands also become no useful for real estate development process.
This has lead to project abandonment in some cases and even collapse of buildings in others, thereby resulting in
loss of value of land Aina (1992) described that generally, Oil spills is the highest factor affecting property value
of all environmental degradation.

What are the effect of oil spill on Aquatic Lives?

The effects of oil spill in the region have resulted to negative perceptive on aquatic lives and causes
reduction in tourism,destruction of mangrove,loss of fishes and kills organism,of which the people depend on
aquatic lives the effects of oil spill in aquatic lives(Table 4.5) Akpan and Akpabio (2003) State that the people
of the region depend on aquatic live for daily living ,mostly in the form of fishing farming, and other marine
[Link] effects of oil spill on aquatic (plate 4.3) and (Plate 4.4). The harmful effect of oil spill on the
aquatic ecosystem are many, the fishing production is an essential part of the region because it provides income
for the people. Olujimi et al,(2011) Observed that Kalabari region ,pollution of rivers through oil spill have
resulted in massive extermination of fishes thereby threatening the social and economic life the communities
whose livelihood depends on the contaminated water,Ibaba (2001) observed that in the affected area where oil
spill occur the aquatic life is virtually castrated by many years of oil prospecting and exploration. In survey
carried out by Nwoko (2014) on the impact of pollution in the region87% of people agreed that fish yield has
decline due to pollution in their [Link] and Leving (1990).Oil settle on beaches and kills organism
that live their,it also settle on oceans floor and kills benthic bottom –dwelling organisms such as crabs and other
marine ecosystem.”Nwilo and Badejo (2005). In Kalabar region at large area the mangrove was once a source
of firewood for indigenous people and habitat for the area biodiversity but is unable to survive the oil toxic.
Ogbogbo (2004) stated that the consequences of oil spillage are massive pollution of land, rivers and
streams in the Niger delta. He argued that the aquatic environment and the ecology of the area, which constitute
a major resource for the people, are destroyed. Oil spills in Kalabari region has a frequently have been a regular
occurrence, and this result degradations of the surrounding environment has cause damage between the people
living in the communities affected. It is was actually in the past decades that environment organisation the
Federal Government and the foreign oil companies that operate in the communities takes step to stops the
impacts. The large area of the mangrove ecosystem have been destroyed. The mangrove forest was in a major
source of firewood for the indigenous people.
Oil that is spilled in the rivers or oceans affects the livelihood of the people because they depend on the
[Link] (1998) stated that the impact of oil spillage on the environment can be highly dangerous
with numerous socio-economic impacts, aquatic and terrestrial impact. These impacts include loss of fish,
degradation of aquatic resource and ecological damage. When on land, their crops are destroyed and farmlands
rendered desolated, whereas if it is a spill from an oil tanker, the rivers, streams, creeks and waterways are
massively polluted and aquatic life endangered if not obliterated (Ogbogbo 2004). He argued that people are
suffering from their traditional economic activity without any alternative. With time hunger, misery, joblessness
and a feeling of hopelessness pervades the communities. He further noted that the negative externalities of oil
production are borne solely by the oil producing communities without adequate compensation.

What are the management systems used in controlling oil spills in the Kalabari region?
A number of management measures to control oil spill already exist in the state different policies and
mechanics are being put in place to avert or react to oil spill giving instruction to oil exploitation and
exploitation activities enact with regard to oil spill [Link] manage and control the system of oil spill in
Kalabari region particularly as a result of vandalisation, sabotage, illegal bunkering causing oil spill in the
region, Federal Government should be part of the responsibilities of the commission, provide infrastructure, pay

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 132

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
compensation, clean up and employment for the youths which will reduce restive. In the same vein, the oil
companies must ensure that the communities are adequately compensated whenever there is an oil spill. Also,
alternative sources of livelihoods should be identified and strengthened, but this will require capacity building.
Furthermore, in this era of participatory development, the oil companies should not single handily proffer
solutions to oil spillage; they need the active participation of the rural communities. Their cooperation is
cardinal to the successful implementation of any remedial measures. (Ntukekpo, 1996). State that the Federal
Government shouldset up a new commission, the Oil Detection and Response Commission to managing oil spill
problems in oil producing area. Federal Government should reinforce Clean Nigeria Associates (C.N.A.) the
C.N.A. is a combination of eleven oil companies operating in Nigeria, including N.N.P.C. The primary purpose
of establishing the C.N.A is to maintain a capability to combat oil spills.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) decree No. 1992 was form to protect and sustain our
ecosystem. The law enables the development of an EIA compulsory for any major projects that have adverse
effects on the environment.

5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation

This chapter presents an overall summary of the research, it is basically on the concluding and proffers
recommendations on the effects oil spill on aquatic lives and property.

