LECTURE 1

REASONS FOR SAFETY MANAGEMENT AT WORK, TERMİNOLOGY

AND CONCEPTS

It is estimated that more than 300 million industrial accidents occur

worldwide every year, and more than 2.3 million people die as a result of industrial
accidents and occupational diseases. These figures show that every 15 seconds 153
workers have a work accident and every 15 seconds one worker dies as a result of
a work accident. In addition, 374 million nonfatal work-related injuries occur each
year. Each of these injuries causes more than 4 days of lost work capacity
(International Labor Organization (ILO), 2020). About thousands of work
accidents occur in Azerbaijan every year, and about 70 people die in these
accidents every year (Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population,
State Labor Inspection Service, 2016-2018). These figures do not include injuries
or deaths from undeclared work. Considering this situation, the terrible picture of
industrial accidents deepens. Living with death, injury and limb loss, and the loss
of the right to health, it is possible to say that HSE (Health Safety Environment)
science serves the purpose of protecting the most important/vital constitutional
rights of individuals.
The invention of the steam engine and the establishment of large factories,
when technological developments complicated production processes, the intensive
preference for shift work and overtime to increase production, the ignorance of the
workforce about the equipment, greatly increased industrial accidents and health
problems compared to previous times. In addition to the damage caused by the
machines to the workers, the chemicals used over time began to cause occupational
diseases in the workers. Harmful gases, dusts and polluted air used in the working
environment caused long-term deterioration of workers' health, and for this reason
concessions were given to women and children.
In the field of HSE, some countries around the world are coming together to
form superior organisations and are taking initiatives to address inequalities
between countries by adopting common rules. Among these organisations are the
European Union and the ILO. The ILO was created as an agency of the United
Nations (UN) in 1919 by the Treaty of Versailles signed at the end of the First
World War. About 200 countries are members of the ILO. Azerbaijan became a
member of the ILO on 12 May 1992. In addition, in an international sense,
Azerbaijan has become a party to many ILO conventions on ESM and has
integrated the articles of the convention into its domestic legislation.
 1.1The reasons for safety in the workplace

There are many reasons why safety in the workplace needs to be effectively
managed. The most important of these are the following:
Moral concern
Responsible organizations and individuals confirm that they have a moral
obligation to take safety measures to ensure that their work does not harm people.
Organizations want to be an employer that cares about its employees, as well
as a responsible partner that pays attention to safety in the industry, takes a positive
approach and is accountable. They therefore readily recognize the need for a safe
working environment regardless of legal requirements.
We care about health and safety in the workplace, and are responsible for
those who rely on us for financial and emotional support. In the event of death or
serious injury in the workplace, the emotional toll on families is devastating and no
one is prepared to inform the family of an injured colleague of their loss.
As responsible individuals, we must ensure that our actions or inactions in
the workplace do not negatively impact our colleagues or others, as no one has to
accept the moral consequences of events.
Financial Issues
Damages caused during an incident include the following:
- Loss of production equipment and commercial products;
- Damage to machinery and equipment;
- Sickness benefits for an injured employee;
- Expenses in relocating employees;
- Increased insurance costs;
- Negative publicity;
- Loss of customers /customer confidence;
- Large fines and compensation
The way security is delivered depends on the efficient and effective
organisation of work. An organization with a good reputation for security will
attract quality clients. It can also help attract and retain talented employees.
Personal damage
The damage caused to individuals and their families during an incident can
be severe. In addition to the consequences of fatal accidents already mentioned,
during any incident or dangerous situation, a worker may experience permanent or
long-term health problems or be forced into early retirement.
For some people, this condition can lead to low self-confidence and changes
in relationships with family and friends that have detrimental effects.
Safety issues are part of every employee's duties and responsibilities.
 Firstly, the written terms and conditions of employment relate to compliance
with the company's safety policies and procedures, which are part of our
employment contract.
Secondly, our documents such as job descriptions or company health and
safety policies certainly refer to specific aspects of health and safety for which we
are responsible.
Finally, the legislation clearly defines the legal requirements for employers
and employees, and compliance with such requirements is mandatory.
Daily workers are especially required to:
- Ensure proper risk control by working safely;
- Ensure that the correct tools and equipment are used for the job;
- Ensure that dangerous and unsuitable tools and equipment are not used;
- Listen and respond to the health and safety concerns of others;
- Report concerns to supervisory authorities when necessary;
- Proactively assess positive safety behaviors and correct deficiencies;
- Lead the workplace by personal example.
Legal requirements
Despite our concern for creating a safe working environment, many
countries have not achieved this goal sufficiently.
Occupational health and safety laws have their roots in the Industrial
Revolution. During this time, people moved from villages or family farms to
factories.
The laws have gradually evolved over 200 years and today's legislation is
fully developed.
Law areas
In many countries, there are two main branches of law: criminal law and
civil law. One of the important differences between criminal law and civil law is
who brings a case to trial.
In criminal law, it is the "state" that seeks to prove the defendant guilty
"beyond a reasonable doubt". In a civil case, the plaintiff is an individual or
organization and when there is a conflict between two parties, it is the 'defendant'
who brings the case to court.
Health and safety issues in the workplace can fall into both areas. If a serious
incident occurs in the workplace, the relevant authority can take legal action
against the responsible person (usually the employer) on behalf of the state.
Legal action can be brought based on statutory, regulatory and technical
legal acts of central and local government or in the event of a breach of any of
these.
 Individuals injured in an incident can file a separate lawsuit against the party
responsible for their injuries (usually their employer). A civil case can be brought
for two important reasons:
Example
- Firstly, where there is a breach of statutory duty - if an employer fails to
comply with legal requirements to protect employees from dangerous levels of
noise in the workplace, the employee is harmed by that noise.
- Secondly, a court case may be brought on the basis that the employer is
'legally liable' against the employee. In this case, the plaintiff uses the laws related
to negligence to prove the case, or generally the plaintiff can go back to court if a
violation of the law is found.
For such a claim to succeed, the plaintiff must be able to show that there is
"legal liability" and that the employer's wilful indifference caused the employee
harm if the prior warning was ignored. The standard of proof in many jurisdictions
is the "balance of probabilities."
Other concepts that have developed under the common law (law that has
evolved over time through judicial decisions) include the idea of 'Liability for the
conduct of others'. Here, the employer is liable for the negligent acts of their
employees.
There is also a concept called "Joint Fault" whereby any fixed penalty can be
reduced if the court proves that the injured party was partly to blame for causing
the damage.
Special duties of the employer to the employee
In many countries, an employer has a duty to ensure that an employee is safe
in the workplace. This is a large-scale endeavor that includes:
- providing and maintaining safe equipment and work systems;
- organizing, storing and transporting items and substances for safe use;
- providing necessary information, instruction, training and supervision,
- providing a safe workplace with safe means of entry and exit;
- providing and maintaining a safe working environment with appropriate
equipment and facilities to ensure safety at work.

Specific duties of the employee to the employer

In the law of most countries, health and safety is considered a joint

responsibility of employers and employees. An employee:
 look after the health and safety of himself or herself or others who
may be harmed by his or her actions;
 co-operate as necessary for the employer to comply with legal
requirements.
 In addition, no person shall knowingly or unintentionally violate or abuse
any provisions relating to health, safety and welfare.
Behavioral aspects
To motivate people, it is essential to take health and safety action towards
employees and ensure that there is a general understanding of the risk.
The company assesses the organization's knowledge and commitment to
health and safety by consulting with employees on health and safety issues.
This helps to create and reinforce an appropriate safety culture so that the
work team and individual members take a 'self-regulated' approach to health and
safety at work.
This means that if new members are recruited to the working group, they
adopt the group's 'norms' and standards. If the standards are high, new employees
will adopt those high standards.
If the structure is not organized in this way, there is a risk that the working
group will take a poor approach to health and safety.
If standards are not being met, immediate intervention is needed.
Good behavior must be recognized and rewarded to increase demand.
Human beings are social creatures and like to be liked.
Employees must be able to demonstrate a genuine commitment to health and
safety at all times.

