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MODULE: 1
ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION:
Metals possess many useful properties, such as high malleability, ductility, luster, good electrical
conductivity being a few to mention. But in nature metals are not available in pure state. When
metals are extracted from natural sources - i.e. minerals or ores, some impurities are carried along
with the pure metals. Hence, to get pure metal, further purification has to be done, by various
different methods. But after all this processing, the pure metal obtained from its ore, loses some
vital characteristics and becomes practically useless for engineering purposes. Some of such
characteristics are its tensile strength, corrosion resistance and hardness. The pure metals are very
soft highly chemically reactive, highly malleable and ductile. Thus changes in these vital properties
reduce shock and wear resistance of metals. The high chemical reactivity makes pure metal
susceptible to corrosion.
The properties of pure metals can be improved by alloying the pure with another suitable
metal/non-metal, e.g. iron in pure state can be converted into steel, which shows the desired
properties such as hardness, toughness, high corrosion resistance etc. Here, steel is an alloy of iron
with carbon, chromium/manganese (metals) etc.

Definition

Q. Define an alloy. What is the purpose of making alloys? (May’11,’14,’15)

An alloy is a solid mixture of two or more metals or non-metals. Alloy has necessarily,
i. at least one metal (base metal)
ii. at least one additional metal or non-metal.
The properties of given metal (base metal) can be improved by alloying with other metals or
elements like carbon, phosphorus etc. When two or metals are mixed in their molten state and this
mixture is cooled, two metals remain in intimate mixture without separation, thus forming solid
mixture. This solid homogeneous mixture of two metals is called alloy. Thus, an alloy is a
substance/material formed by solidifying metallic solution of two or more metals/elements. Alloy
can also be defined as a solid solution where the solutes are the alloying elements whereas solvent
is the element in excess proportion (base or main metal).

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The homogeneous mixture of two or more metals must retain metallic characteristics and it also
must improve the properties of individual elements.

A) Ferrous Alloys

Alloys of iron with other metal(s) or/and non-metal are known as ferrous alloys. These are
commonly known as alloy steels. The metal iron generally is alloys by mixing with carbon and
any other element (metal) such as nickel alone or nickel and chromium both. Based on this, the
alloy of carbon (i.e. steels - widely known as plain carbon steels) are either

a) Three components i.e. (Fe, C, Ni) or

b) Four components i.e. (Fe, C, Ni, Cr)

Since these steels essentially contain iron and carbon, are known as plain carbon steels. The
percentage of carbon in steels ranges from 0.008% to 2%. The plain carbon steels are further
classified/named on the basis of its carbon content as,

1)Hypo eutectoid steel (0.008% to 0.8% carbon) which can be further sub classified as

i) low carbon/mild steel (0.008% to 0.2% carbon)

ii) medium carbon steel (0.2 to 0.5% carbon)

iii) High carbon/hard steel (0.5 to 0.8% carbon)

2)Hypereutectoid steel/ high carbon/very hard steel (0.8 to 2.0% carbon).

Steel can be classified on the basis of purpose as

i) Heat resisting steels

ii) Magnetic steels

iii) shock-resistant steels

iv) stainless steels

v) high speed steels

vi) spring steels

vii) Tool steels.

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Composition and properties of plain-carbon steels:

No. Variety of steel Carbon Properties and Uses
content/
composition
1 Hypo eutectoid 0.008% - Dark bluish colored
mild (low 0.2% with fibrous
carbon) steels structure, soft,
ductile, easily
strength. They are
shock resistant but
not corrosion
resistant and also not
susceptible to heat
treatment.
They are used to
make boiler
plates/tubes, gear,
wheel, nails, wires,
screws, rivets, bolts
etc.
2 Hypo eutectoid 0.2% - 0.5% Tougher, harder than
(medium low carbon variety,
carbon) steels good machinability,
less weld ability,
good tensile strength,
low shock resistance,
on heating gets
hardened.
They are used for
making various
machine parts,
turbine motors,
railway axles,
wheels, gears, shafts,
hydraulic fittings,

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spindles, automobile
engine parts etc.
3 Hypo eutectoid 0.5% - 0.8% Low weldability or
hard (high can be welded with
carbon) steels care, can be adjusted
for desired hardness.
These are used to
make wheels for
railways bogies,
cushion springs etc.
4 Hypereutectoid 0.8% - 2.0% These are wear
–very hard resistant, have good
steels weldabilty, high
tensile strength, can
be hardened,
toughened and
tempered easily.
These are used for
making various types
of tools, such as
cutting tools,
engraving tools,
drills, hammers, lathe
tools, planning tools,
slotting and shaping
tools, blades, knives,
ball-bearings,
springs, wire dies etc.