5.2 Conclusion
Since the discovery of oil in Kalabari region in Rivers State of Nigeria the people have been suffering
from the negative environmental consequences of oil development. Oil spill has affected the region drastically
including human and environmental degradation. The people of this region have lost their traditional means of
livelihood fishing farming, periwinkles pickers and other aquatic foods, including the deterioration of property
to oil spills, these economic losses aggravate the poverty level in the region rather than alleviate [Link] the
study concluded as follows:
(1) Oil spillage has had a major negative impact in Kalabari region of Nigeria, and the affected
communities as a whole. This can the result conflict between the oil companies and youths in the
communities resulting in frustrations, finger pointing, clashes, general resentment and mistrust.
(2) Management and control of spills have been handled poorly and this has directly contributed to an
escalation of the negative impacts on all involved. Central to the poor state of affairs are the largely
obsolete laws and regulations in Rivers State which have been outpaced by the prevailing technology
for crude oil development and use.
(3) Oil companies should monitor worn-out pipelines and replace them appropriately. Facilities for storing
petroleum products should always be maintained to best quality. Outdated pipelines and other drilling and
related infrastructures should be upgraded to the latest and best [Link] study conclude that there is an
increase of living cost due to damages to the environment, waterways, livelihood structures findings
indicated that the age structure of the residents showed the people are within the productive age . With
respect to educational the people are literate also Investigations revealed that many of them abandoned their
education because their parents' major source of income (fishing) has been badly affected by oil spillage.
Presently, the dominant occupation in the study area is fishing, which together with local government
council jobs are monthly workers.
Loss of traditional learning lifestyles due to restive situations, migration and socio-economic format devastation.
The identified effects on the communities have existed for decades, hence the communities have.

5.3 Recommendations
Bryman (2008) opines that is appreciable to suggest tactics and commendation from the investigation
and finding concerning an issue or a phenomenon. This study offered the following recommendations.
In order to ensure effective management of oil spills in Kalabari regions, the Federal Government and Federal
Environmental Protecting Agency should ensure that those responsible are held to account under the law
whenever a major oil spill incident pollutes the ecosystem. Although there have been an existing regulation in
the state but both state Government and state Government should step up its campaign against pipeline vandals
by prosecuting all people caught in this criminal act. The activities of the newly set up Niger-Delta
Development Commission should be closely monitored and supervised by the Federal Government. This will
ensure transparency, honesty and fairness to all in the Kalabari region;
(1) Digital maps should be made from the newly launched ideas to capturing Images from the satellite and
other satellites in orbit could that also be used for managing oil spill incidents in the country.
(2) State Government should please comprehend with the people,whereby, creating avenue for employments,
carrying out clean up and also pay compensation to the communities as whole according to the Oil
Pipelines Act (Cap 145 LFN 1990).

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 133

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
(3) There is urgent need for the government to expedite action and putnecessary measure in place to control
and prevent oil theft for illegal refining, sabotage and to carry out regular maintenance and replacement
of ageing oil pipelines which causes environmental pollution. The oil companies and the government to
provide socioeconomic activities including health care programmes, economic and social empowerment
scheme.

REFERENCE
[1] Akpan, N.S., Akpabio, E.M. (2003). Youth Restiveness and Violence in the Niger Delta region of
Nigeria: Implications and Suggested solutions. International Journal of Development Issues, 2(2), 37-58.
[2] Akpokodje,J., Salua,S.(2015).Oil Pollution and Agriculture Productivity in the Niger Delta of Nigeria,
Journal of Environmental Economics, 6(4), 68-75
[3] Atubi,A.O (2015).Effects of Oil Spillage on Health in Producing Communities of Delta State, Nigeria.
European Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(8), 14-30
[4] Badejo, O.T., Nwilo P.C., 2004: Management of Oil Spill Dispersal along the Nigerian Coastal Areas.
ISPRS Congress 2004, Istanbul, Turkey.
[5] Ebegbulem, J., Ekpe, D. and Adejumo T.O. (2010), Oil Exploration and Poverty in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria: A Critical Analysis. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(3), 279-
287
[6] Egbe, R. E., Thompson, D. (2010). Environmental challenges of oil spillage for families in oil producing
communities of the Niger Delta region. JHER, 13, 24-34.
[7] Egbe,O.D.(2012) .Environmental and Challenges of Development in the Niger Delta Region, Journal of
Home Economic Research,13,24-34
[8] Ekpenyong, N. S., Udofia, U. S. (2015). Oil Pollution and its impact on Water Quality in Ibeno
Community. Studies in Sociology of Science, 6(2), 8.
[9] Eteng, I. A. (1997), “The Nigerian State, Oil Exploration and Community Interest: Issues and
Perspectives”, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria, p. 4.
[10] Etikerente (2000) Effects of Oil Spills on Fish Production in the Niger Delta. Related Articles
[11] Etukekpo, D S (1996). Spillage: Bane of Petroleum. Report Published in Ultimate Water Technology &
Environment.
[12] Garrity, S.D., Levings, S.C. (1990). Effects of an Oil Spill on the Gastropods of a Tropical Intertidal reef
flat. Marine Environmental Research, 30(2): 119-153
[13] Ibaba, I. S. (2005). Understanding the Niger Delta Crisis. Port Harcourt. Harvey Publishing Company,
International Conference on the Nigerian State, Oil Industry and the Niger Delta.
[14] Ibaba, S. (2001). Understanding the Niger Delta crisis. Port Harcourt: Jiral Publication Company
[15] Ibaba, S. I. (2005). Understanding the Niger Delta Crisis. Port Harcourt: Amethyst and Colleagues
Publishers, 83.
[16] Imosemi, A., Abangwu, N., &Nwano, T. (2013). Climate change mitigation: An assessment of global
legal responses: So far so good?Journal of Research and Development,1, 79–96.
[17] Jike, V. T. (2004). Environmental degradation, social disequilibrium, and the dilemma of sustainable
development in the Niger-Delta of Nigeria. Journal of Black Studies,34, 686–701.
[18] Jike, VT. (2010). Oil companies and host communities: A probable scenario for reciprocal
empowerment. Journal of Human Ecology, 30(2), 131-142
[19] Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) (2001). NDDC profile, Niger Delta Development
Commission, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Retrieved October 12, 2018 from, htpp://[Link]
[20] Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) (2006). Niger delta regional development master plan,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria: NDDC.
[21] Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) Act (2000). (Establishment, ETC) Act, 2000 No.6
Retrieved September 12, 2018 from: [Link] [Link]
[22] Niger Delta Environmental Survey (NDES) (1996). The Niger Delta environmentalsurvey: Terms of
reference. Lagos: Environmental Resources Manager Limited
[23] Niger Delta Environmental Survey (NDES) (1996). The Niger Delta Environmental Survey: Terms of
reference. Lagos: Environmental Resources Manager Limited.
[24] NNPC. (2013). NNPC annual statistical bulletin (First edition). Corporate Planning and Strategy
Division. Retrieved from [Link]
[25] Ntukekpo, DS. (1996). Spillage: Bane of petroleum, ultimate water technology andenvironment.
Environment Resources Journal, 6(2), 100-105
[26] Nwankwo, J. N., Ifeadi, C. N. (1988). Case studies in the environmental impact of oil production and
marketing in Nigeria. In Sada, P. O., & Odemerho, F. O. (Eds.), Environmental Issues and Management
in Nigeria (pp. 208-228). Ibadan: Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 134