1.2. Terminology and concepts

Modern man lives surrounded by hazards of various nature, i.e. he is

surrounded by events, processes and objects that may threaten his health and life in
general. There is not a single day when newspapers, radio and television do not
report alarming news about another accident, catastrophe, natural disaster, etc.,
resulting in human casualties, huge material damage.
According to many experts, one of the reasons for this situation is the low
level of initial education in the field of activity safety. From an early age, a person
begins to understand what danger is and how it can affect his or her life.

Let's consider the main terms of the HSE theory.

A person always works in one way or another, is engaged in some kind of

activity. By working, man creates moral and material values, without which human
life is impossible. Everything we use in everyday life - clothes and food, houses
and gardens, means of transport and communication, books and paintings, complex
knowledge about our environment and many other things - is the result of human
activity. Action is the real driving force of social progress and the condition of
human existence.
Everyone is busy - children, adults, old people. A man is considered by his
activity. But what is an activity?
From a biological point of view, activity is a set of complex physiological
and biochemical processes in the human (and animal) organism.
In HSE an activity is understood as an active interaction of a person with the
external environment, as a result of which a person consciously achieves a goal.
The source of human activity, the primary motive of activity is his needs.
Demand is an objective necessity, a person's need for something: things, energy,
information. By the nature of needs, we distinguish biological needs (food, water,
rest, etc.), social needs, material needs (needs for clothes, housing, household
items, means of transport, etc.), spiritual or cultural needs (listening to music,
watching films and plays, reading books, communicating with people, etc.).
A demand (need) arising in a person motivates him to action.
Labor is a purposeful human activity aimed at creating material and moral
values with the help of instruments of labor. The labor process, according to K.
Mark, "...is first of all a process between man and nature" ("Capital", vol. 1), i.e. a
form of interaction between man and the environment.
Environment - a set of elements (real objects, events, animate and inanimate
natural processes) that can directly or indirectly, quickly or remotely affect human
activity, health and future generations under certain conditions.
Such elements include things, tools and means of labor; energy; technology,
operations, actions (effects); natural elements: natural and climatic conditions (air
temperature, precipitation, wind, lightning, earthquake, flood, etc.); people;
production and social relations (organizational, managerial, economic); spiritual
and psychological elements (spiritual culture, social psychology, etc.).
Social environment - everything that surrounds a person in their social
(public) life. This includes family, friends, etc. and their relationships.
The production environment is a part of the human environment formed by
natural, climatic and occupational factors affecting a person in the process of labor
activity. Such an environment is, for example, the bottom of a well for a miner, a
workshop for a laborer, a field for a farmer, a classroom for a student, and an
auditorium for a student. The production environment, like the home environment,
has physical and social components. The first component includes equipment and
technological processes, and the second component includes the social processes of
the workforce.
The method of scientific cognition that perceives objects as a system is
called the system approach. The system approach is realized in system analysis.
System analysis is a set of methodological tools (scientific-cognitive methods)
used in the development and justification of solutions to complex problems
(scientific, production, technical, economic, etc.) and based on the system
approach, construction of mathematical models and modern management.
methods. methods.
Elements of the production environment that affect people in the process of
labor are called production factors. Throughout his activities, a person is under the
constant influence of numerous material factors - physical, chemical and
biological. In addition, psychogenic factors directly affect man as a social being.
The totality of production factors that affect the health and performance of a
person in the process of labor is called working conditions. Undoubtedly, a person
should work in labor conditions suitable for his organism.
Trauma (from Greek trauma - injury) is a violation of anatomical integrity or
physiological functions of tissues and organs of the body due to the impact of
external factors. In this approach, the concept of disease acts as a general concept
that includes the concept of trauma. However, for practical purposes, it is more
convenient to consider trauma separately, and other diseases (except for trauma)
separately, independently.
A characteristic feature that distinguishes injuries (traumas) from diseases is,
as a rule, sudden (or at least rapid) damage to human tissues and organs, resulting
from a single impact of an external factor. Tissue and organ dysfunction occurs
either at the time of injury or shortly thereafter. This allows the time of injury to be
accurately recorded.
Unlike trauma, a disease is a gradual build-up of changes in the organism as
a result of prolonged and continuous exposure to unpleasant factors. It is often
impossible to determine the moment of onset of the disease; we can only speak of a
time interval of the onset of the disease. Often these intervals are counted in
months.
Industrial factors are divided into hazardous and harmful by the nature of
their impact on humans.
A hazardous factor - is a factor, that effect of which a person under certain
conditions and leads to injury or death. Hazardous factors include, for example,
moving machines and mechanisms, cutting tools, hot surfaces, electric current,
rockfalls and avalanches, sudden coal and gas emissions, explosions of rocks, etc.
The hazardous factors include, for example, moving machines and mechanisms,
cutting tools, hot surfaces, electric current, rock falls and avalanches, sudden coal
and gas emissions, explosions of rocks, etc.
If a hazardous factor has affected a person in a production environment, it is
said that the person has suffered an occupational accident. In other words, an
industrial accident is when an employee suffers a work injury.
 The aggregate of occupational injuries that occurred to workers over a
period of time creates a negative phenomenon such as occupational trauma.
A harmful factor is a factor, which, under certain conditions, causes illness
or reduced ability to work.
Harmful factors include: for example, noise and vibration generated by
equipment, low or high air temperature, humidity and speed; inadequate lighting;
electric and magnetic fields; toxic gases, vapors and dust; pathogenic
microorganisms, nervous and mental overstrain, etc.
Diseases are divided into such groups as occupational diseases and general
(every day) diseases. A disease is considered to be an occupational disease if it is
caused by injuries (harmful factors) characteristic of a certain production area and
does not occur or hardly occurs outside these production conditions. Occupational
poisonings are a special case of occupational diseases. Occupational poisoning can
be acute and chronic.
It should be noted that there is no fundamental difference between hazardous
and harmful factors, as the same factor can cause both disease and damage
depending on the level of exposure and duration of exposure. For example,
industrial dust can enter the body and cause the occupational disease silicosis (a
more severe form of pneumoconiosis) and can damage the eye if ingested; Noise
can cause severe occupational hearing loss and can cause hearing damage such as
eardrum rupture, ionising radiation can cause radiation sickness and can also cause
lightning radiation injury.
It should be noted that the person himself is a source of danger. By his
actions or inaction, he can create a real threat to the life and health of himself and
others. Anthropogenic hazards are very diverse. Wars, socio-political conflicts,
crimes, alcoholism, drug addiction, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome),
hunger, poverty, and the low culture of communication between people - all these
and similar vices of human society belong to social hazards.
Thus, environmental hazards can be divided into three groups: natural, man-
made and social.
Scientists argue that no matter what activity a person is engaged in, no
matter where he or she is, there are always hidden forces that threaten him or her.
These are potential (Latin potentio - hidden power, strength, opportunity) hazards.
However, the presence of potential dangers around us does not mean that
misfortune will be inevitable. Certain conditions, called causes, are necessary for
this to happen.
We drink tea every day. Hot water is potentially dangerous. We can burn
ourselves at any time. But fortunately, this rarely happens. Accidents usually
happen because of our inattention or the negligence of others.
 To protect human health and life, it is necessary to be well aware of the
reasons for turning potential hazards into actual, real hazards and to eliminate them
promptly.
Life experience shows that any activity is potentially dangerous. This idea is
axiomatic.
Hazards can occur both in production and normal (ordinary, regular)
situations (conditions), as well as in emergencies of peacetime and wartime.
Emergencies and events are considered deviations from the usual, normal
course of events in a certain territory as a result of the following circumstances:
a) as a result of a dangerous natural phenomenon (natural disaster);
b) as a result of an industrial accident or catastrophe (emergency
technogenic event);
c) as a result of environmental pollution by industrial wastes and other
substances (emergency environmental event);
d) as a result of the use of modern means of destruction by the enemy
(socio-political conflicts).
Emergencies can and do lead to human casualties, damage to human health
and the natural environment, cause significant material damage, and disrupt normal
human activities.
Hazards are material in nature. The material carriers (substrates) of hazards
are objects that make up the labor process and are part of it:
1) tools of labor (everything that can be processed, to which human labour is
directed). They are given by nature (e.g. minerals, forests) or are the product of
formerly objectified labor: steel, iron, wood, cotton, etc.);
2) means of labor (machines, machines, tools, instruments, appliances,
buildings, roads, etc.);
3) energy (electrical, chemical, atomic, mechanical, thermal, muscular, etc.);
4) products of labor and semi-finished products;
5) technology, operations, movements;
6) natural and climatic conditions (thunderstorms, floods, precipitation, solar
activity, physical parameters of the atmosphere, etc.);
7) flora, fauna, people;
8) ecological production environment.