Special effects of alloying elements on alloy steels. (May’14,Dec’14,May’15)

Element Special effects
Aluminum Acts as deoxidizer, restricts growth of austenite grain

Boron Enhances hardenability of steel

Chromium Enhances hardenability, corrosion and oxidation

resistance, increases high-temperature strength. In high
carbon steels, it increases abrasion resistance

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Cobalt Contributes to hardness of steel.

Copper Enhances resistance to atmospheric corrosion

Lead Enhances machinability of alloy steels.

Manganese Improves hardenability of alloy steels moderately, so

also increases the strength of ferrite and reduces
susceptibility of alloy steel to heat treatment
Molybdenum Enhances i) resistance to softening in tempering ii)
tensile and creep strengths at high temperature iii)
hardenability iv) corrosion resistance of stainless steels
especially in chloride treatment v) in austenite the grain
coarsening temperature vi) resistance to susceptibility to
embrittlement during tempering
Nickel Along with other elements, renders moderate to high
hardenability, enhances strength of unhardened steels by
solid solution effect, enhances toughness steels
Niobium Increases strength of steels at high temperatures, retards
tempering, imparts a fine grain size.
Phosphorus Increases i) machinability ii) corrosion resistance iii)
strength and hardness iv) susceptibility of medium
carbon steels or temper embrittlement and decreases
ductility.

B) Aluminum and Its Alloys

Properties of Aluminum Alloys

Some of these aluminum alloys are more than four times as strong as the same weight of
mild steel.
They become stronger at comparatively lower temperatures.
They are not suitable at temperatures in the range of 300 to 400°C.
They are malleable and ductile.
Aluminum and its alloy can be cast, forged, welded, extruded, rolled etc.

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Uses of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

The intensive demand for aluminum and its alloy is due to their physical, mechanical and chemical
properties. Aluminum and its alloys are used for the following:

Transportation industry – To make structural frame-work, engine parts, trim and decorative
features, hardware, doors, window frames, tanks, furnishing and fittings. In trucks, buses, trains,
and automobile cars and aero planes accessories and in their component equipments, refrigeration,
storage containers, bakery equipments, shipping containers etc.
In food industry - Aluminium alloys find applications as food preparation equipments.
This is because of their non-toxic nature

In architectural field - Aluminium alloys find uses such as window frames, doors hardware,
roofing, coping sills, railing, fasteners, lighting fixtures, solar shadings, grill because these alloys
are highly malleable and ductile.

In heavy duty structures - They are used in structures such as dragline booms, travelling cranes,
hoists, conveyor supports, bridges etc. because these alloys are tough and strong at lower
temperatures.

In process industries - Parts made up of aluminium and its alloys are used to handle organic
chemicals, petrochemicals and drugs. Tanks, drums, pipes, heat exchangers, gratings, smock-
stacks, precipitators, centrifuges, valves, fittings etc. are produced from aluminium alloys, because
the passivation of aluminium makes its alloys highly useful even in chemical industries.

Overhead conductors and heat exchange parts - These are also made from aluminium alloys. These
alloys find cryogenic applications too. In this chapter, the composition, properties and uses of
alloys of
I) Aluminium (e.g. Duralumin, Magnalium)
II) Copper(Brasses) (e.g. Brass, Commercial brass, German silver)
III) Copper(Bronzes) (e.g. Gun-metal, Aluminium bronze, Nickel bronze)
IV) Lead and tin (e.g. Solders)
are studied for their composition, properties and uses.

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The Table below gives the details of these specific examples.

Element Properties Uses

composition
(a) It is light weighted, Ductility and good
Duralum tough,highly ductile,easily electrical conductivity.
in castable, good conductor
Al= 95% of heat and electricity and
Cu = 4% corrosion resistant.

Mn=0.5 It can be easily worked as

% it possesses high

Mg = machinabilty.