 American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2021
[27] Nwilo, Badejo.O.T.(2005).Impacts and management of Oil Spill Pollution along the Nigerian Coastal
[Link] Oil Spill Conference,Miami,Florida,USA
[28] Nwilo, P. C, Badejo O. T. (2005). Oil spill problems and man-agement in the Niger Delta. Paper
presented at International Oil Spill Conference, Miami, Florida, USA, May 2005
[29] Nwilo, P. C., Badejo, O. T. (2006). Impacts and management of oil spill pollution along the Nigerian
coastal areas. Administering Marine Spaces: International Issues, 119, 1-15.
[30] Ogbogbo, CBN. 2004. The Niger delta and the resource control conflict since 1960–1995 Ph.D.
Dissertations, Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
[31] Okonkwo, E. C. (2014). Oil spills in Nigeria: Are there social and economic impacts?. In International
Oil Spill Conference Proceedings Vol. 2014, No. 1, p. 300289. American Petroleum Institute.
[32] Okpo, O. C., &Eze, R. C. (2012). Vandalization of oil pipelines in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and
poverty: An overview. Studies in Sociology of Science,3(2), 18.
[33] Omajemite, BU. (2011). The Economic Dimensions of the Niger Delta Ethnic Conflicts. African
Research Review, 5(5), 46-55
[34] OMPADEC,(1996). Legislating Development in Nigeria Oil producing Region.
[35] Onuoha, F. (2007). Poverty, Pipeline vandalisation/Explosion and Human Security: Integrating Disaster
Management into Poverty Reduction in Nigeria. African Security Review,16, 94–108.
[36] Osuji, L. C., Ezebuiro, P. E. (2006). Hydrocarbon contamination of a typical Mangrove forest in Niger
Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Environment and Sciences, 3(3), 313
[37] Udoudoh, F.P. (2011).Oil Spillage and Management Problems in Niger Delta Nigeria. Journal of
Environmental and Safety,. 2, 137- 155.
[38] Ugochukwu, C. N., Ertel, J. (2008). Negative impacts of oil exploration on biodiversity management in
the Niger De area of Nigeria. Impact assessment and project appraisal, 26(2), 139-147.
[39] Ugochukwu, CNC., Ertel, J. (2008). Negative impacts of oil exploration on biodiversity management in
the Niger Delta area of Nigeria. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 26(2):139–147.
[40] United Nations Environment Programme UNEP. (2011). Environmental assessment of Ogoniland First
published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations Environment
Programme.
[41] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2011). Niger Delta human development report.
229pp.
[42] United Nations Development Report (UNDP). (2006). Niger-Delta Development Human Report. Abuja:
United Walter & Pettigrew.
[43] Zabbey, N 2004. Impacts of extractive industries on the biodiver-sity of the Niger Delta region, Nigeria.
Paper presented at National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management, Calabar, Cross-
River State, 7–9 September.

AJHSSR Journal P a g e | 135