Sources of hazards arising from the analysis of the production environment

are divided into two types: external and internal. External sources of hazards
consist of two types of events: the state of the production environment and errors
or unforeseen actions of personnel that cause accidents and create a hazardous
environment (situation) for people. Also, different factors of the production
environment affect differently: if the equipment and sanitary and hygienic
conditions pose a direct threat, the socio-psychological environment, unsatisfactory
state of interpersonal relations in the team, except for direct damage, affect the
person through his mental state, and his adaptation (adaptation) violates the ability
to discipline. Internal sources of hazards are related to the socio-psychological
characteristics of the employee and are determined by the characteristics (personal
qualities) that represent the subjective side of the threat. The mismatch of
environmental characteristics with human characteristics gives rise to the
phenomenon of danger.
The objective basis of the threat is the diversity of the human-environment
system. Negative consequences caused by this system can arise from various
mismatches and dysfunctions between humans and the environment.
It should be noted that the concept of hazard is usually used in relation to
people. But it can also be used to refer to animals and even inanimate objects.
Taxonomy of hazards. Taxonomy (Greek taxis - arrangement + nomos - law)
is the science of classification and systematization of complex phenomena, objects,
and concepts, usually having a hierarchical (multi-level) structure. Since a hazard
is a complex concept with many characteristics, hazard taxonomy plays an
important role in the organization of scientific knowledge in the field of
operational safety and allows for a deeper understanding of the nature of hazards.
A complete and up-to-date classification of the modern taxonomy of hazards
has not yet been developed.
Hazards can be classified based on the following categories:
a) There are two types of hazards based on their origin: natural or
environmental hazards (arising from the natural environment such
as extreme temperatures, precipitation, encounters with wild
animals, and other natural phenomena) and anthropogenic hazards
(caused by human activities and their creations). Anthropogenic
hazards can be categorized into three types: technogenic (caused by
machinery such as noise, electric current, and ionizing radiation),
environmental (harmful waste and waste products that pollute the
environment), and social (including wars, socio-political conflicts,
hunger, and alcoholism).
b) It is important to understand that there exist two categories of
human exposure factors: hazardous and harmful. The hazardous
type can result in injury or even death, while the harmful type can
lead to various illnesses. Being aware of these factors can help us
take necessary precautions to ensure our safety and well-being.
c) Exposure can occur in different ways: physically (due to moving
machines, high levels of vibration, or inadequate lighting in the
workplace), chemically (due to exposure to toxic, carcinogenic, or
 other harmful substances), biologically (due to pathogenic
microorganisms and macroorganisms), and psychophysiological
(due to physical, mental, and nervous tension).
d) Determined by location, there are several categories: lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and space hazards.
e) There are two types of negative consequences based on their
duration of manifestation: impulsive consequences that have an
immediate and sudden action, and cumulative consequences that
affect after the accumulation of frequent "irritations."
f) There are two types of hazards based on their structure: simple
hazards such as electric current and increased air dustiness, and
derived hazards caused by the interaction of simple hazards such as
explosions and fires.
g) Hazards can be classified based on their impact on humans, either
directly or indirectly. Directly impacting hazards carry the risk of
causing immediate damage, such as noise, radiation or lighting.
Indirectly hazardous situations do not directly affect humans. For
instance, the corrosion of metals is not a direct threat to humans.
However, if corrosion weakens parts, structures, machines, or
devices, it can cause an accident and pose a direct danger, if the
appropriate protection method is not applied.
h) Interacting with people and equipment can result in various
harmful effects, such as noise, fatigue, stress, and exposure to
dangerous substances. Hazards can be activated by energy and
manifest through corrosion, imperfections, and overloading. It's
important to be aware of these risks and take precautions to prevent
harm.
i) Manifestation of the striking effect can be classified into two types:
real, which poses an immediate danger, and potential, which exists
in a hidden form and may only become apparent under certain
circumstances. This potentiality is a characteristic of hazards that
may only become evident under specific conditions. When a
possible threat becomes an actual threat, it is known as threat
actualization.
j) Categorized by type of danger, there are several areas to consider,
including industrial, domestic, road, sports, military, and more.
k) The hazards have resulted in various negative outcomes such as
fatigue, illnesses, injuries, accidents, and even deaths among
people.
 l) There are several factors that can result in harm, including hazards
of social harm that may impact health or reduce life expectancy,
hazards of economic harm that can lead to reduced labor
productivity, absenteeism, and sick pay, hazards of technical harm
that may cause equipment failure and facility destruction, and
hazards of environmental harm that can result in soil and water
pollution.

LECTURE II
IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDS AND RISKS. HAZARD CATEGORY

Human experience shows that absolute safety cannot be achieved in any

activity. This statement can be formulated as the following axiom: every activity is
potentially dangerous.
What are the common hazards?
Common hazards exist in every workplace. You must be aware of them and
know what to do about them.
According to the British "Institute of Occupational Safety and Health"
IOSH, hazards are generally divided into six groups:
- Mechanical
- Physical
- Chemical
- Biological
- Environmental
- Organizational

Mechanical hazards
Mechanical hazards occur during the operation of mechanical equipment or
tools, and the applied force can be created by a machine or a person. Some
examples of mechanical hazards are unguarded machine tools, manufacturing
equipment and vehicles.
As a result of mechanical hazards, anyone can be injured as a result of:
- Contact or entanglement in machinery or equipment.
- Being struck and crushed due to contact with a moving part of machinery
or equipment.
- Being injured by broken parts of machinery or equipment in motion.
Mechanical hazards are categorized according to the type of damage they
can cause as follows:
 - Crushing
- Cutting
- Cutting and tearing
- Wandering
- Pulling or grabbing
- Influencing
- Flooding and puncturing
- Friction and wear
- High-pressure fluid injection
Physical hazards

Physical hazards are substances or conditions that are detrimental to a

person's physical safety. Examples of physical hazards include fire, electricity,
vibration, clutter, drilling, demolition, and other physical factors.
Physical hazards are the most common type of workplace hazards and
include dangerous conditions that can lead to injury, illness, and death.
The most common types of injuries include:
- Stuck
- Sliding
- Falling from heights
- Injuries from falling objects
- Electrocution.
- İnjuries caused by road traffic accidents.
- Muscle strain and bone pain due to vibration.

Chemical hazards
Chemicals are considered hazardous because of their properties to harm
people, property, or the environment.
Some chemicals occur naturally, such as arsenic or radon, while others are
manufactured for commercial or household use. Examples of chemical hazards
include paints, varnishes, bleach and diesel fuel.
The following substances can be chemical hazards:
- Used directly in work activities (e.g. adhesives, paints, cleaning materials
and other chemicals).
- Generated during work activities (e.g. vapors from soldering and welding,
substances from chemical reactions in chemical industries, laboratories)
The level of damage depends on the way and speed of ingestion.
Chemicals can harm human health by entering the body in the following
ways:
- Absorption through the skin
 - Oral ingestion
- Inhalation into the respiratory tract and lungs.
Harmful effects of chemicals on the body include:
- Skin diseases
- Diseases of the respiratory system
- Cancer and birth defects
- Asphyxia
- Disorders of the central nervous system
- Damage to certain organs
- Blood poisoning
Some substances can cause harm through a single short-term exposure
(acute effects), while others can only cause harm after prolonged and/or repeated
exposure (chronic effects).