0.5% Its tensile strength can be

raised by heat treatment
upto 2000kg/cm2 without
affecting its ductility.
It Approaches steel in
strength and yet its density
is one third that of steel.
(b) It is strong and tough and It is used for making
Magna- lighter than aluminium. It scientific instruments,
lium possesses mechanical balances, aeroplane
Al = 70- properties similar to brass. parts etc.
95%
Mg = 30-
5%

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C)Alloy
of
Copper
(1) Brass They possess high
Cu = 60- resistance to corrosion and
90% Zn are easily machinable. It
= 40- also acts as a good bearing
10% material. They are ductile
and strong. They possess
greater strength than
copper, however, it has a
lower thermal and electrical
conductivity. They have
lower melting point than
'Cu' and 'Zn1.
1(a) Stronger and harder than It is used for jewellery
Commer pure copper. It possesses making, coins, medals,
cial shades of colours from the fuse caps, tokens, rivets,
Brass red of copper to yellow of screws, ] costumes, hard
Cu = 85 - brass. wares and Supplied
95% mainly in the form of
Zn = 15 - sheet, strip and wire.
05%
1(b) It possesses good corrosion Used for bolts, screws,
German resistance and strength. It is ornaments, utensils,
Silver extremely ductile, table ' wares, corrosion
Cu = malleable, and looks like resistant implements,
50% silver. coinage, decorative
articles etc.

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Zn =
20%
Sn =
30%
(2) It possesses superior
Bronze mechanical properties and
Cu = 80 - corrosion resistance than
95% Sn brass. It is comparatively
= 20 - hard and it resists surface
05% wear. It can be shaped, or
rolled into wire^ rod and
sheets
2(a) Gun metal It is hard, tough, strong to resist the It is used for hydraulic fittings,
force of explosion. Presence of zinc heavy load bearings, foundry
Cu = 85% Zn =
cleans the metal and increases its works, parts of high pressure
5% Sn = 5% fluidity. Lead improves Castability steam plants, marine pumps,
and machinability. water fittings etc.
Pb = 5%

2(a)(i) It has tensile strength of 260 It is widely used for

Admiralt - 340 N/m2. pumps, valves and
y gun miscellaneous castings
metal and is also used for
Sn = making statues.
10%
Zn = 2%
Pb=
1.5%
Ni=
1.5%
Cu =
Balance

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2(a)(ii) Nickel When sand cast and heat treated, it Bearings, steam pipe fittings,
gunmetal Sn = has a tensile strength of 430 to 480 marine castings etc.
7% Zn = 2.25% N/m2.
Pb = 0.3% Ni =
5.5% Cu = 85%
2(a) (iii) Leaded When sand cast it has a tensile This is among the most widely
gunmetal strength of 200 to 270 N/m2. used grades, particularly where
Sn = 5% pressure tightness is required.
Zn = 5%
Pb = 5%
Ni = 2%
Cu = 83%
2(b) Aluminums It possesses good strength, high It is used for making bearings,
Bronze corrosion resistance good heat valve seats, gears, propellers,
Cu = 80-91% resistance, good cold working slide valves, cams, imitation
Al = 6 - 8% Fe= properties, etc. It is quite strong, jewellery, pump parts etc.
1.5-3.5% Sn = readily fusible, possesses good
0.5% abrasion resistance, golden colour
etc.
2(c) Nickel Nickel bronze is hard, It is used for rolling
Bronze higher in tensile strength purposes, unhardened
Cu = 90% and better corrosion shafts, valves, semi hard
Ni = 9% Resistant than copper. bearings and general
Fe= 1% Purpose.

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D) Alloys of Pb (lead):
These alloys are commonly known as solders. The most widely used examples of this
category are given in table with their compostions, properties and uses.
Sr Name of Compositi Properties Uses
. alloy on
N
o.
1 Soft Pb = 37- Low M.P. Used for
solder 67 %, Sn electrical
=31-60% , connectio
Sb = ns,
0.12% sealing tin
cans
2 Tinman Pb = 34%, Low M.P. Used for
n’s Sn = 66% joining
solder articles of
tin
3 Woods Bi = 50%, Melting It is useful
metal Pb = 25%, point as a low
Sn = 65.50C, melting
12.5%, density solder,
Cd = 9.7gms/c low
12.5% m3. Stable. temperatu
Incompati re casting
ble with metal, as
acids, a filller
oxidising walled
agents, metal
halogens, tubes.
interhalog
en
compound
s. Harmful
by
inhalation
or if
swallowed
.

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E) Numerical based on Composition, density and weight of alloys

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