Biological hazards

Biological hazards are organic substances or microorganisms that pose a

threat to the health of humans and other living organisms. They also include toxins
produced by organisms.
Biological hazards include:
- Pathogenic bacteria
- Viruses
- Fungi
- Parasites
Biological hazards can be dangerous to workers for a number of reasons.
People who work with microorganisms (e.g., in laboratories) are at a higher risk of
infection.
Other examples of work activities that can expose people to biological
hazards include:
- Working with animals
- Working with people with infectious diseases
- Waste management
- Working in the environment or with equipment that may be contaminated.
Common occupational infections that can result from these activities
include:
- Anthrax (source from farm animals)
- Hepatitis B and C (human source)
- Leptospirosis - Weil's disease (source - rodents)

Environmental hazards
 Environmental hazards are conditions or events that have the potential to
affect the environment and adversely affect human health. These hazards manifest
themselves in many forms and are often overlooked until an accident occurs.
Environmental hazards include:
- Noise
- Poor lighting.
- High temperatures
- Dust
- Hot or cold weather conditions
Understanding and taking precautions against various environmental hazards
can help prevent accidents.
Balancing work activity and work speed with temperature, humidity,
clothing, food and fluid intake, and a person's physical and mental health is
important for worker efficiency, comfort, and safety.

Organizational hazards

Organizational hazards are related to behaviors, workload, time constraints

and task deadlines.
Research shows that the following types of work can cause stress:
- Temporal nature of the job (e.g., shift work)
- Job content
- Workload
- Haphazard and unplanned work
- Relationships within the team
- Relationship with management
- Organizational structures
Note. Threats with immediate effects receive the most attention in the
industry, but this does not mean that threats that occur later are less damaging.
Effects caused by physical, mechanical, chemical and biological hazards are
usually observed earlier, but effects caused by exposure to environmental and
organizational hazards are usually observed later. It is sometimes advisable to
carry out the necessary health monitoring of the occupations concerned and to take
measures for preliminary risk assessment to determine the possible effects of
delayed effects caused by hazards.
 LECTURE III
RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT. RISK CONTROL
HIERARCHY
We face risks in our daily lives, such as getting wet and sick outside in the
rain or driving around potholes to avoid injury or car damage. Crossing the road
only when the traffic light is green is common sense. We're wary of unknown
foods to avoid poisoning and choose our tourist routes and holiday destinations
with care.
However, sometimes taking risks is not possible or advisable. For instance,
although some business deals may yield significant profits, they may not always go
as planned. Additionally, extreme sports that pose a threat to one's health or life
may appeal primarily to younger individuals. Occasionally, we must confront our
colleagues or bosses, even if it could lead to strained relationships or difficult
conversations. Nevertheless, we take these risky actions intentionally if our job
responsibilities, interests, values, common sense, or morals demand it.
Many human activities involve risk, including work, leisure, sports, home
life, creativity, invention, scientific and technological progress, and forecasting.
For instance, test pilots and equipment designers, divers and high-altitude
installers, firefighters and lorry drivers, miners and loggers, locomotive drivers and
doctors are all exposed to elements of risk.
The concept of "risk" is not clearly defined or explained among scientific
authors who study the problem. Collaboration among specialists from various
fields, including mathematicians, psychologists, philosophers, economists,
lawyers, engineers, and doctors, is necessary due to the complexity of the issue.
The concept of "risk" in the Russian language is defined by the explanatory
dictionary as "the possibility of danger or failure" (Risk. At the risk of life) and "to
act haphazardly in the hope of a favourable outcome" (Act at your own risk).
However, these definitions are incomplete as taking a risk exposes oneself to
various types of danger (physical, moral, and social).
Assessing risk solely based on danger can lead to misidentifying self-harm
or suicide as risky behaviour. Risk should be determined by the available options,
as not all actions in dangerous situations are inherently risky. A nuanced approach
to risk assessment is crucial, considering the circumstances and available options
before labeling behaviour as risky.
According to A.M. Kotik's book "Management Errors" (1985), risk is the
choice between committing an action with the possibility of failure for a chance at
success or not committing the action at all due to fear of worse consequences. V.
Marshall's book "The Main Hazards of Chemical Industries" (1989) defines risk as
the frequency of hazards, while Prof. O. Rusak believes that risk is a quantitative
assessment of hazard.
It is important to note that risks come in two forms: potential (latent) and
realized. Potential risks may stem from a variety of sources, including both natural
phenomena and human activity. However, it is worth noting that these risks only
pose a threat if they are realized and actually cause harm.
It is important to consider objective factors that may transform potential
risks into actual risks, potentially leading to unfavorable incidents.
It is recommended to categorize risks as either individual or social.
Individual risk pertains to a specific danger for a person. Numerically, this type of
risk can be calculated as the ratio of undesirable outcomes to the possible number
of events over a certain period of time.
Social risk refers to the risk for a group of people and is determined by the
frequency of events and the number of people affected. There are two types of
risks based on people's behavior: justified (motivated) and unjustified
(unmotivated).
Motivated risk involves taking a calculated risk in order to gain a specific
benefit and improve the current situation.
Unmotivated or situational risk refers to a tendency to take risks without
considering the potential benefits or consequences, driven by a desire to prove
one's abilities in a particular area. The subject sets a goal for himself suddenly, not
dependent on the situation or directly following from it.
For instance, when a mountain climber deliberately chooses a more
challenging and hazardous route, not for self-interest, but to test their abilities and
push their limits, it is an example of unmotivated risk.
When it comes to risk, it can be divided into two groups: systemic risk
related to the production environment and personal risk related to the employee's
health.
Systemic risk refers to the probability of a system collapsing and resulting in
detrimental effects. This means that systematic risk is a property of a system.
Systemic risk can be general, specific, or particularized. Total systemic risk refers
to the hazard rate of the entire system (e.g., all traffic in a region). Specific system
risk refers to the degree of danger of a particular part of the system (e.g., traffic on
a certain section of road). Special system risk is the term used to describe any
changes in the system's characteristics caused by special circumstances like
weather changes.
The presence of systemic risk does not imply that all participants in a system
are equally vulnerable to it. The probability of systemic risk in a particular job
depends on the worker's average qualifications and job performance. Each worker's
education, experience, and psychological traits affect their risk exposure, which
may vary from the average risk. Therefore, an individual's risk is determined by
both systemic risk and personality traits. Individuals' risk is determined by both
systemic risk and their personality. Human risk can be studied in general or for
individual cases, such as fatigue, illness, or exposure to hazards.
There are two approaches to understanding risk in foreign literature: the
European approach emphasizes physical danger, while the American approach
studies risk related to alternative choices in different categories of danger (business
failures, social punishments, etc.). In the American approach, one can either
choose a risky gambling option that is less reliable but promising or a conservative
option that is more reliable but less attractive. Both approaches are one-sided. The
first obscures choice in goal achievement, and the second ignores danger. Risk is
only represented when these directions unite.
Risk serves different functions in human activities. For instance, taking risks
to prove bravery is a common purpose. Risk-taking can also be a way to test one's
abilities. Some individuals are perceived to enjoy danger and take more risks.
Usually, there are significant underlying reasons for those actions.
Taking risks can sometimes be seen as a means of asserting oneself and
boosting self-confidence. This type of behavior may result in a deliberate disregard
for safe work practices. This behavior is often caused by innate insecurities or
criticism from those outside of work, such as family, neighbors, friends, or hobby
colleagues.
Many individuals aim to impress their colleagues and gain [Link]
moments are characterized by risky behaviors. Some individuals view risk not as
an ordinary occurrence, but as a noble pursuit. Frequently, taking risks can lead to
negative outcomes.
The mental makeup of certain individuals is marked by a tendency to take
risks, a "risk appetite." The trait in question is widely regarded as a fundamental
aspect, according to experts in the field. Risk lovers relish the opportunity to "put
everything on the line." The peculiar satisfaction that some people get from risk-
taking is expressed as euphoria (an elevated, joyful mood), which is associated
with the release of high levels of norepinephrine into the bloodstream by the
adrenal glands. This explains why some drivers like to speed.
The German scientist G. Hahn, who has been studying the question of
human risk propensity for a long time, believes that people with a moderate risk
propensity are better protected from danger.
Those who are afraid to take risks or, on the contrary, who are very risk-
averse are more likely to get into accidents.
It has been determined that some occupations (e.g. high voltage electricians
working at heights of 10-15 m; miners engaged in underground mining operations)
begin to characterise their work as non-hazardous as a result of prolonged and
gradual exposure to hazards. Such individuals have a significantly increased
adaptation to danger or a habit of choosing risky behaviour due to underestimation
of the danger and its consequences. However, such behaviour may itself increase
objective exposure to risk. Such individuals have a significantly increased
adaptation to danger or a habit of choosing risky behaviour due to underestimation
of the danger and its consequences. However, such behaviour may itself increase
objective exposure to risk.
Sometimes risky actions are perceived as a manifestation of inherent human
aggression. The Austrian neurologist, psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud
revealed that the concept of risk reveals the allegedly inherent "death instinct"
through which man seeks to deliberately harm himself or others, the desire to
destroy the entire living world and turn life into its original inanimate matter.
It has been proven by numerous biological studies that a special craving for
death is not inherent in the nature of living beings.
In addition to the above, a number of other general patterns of risk appetite
can be pointed out. Thus, it has been determined that:
(a) people's risk appetite varies;
b) risk appetite decreases with age;
c) more experienced professionals take less risk than less experienced
professionals;
d) women's risk appetite is realised when there is more confidence in success
than men's.
The willingness to take risks is also related to professional qualities: for
example, military personnel have a higher willingness to take risks than students.
The willingness to take risks is also influenced by social factors: for example, as
the subject's rejection in society grows, his willingness to take risks increases. In
group action, the willingness to take risks is more pronounced than in individual
action (the so-called "risk-shifting effect" discovered by J. Stoner in 1961).
Various studies have shown that alcohol sharply increases the risk of intoxication.
Society's perception of risk and danger is subjective. People react violently
to rare events with a large number of victims at once. But this does not create such
a tense attitude to frequent events, as a result of which several people or a small
group of people die. In large countries, 40-50 people die in workplaces every day,
and in the country as a whole, more than 1,000 people die every day from various
hazards. But these figures are less impressive than the deaths of 5-10 people in an
accident or any conflict.
The study of theoretical issues related to risk management is an actual
scientific and practical work. However, in addition to studying the essence, main
characteristics and functions of risks, the classification of risks and analysing the
causes of their occurrence are of great importance.
 Throughout their activities, enterprises face a variety of risks. Classification
of risks and identification of their causes is considered to be the basis for
analysing, assessing and determining the directions of risk reduction. There are
many approaches to the classification of risks, which, as a rule, differ in terms of
classification features.
According to a number of authors conducting research in this area, the most
important features of risk classification are: time of occurrence, factors of
occurrence, place of occurrence, area of occurrence, nature of consequences, size
of possible losses (tab. 1).
Table 1
Classification of risks

Classification mark Classification

By the time of the origin Retrospective, current and prospective
By the factor of the origin Political and economic
By the place of the origin External and internal
By the nature of the results Net (pure) and speculative
By the field of origin Entrepreneurial risks: production, commercial,
(according to the nature of financial and insurance risks; as well as
activity) profession, investment, transport, etc.
By the type of the danger Man-made, natural and mixed risks
By level of the occurrence Macro, mezo and micro level
By the degree of the certainty Known risks, foreseeable and unforeseen risks
By the stages of formation Project risk, plan risk, actual risk
By degree of justification Justified and unjustified risks
By the size of possible losses Tolerable, critical, catastrophic risks
By the scale of reasons Global, regional, local risks
By the legal status of its Risks arising from obligations and risks arising
origin from other causes unrelated to obligations

Let us consider the proposed classification in more detail:

1. At the time of occurrence risks are divided into retrospective, current and
prospective types of risks. Retrospective analysis of risks, their nature and methods
of reduction allow more accurately forecast current and future risks.
2. Risks are subdivided into the following types according to the factors of
their occurrence:
political risks - risks arising as a result of changes in the political situation
affecting business activities ("closing of borders, ban on export of goods, military
actions on the territory of the country");
 economic (commercial) risks are risks arising as a result of negative changes
in the economy of the enterprise or the economy of the country. The most common
types of economic risk are changes in market conditions, unbalanced liquidity
(inability to fulfil payment obligations in a timely manner), and changes in the
level of management.
3. By the place of occurrence risks are divided into external and internal
risks.
External risks include risks that are not directly related to the activities of
the enterprise or its audience of contacts. The level of external risks is influenced
by a large number of factors: political, economic, demographic, social, and
geographical.
Internal risks include risks arising in connection with the activity of the
enterprise itself and the circle of contacts. Their level is influenced by the business
activity of the management of the enterprise, the choice of optimal marketing
strategy, policy and tactics, as well as production potential, technical equipment,
level of specialisation, level of labour productivity available at the enterprise, and
safety measures.
4. By the nature of the results, risks are divided into pure and speculative
risks.
Pure (net) risks (sometimes they are called simple or static) are almost
always characterised by the unprofitability of entrepreneurial activity. The causes
of pure risks can be natural disasters, wars, accidents, criminal acts, and loss of the
enterprise's ability to operate.
Speculative risks (sometimes called dynamic or commercial risks) are
characterised by the fact that they can bring the entrepreneur both a loss and
additional profit compared to the expected result. The causes of speculative risks
can be changes in market conditions, changes in exchange rates, and changes in tax
legislation.
5. The basis of the classification of risks on the area of occurrence is spheres
of activity, and this is the most numerous group. According to the areas of
entrepreneurial activity the following entrepreneurial risks are usually
distinguished: production, commercial, financial and insurance risks.
Production risk is the risk arising as a result of non-fulfilment by the
enterprise of its plans and obligations for products, goods, services and other types
of production activities as a result of the negative impact of the external
environment, as well as improper use of new equipment and technology, fixed and
circulating assets, raw materials and working time.
Commercial risk is the risk arising in the process of realisation of goods and
services produced or purchased by an entrepreneur. The causes of commercial risk
are a decrease in sales volume as a result of changes in market conditions or other
conditions, an increase in the purchase price of goods, a loss of goods in the
process of circulation, and an increase in the cost of circulation.
Financial risk is associated with the possibility that the company will not
fulfil its financial obligations. The main causes of financial risk are the
depreciation of investments and financial portfolios due to changes in exchange
rates, and non-payment.
Insurance risk is the risk of occurrence of an insured event stipulated in the
terms and conditions, as a result of which the insurer is obliged to pay an insurance
indemnity (insurance amount).
In forming the classification related to production activities, the following
types of risk may be additionally mentioned: organisational risk (related to
employee errors, problems in the internal control system, poorly drafted work
regulations); market risks (instability of the economic situation: change in prices
for goods, decrease in demand due to changes in exchange rates); credit risks (risk
of incomplete fulfilment by the counterparty of its obligations on time); legal risks
(due to either failure to take into account or change of legislation during the
transaction; due to inconsistency of laws of different countries; due to incorrectly
executed documents); technical and production risks (risk of damage to the
environment; emergence of accidents, fires, failures; risk of disruption of the
facility due to design and installation errors).
6. Risks can be categorised into the following types according to the amount
of possible loss:
Allowable risk is the risk of making a decision, in case of non-acceptance of
which the company faces the fear of loss of profit. Within this zone, business
activities remain economically viable as losses occur, but they do not exceed
expected profits.
Critical risk is a risk in which the company fears loss of income, i.e. the
zone of critical risk is characterised by the danger of losses that clearly exceed
expected profits and, ultimately, may lead to the loss of all invested funds. in the
enterprise project.
Catastrophic risk is the risk that the enterprise will not be able to repay its
debts and will go bankrupt. The damage may reach a price equal to the value of the
enterprise's property. This group also includes any risks associated with a direct
threat to human life or the occurrence of environmental disasters.
It should be noted that investment risks, risks in the real estate market, risks
in the securities market, risks in personnel management, and risks in justifying the
choice of information protection means are classified separately.
The concept of adequate risk. Until recently, traditional safety practices were
based on the principle of "absolute safety". It was believed that if a new technical
device was created, it should be absolutely safe so that it would never cause injury
or accidents. This concept formed the basis of the safety regulations established in
all countries. Various additional technical devices to prevent exposure to hazards
and their consequences - engineering protection systems, various organisational
measures to ensure a high level of discipline, strict work regulations, etc. were
applied. They believed that this engineering approach would eliminate any hazard
to the public and the environment.
Until recent decades, this approach was justified. However, due to the
unprecedented complexity of production and the emergence of fundamentally new
technologies, the concept of "absolute safety" does not correspond to the internal
laws of the technosphere. These laws are probabilistic in nature, and zero
probability of a hazard, injury or accident is achieved only in systems devoid of
reserve energy, chemical and biologically active components. At individual
facilities (and there are most of them) undesirable results and accidents are
inevitably possible, even with the most expensive engineering measures their
occurrence is not excluded. Therefore, we can only talk about reducing the risk of
accidents. However, we should not forget how much we will have to pay for it.
The resources of any society are limited, and if unreasonably large funds are
invested in technical systems, we will have to cut funding for social programmes -
we will have to build less housing, stadiums, hospitals and schools. It is likely that
as a result, even with the reduction in hazard risk, life expectancy and quality of
life may fall. Thus, the mesmerisingly humanistic demand for absolute safety may
turn into a tragedy for people, because it is impossible to ensure zero risk in
existing systems.
The modern world has abandoned the concept of absolute security due to its
unaffordability and adopted the concept of reasonable (acceptable) risk. The
essence of the concept of acceptable risk is the endeavour to provide a small
degree of safety that society can accept and agree upon within a certain period of
time. Acceptable risk can be defined as the actual risk associated with a particular
hazard. However, its degree is not such as to deter an informed and farsighted
individual from taking the appropriate risky actions associated with that type of
hazard. For example, the individual risk of dying while driving is about 1:4,000 per
year, yet many people still drive to work. For workers in the defense industry, the
probability of dying is 1 in 359 (US data), but most workers in this industry
consider this figure to be an acceptable risk rate.
The theoretical approach is related to cost minimization. Based on economic
calculations, a graph of the dependence of the risk (probability) of loss of life
(ordinate axis) on the costs of technical safety systems (abscissa axis) over the
course of a year is plotted.
Whether a level of risk is appropriate or particularly dangerous is a political,
rather than a technical, decision and is determined primarily by the economic
capacity of the country. In some countries, such as the Netherlands, appropriate
levels of risk are regulated by law. The maximum reasonable level of individual
risk resulting in fatalities is considered to be 10-6 per year. In other words, the
probability that a person will die within a year should not exceed one in a million.
Individual risk of death equal to 10-8 per year is considered negligible.
Occupational risk assessment. Any production activity creates certain
hazards and risks for employees. According to the Constitution of the Republic of
Azerbaijan, the employer is obliged to ensure the safety of employees during work,
including the creation and implementation of a labour safety management system
at the enterprise. The main point in ensuring labour safety is the risk-oriented
approach: the development of measures to ensure safe working conditions
depending on specific occupational risks (hereinafter referred to as risk) at the
enterprise.
There is no methodology for risk assessment at the legislative level, so the
employer has the right to develop it independently and approve it by a local
document, carry out the assessment itself or contract with an outside organisation.
The essence of risk assessment is that it should be used as a preventive
(protective) measure, not as a reactive measure.
Stages of occupational risk assessment. Risk assessment is carried out at
each workplace, taking into account all types of work performed in all work zones,
and, if necessary, a group of workplaces, structural subdivision, specific
production process, type of work, etc. (group risks).
Stage 1 - definition (identification) of hazards. Hazard identification is the
process of identifying hazards (including their cumulative effect) that may cause
harm to the life and health of an employee at each workplace.
Stage 2 - risk analysis. Risk analysis is the process of determining the level
of risk, its probability and the need for safety measures.
Stage 3 - re-analysing the risks to check that the appropriate level of risk
has been achieved. The essence of this stage is that the enterprise attempts to
achieve a level of risk that can be considered acceptable after all possible measures
have been exhausted.
The process of risk assessment, as well as the effectiveness of management
practices, requires continuous monitoring, analysis and, if necessary, adjustment.
All stages of risk assessment and changes must be documented.
There are many occupational risks at work, which can have a negative
impact on the health and life of employees, as well as on the operation of the
company as a whole. To prevent negative consequences, it is necessary to properly
assess the risks and prepare effective measures to eliminate them.
 Occupational risks are the possibility of hazardous events at work that may
result in injury, illness or death of employees. They can arise both as a result of
technological processes and are related to the human factor.
The following main types of occupational risks at work are distinguished:
- Risks associated with working at height;
- Risks arising from work with electrical equipment;
- Risks arising from working with mechanical devices and equipment;
- Risks associated with working in high-hazard environments, such as
hazardous workplaces;
- Noise, vibration, dust, etc. risks associated with the impact of various
factors on human health.
There are many methods for assessing occupational risks at work. The most
used method - the Matrix method - is presented below.
The Matrix method is the most common method of occupational risk
assessment. This method is based on the assessment of the probability of
occurrence of a hazardous event and its consequences. The results of the
assessment are expressed in the form of a matrix, where the probability and degree
of possible damage are classified on a scale from 1 to 5. For each class, appropriate
risk mitigation measures are identified.
 Advantages of the matrix method:
- Ease of use. The matrix method of risk assessment is simple and easy to
understand, allowing even non-specialists to use it.
- Prioritisation. The matrix method allows you to prioritise risks based on
their level, which allows you to focus on the most important risks.
- Objectivity. The matrix method is based on objective information about the
probability and impact of risks, which makes it a reliable method of assessment.
Disadvantages of the matrix method:
- Simplification of estimation. The matrix method takes into account many
factors that can affect risk such as human factors, unforeseen events etc. does not;
- Limitation. The matrix method cannot be used to evaluate complex systems
or multiple risks because it is limited by the risk matrix;
- Does not account for risk volatility. The matrix method does not account
for the variability of risk over time, making it less effective for continuous risk
assessment.
Algorithm of risk assessment using the matrix method.
Let's consider the sequence of occupational risk assessment using the matrix
method:
Step 1: Identify potential hazards in the workplace.
Before proceeding with the risk assessment, it is necessary to identify
potential hazards in the workplace. These may include mechanical, chemical,
biological and ergonomic hazards. For example, mechanical hazards may be
related to the use of equipment and chemical hazards may be related to the use of
certain substances.
Step 2: Determine the probability of the risk-taking place.
The next step is to determine the likelihood of the risk occurring. This can be
estimated either from previous events or from the opinion of employees. The
probability can be assessed on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is the probability of very
low risk and 5 is the probability of very high risk.
Step 3: Determine the potential harm.
The next step is to identify the potential harm that may be associated with
the hazard. These damages can include injuries, occupational illnesses, and other
impacts to worker health and safety. Damage can also be rated on a scale of 1 to 5,
where 1 is very low damage and 5 is very high damage.
Step 4: Create a risk matrix.
After assessing the probability of risk and potential damage, a risk matrix
can be created. This is done using a matrix with probability on one axis and
damage on the other. The degree of risk can be determined from the intersection of
these axes.
Step 5: Identify risk management measures.
 Once the level of risk has been determined, you can take measures to
manage the risk. This may include developing a safety policy, training employees,
and using appropriate equipment and materials.
Step 6: Assess the effectiveness of risk management measures.
Evaluating the effectiveness of risk management measures involves
assessing the extent to which the measures reduce the likelihood and/or harm. This
can be assessed from workplace incident data and employee feedback. If risk
management measures are ineffective, additional measures should be implemented.
Step 7: Repeat the risk assessment process.
The workplace risk assessment process should be repeated regularly as the
work environment may change and affect the likelihood of risk and/or harm. The
risk assessment can also be repeated after risk management measures have been
implemented to assess their effectiveness and whether they need to be corrected.
These are the steps that will be taken to create an algorithm for risk
assessment in the workplace using the matrix method. It should be remembered
that risk assessment must be carried out with great responsibility and care to
minimize risks to the health and safety of workers.
Here is an example of occupational risk assessment using the matrix method.
This is an example of calculating the occupational risk assessment of a car driver
using the matrix method.
Step 1: Hazard Identification.
Hazards associated with the driving profession can include road accidents,
traffic offences, fatigue, stress, bad weather and vehicle damage.
Step 2: Determine the probability of hazards occurring.
The probability of hazards occurring can be estimated based on crash
statistics, weather conditions, and other factors. For example, if a driver is
operating in a region with poor weather conditions, the likelihood of a crash may
be higher.
Step 3: Assess the severity of the consequences.
The severity of the consequences can be assessed according to the degree of
damage the threat may cause. For example, a road traffic accident may result in
injuries, loss of time to recover the vehicle, and financial loss.
Step 4: Assess the degree of risk.
The degree of risk can be estimated by multiplying the probability by the
weight of the consequences. For example, if the probability of a road traffic
accident and the severity of the consequences are high, the level of risk can be
assessed as high.
Step 5: Risk management.
 Various measures can be used to manage risks, such as driver safety
training, the use of technical aids (e.g. in-car safety systems), control of the driver's
work regime (e.g. rest and work hours) and other measures.
Thus, an occupational risk assessment for a passenger car driver using the
matrix method can be carried out based on these steps.
In summary, the matrix method of occupational risk assessment has
advantages and disadvantages, and the effectiveness of this method depends on the
specific situation and the objectives of the risk assessment. In using this method, it
is necessary to take into account its limitations and to complement this method
with other risk assessment methods in order to obtain a more complete picture.
Occupational risk assessment at production facilities is an important step in
ensuring the safety and health of workers. There are many methods of risk
assessment, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. When selecting an
assessment method, the specifics of the operation and the nature of the risks, as
well as the resources available and the competence of the personnel, should be
taken into account. Despite the variety of assessment methods, they all aim to
eliminate or reduce risks in production.
 RISK CONTROL HIERARCHY

The risk control hierarchy is a system used in industry to minimize or

eliminate exposure to hazards. It is a widely used system supported by many
safety-conscious organisations. The system has been adopted worldwide and is
used by business leaders to manage hazards at five strategic levels from risk
elimination to prevention. The hierarchy of control is a structural method of
protecting workers from occupational hazards. It is widely promoted by various
global safety organisations, including the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH), as the best way to control occupational hazards.
Various illustrations, most commonly a triangle, are used to describe this system.
The hierarchy of controls includes five levels, from most effective to least
effective:
- elimination (physically remove the hazard(s))
- substitution (replace the hazard(s))
- engineering controls (isolate people from the hazard)
- administrative controls (change the way people work)
- personal protective equipment (PPE) - (protect workers).
In the workplace, these five controls are often combined to provide robust
protection if even one high-level control fails.
Included in the control hierarchy are five basic steps of safety control. These
steps are ranked in order of effectiveness and are usually depicted as an inverted
triangle, listing the steps from most effective to least effective.
 These five stages can be considered protective mechanisms that prevent
workers from interacting with or being exposed to occupational hazards:
1- Elimination
Eliminating or physically removing a hazard from the workplace is the most
effective step in the hierarchy of control. When hazards are eliminated or removed
from the work environment, they can no longer adversely affect workers. Although
this step is considered the most effective, decommissioning is generally the most
difficult step to implement because it can be more expensive and requires a major
revision of a pre-existing work process, such as changing the process to eliminate
the use of hazardous redesigned equipment or substance, performing work tasks on
the ground, keeping products at lower heights to avoid working above ground so
that there is no risk of injury or death from falling when workers climb to higher
heights.
2. Substitution
Modifying or replacing a hazardous facility or activity with something less
hazardous is the second most effective safety control step. Substitution serves the
same purpose as elimination because it removes the hazard from the workplace or
reduces the likelihood that the hazard will adversely affect workers. If a workplace
process is still in the design or development stage, substitution can be a cheap and
optimised method of hazard management. Examples: replacing an abrasive cleaner
with a non-toxic analogue, replacing solvent-based paint with water-based paint,
using a silica-free polishing material instead of sandblasting, etc.
3. Engineering controls
Engineering controls, or the design of targeted measures that physically
separate workers from hazards, is the third most effective step in safety controls.
Many companies prefer engineering controls so that the hazard is eliminated at the
source rather than after the worker has come into contact with the hazard. It should
be noted that while technical controls are sometimes more expensive, they usually
result in lower overall operating costs due to new safety features. For example:
installing guardrails around fans and other loud equipment, fencing around
dangerous high-voltage equipment, installing guardrails above ground in
workplaces, and installing guardrails in work areas.
4. Administrative controls
Administrative controls, or changes in the way employees work and perform
certain processes, are the fourth most effective step in safety control.
Administrative controls are usually used in conjunction with other existing
processes that do not fully control hazards.
Businesses sometimes prefer administrative controls because of their low
cost, but these initiatives are often somewhat inefficient and require significant
effort from affected employees.
Examples of this step include: limiting the amount of time an employee is
exposed to hazards, creating written formalised work procedures and installing
signs, labels and alarms.
5. Personal Protective Equipment
PPE - equipment worn or used by workers in the performance of their jobs -
is the fifth or slightly less effective step in the hierarchy of controls.
Like administrative controls, personal protective equipment is usually used
in conjunction with existing processes that do not fully control occupational
hazards. The use of FMV as a safety measure is very expensive in the long run and
can be somewhat ineffective if used incorrectly or of poor quality. For example,
PPE, eye and face protection (goggles and masks), head protection (helmet), foot
and claw protection (shoes), hand protection (chemical resistant gloves), body
protection (protective suits), and hearing protection (earplugs).
Why is a hierarchy of controls important? A hierarchy of controls is
particularly important in occupations where workers are regularly exposed to
hazards such as toxic chemicals, air pollutants, disease, construction or motor
vehicle accidents, and heavy equipment malfunctions.
The control hierarchy is an integral part of the NIOSH, initiative. Prevention
by Design (PtD - Prevention by Design), which aims to prevent or reduce
occupational injuries and illnesses by "designing out" hazards and risks. PtD
utilises a hierarchy of controls using the following methods:
- by eliminating occupational hazards and risks at the source;
- designing, redesigning or improving workplaces, tools and procedures to
protect workers;
- incorporating hazard prevention methods into the workflow structure.
 LECTURE IV
WORK PERMIT SYSTEMS. THE ESSENCE OF THE WORK
PERMIT FORM

Permission to Work System - is a formal written system used to control

certain work that may be hazardous. Permission to Work System Document -
classifies the work that is to be carried out and contains important cautions that
should be heeded. Permission to Work System Document - is an integral part of the
safe working system for many technical support (maintenance) activities. They
allow work to begin only after safe procedures have been established and ensure
that all foreseeable accidents are clearly recorded.
A Permission to Work System is required when the performance of
maintenance work requires that normal safety requirements are not met or when
the work performed could lead to new accidents (e.g., vessel outfalls, fire
activities, pipe bursts).
Permission to work systems and procedures is the most formal method
available to verify safe working practices and safe working systems. The
experienced, trained and responsible person who signs the work system
authorisation report should first assess the hazardous situations (with all technical
information) and then present them in writing:
a. Works and accidents that need to be done and possible:
b. All required emergency warnings and precautions:
c. Identification of who can do the work:
d. Assign frames (with tape and other means) to the work system permit
area or equipment.
Depending on the conditions, certificates of permission to work systems
require that all employees engaged in hazardous work are aware of this or have
been notified by the responsible manager.
A properly completed permission-to-work system certificate also provides:
- a signed acknowledgement of process or system recovery;
- an extension of time;
- an official cancellation;
- the taking of notes.
Conditions of Use. Permission to work systems and procedures - being the
most formal and detailed method of verifying safe working practices and safe
working systems, they cover the following conditions:
a. The anticipated accidents are severe;
b. At the same time, the required prevention methods are complex and
require the application of effective measures.
Permission to a work system loses its effectiveness when it is too easy to access.
The reason for this is probably the use of a large number of documents, high
demands that the management or employees have to fulfil immediately.
It is difficult to determine when to use permission to work system, but it
provides information about the types of permissions granted and typical
implementation methods in this book.
What is the problem? As a result of the OHSA analysis, it has become clear
that one-third of all accidents in the chemical industry are related to maintenance
and the main cause is a lack of permission to work systems or poor systems of
work. In the study of small and medium chemical factors were identified:
- two-thirds of enterprises do not properly test their systems;
- two-thirds of permissions to work systems do not adequately identify
possible accidents;
- the isolation of the plant's electrical equipment etc. is almost in poor
condition;
- one-third of the permits do not make it clear which workers need
protective clothing;
- a quarter of the permits do not contain relevant information on the
official handover of the plant after completion of the repair works;
- in many cases, little attention is paid to the design form authorisation.
These recommendations can be applied not only in the chemical industry but
also in other industries.
What do I need to do? Do not assume that just because your facility has not
had a failure, your system is exemplary. In any case, you should review your
system and ask yourself the following questions.
Information:
Is the permission to work system fully documented, taking into account the
following?
- How does the system work?
- For what type of work will the authorisation be used?
- Responsibilities and training of persons involved in the work;
- How to verify that the authorisation is working?
- Is there accurate information about the person who will determine the tasks
(limits of their authorisation)?
- There should be clear information about the person responsible for
determining important warnings (isolation, emergency measures, etc.);
- Is the authorisation form written?
- Are there ambiguous sentences or questions?
- Is it intended for use in non-standard situations?
- Are contractors mentioned here?
Selection and training:
- Do permit holders, factories and similar businesses have sufficient
knowledge of accidents and warnings?
- Do these individuals have enough imagination and experience to answer the
"what if?" question?
- Do employees and contractors fully understand the importance of the
permit-to-work system and are they trained in its use?
The essence of the job:
- Does the authorisation clearly state the nature of the work to be undertaken
and the incidents involved?
- Can plans and diagrams be used to express the nature, location and
limitations of the work to be done?
- Is the plant properly assigned?
- Is a detailed workflow provided for more complex tasks?
Hazards and warnings:
- Does the system require the elimination of accidents or only effective
control where necessary? Are the relevant legal requirements known and
complied with by those issuing the authorisation?
- Does the authorisation mention the steps taken and important steps in the
work?
- For example, are isolation measures clearly stated and what personal
protective equipment should be used?
- Do the warnings mention residual accidents or accidents that may occur as a
result of the work (fumes from welding, vapours from cleaning agents)?
- Has a thorough risk assessment process identified significant risks and
identified alternative working methods or important warnings?
Procedures:
- Does the permit have clear rules about how to control the operation or how
to stop it in case of an emergency?
- Is there information on procedures for handover after maintenance is
completed and how to return the plant to personnel in safety?
- Are time limits and shift changes mentioned?
- Is there explicit detail on what procedures will be implemented if work is
stopped for any reason?
- Is there mention of two or more occupations that will affect each other?
- Is the authorisation reflected in the profession?
- Are occupational areas regularly audited to ensure that the work permit
system is functioning properly?
Important statements of the permission to work system form.
The permission to work system should be able to help to facilitate communication
between all interested participants. The permit provider company should take into
account individual site conditions and requirements. Different tasks and activities
require different forms of authorisation; for example, fireworks and access to
confined spaces. It should therefore be recognised that relevant accidents may
occur and a warning should be drawn up.
The important elements of the Permit to Work form are listed below:
1. Title of the authorization;
2. Permit Number. Reference to other relevant permits or certificates of
isolation;
3. Location of work;
4. Plant identification:
5. Nature and limitations of work to be performed;
6. Identification of accidents - including residual accidents and industrial
accidents;
7. Important notices - those responsible for;
8. PPE (Personal protective equipment);
9. Powers - the person issuing the permit must certify by signature that all
containment and isolation measures (other than those that can be carried out
during work) have been carried out. The date and expiry date of the
authorisation must be noted;
[Link] - must be confirmed by the signature of the enforcing authority
that he has an understanding of the work to be carried out, the possible
accidents and the necessary warnings. It must also confirm that it has
informed all relevant personnel of the authorization;
[Link] (shift) handover procedures - there must be signatures confirming
that checks confirming that the plant is safe for operation have been carried
out and that the employee who has just taken over the shift is aware of
accidents and warnings;
[Link] (return) - must be signed by a person confirming that the work has
been completed and that the plant is fit for testing and reuse;
[Link] - confirmation that the work has been tested and that the
installation is suitable for reuse.
Composition of operating system authorisation certificates.
The operating system authorisation certificate should be composed in such a
way that it will be usable. The authorisation should help the person signing it to
perform all the necessary actions. This book presents well-designed working
system authorisation forms. As these examples show, each authorisation form
contains certain warnings, such as warnings about electricity, flammable
(explosive) atmospheres and warnings about confined workspaces.
 Work system authorisation is usually a formal system and is designed to
ensure that all relevant parties are aware of:
Place of work, (factory) identification;
- The essence of the work;
- The period of time required to complete the work;
- Explanation of existing or possible accidents;
- Tests and checks to be carried out before starting the work;
- Additional warnings that are important to consider when carrying out the
work;
- Authority - the person issuing the permit must confirm by signature that all
preventative measures have been implemented;
- Acceptability - the authorising authority's signature must confirm that they
have an understanding of the work to be carried out, the possible accidents
and the necessary warnings;
- Additional (changeable) transfer procedures;
- Transfer (return) - confirms completion of works;
- Cancellation;

Note: all signatures must be legible!

Procedures. Certificates of authorisation for a working system must be

between the organisation and the personnel who receive them. The licensee must
understand that they must act in accordance with the certificate in all respects and
that the authorised person has full control.
Working System Authorisation Certificates may be in two or more copies of
different colours. Copies must have a specific serial number to confirm proper
identification and must be in the following format:
a. the topmost (yellow) copy should be kept by the supervisor for backup;
b. the first (pink) copy should be kept in a clear plastic envelope and
displayed in the workplace;
c. both copies above must be returned to the authorised person for disposal
upon completion of the work.
d. the second (blue) copy should be retained for recording purposes (when
"confirmation of completion" and "cancellation" signatures are required).

For big projects, it may sometimes be necessary to compile several

permissions of a working system at the same time. In such a case, a "permit
coordinator" must be appointed and a permit issuing system must exist. This
allows all necessary steps to be taken before the authorisation is issued by an
 authorised person. In such a case, a formal "operating system authorisation
certificate request" is required.
It is important that all employees are notified of permission to work in the
system. This can be achieved by placing official notices on notice boards or
posting maps of permitted areas in certain locations. Sometimes it is difficult for
both managers and staff to understand what is required of them. Therefore formal
training seminars should be organised, the nature of the work, accidents etc. should
be discussed in detail.
Proxy for authority and ability to do the job.
As the 'authorised person' signs the work system authorisation certificate, it
is important that they are a suitable person in all respects and that they know what
is required of them.
The process of the employer appointing authorised persons who sign work
authorisation certificates should be taken seriously. As these authorisation systems
themselves are formal, the process of appointing those responsible for them should
also be formal.
An employer who appoints a person to sign certificates for permission
systems must have regard to the following provisions:
- the age of the person involved (must be an adult and a responsible person);
- qualifications and training experience;
- knowledge of the plant (equipment) where he/she works and the hazardous
work processes;
- availability to manage the situation and the persons involved.
When employees carry out work, the organization must provide permission
to work system to ensure that they do it safely. This includes both the manager
responsible for performing the work and the authorized person signing the
permission. These sides must properly assess the skills of the staff in relation to the
tasks they are carrying out. The Permission to work system certificate covers
important knowledge related provisions.

Types of permissions and examples:

1. "Hot Work (Open Flame)". This type of Permit is recommended for the
following work.
 Welding
 Oxygen cutting
 Polishing
 Flame heating equipment
 Electric heater.
 Heated hair dryer.
 Portable polishers
  Fusion splicing of fibre optic cables
2. Hot work (danger of sparks). It is recommended to use this type of
authorisation for the following tasks.
 Dry polishing/polishing
 Needle gun work.
 Pneumatic pliers
 Using battery powered equipment.
 Use of electrical equipment without flameproof fuses labelled "Ex".
 Junction boxes are left open.
 Use of hydraulically driven tools that cause mechanical sparking.
 Work with explosives and stabbing tools.
3. Cold Work (Breach of Integrity). It is recommended that this type of
permit be used when performing the following tasks.
 Tampering with process systems containing toxic, flammable, or hazardous
substances.
 Construction, maintenance, inspection, repair
 Violation of integrity associated with expedited and other hazardous work
systems on job sites.
 Blind isolation (opening) of toxic, flammable, or hazardous substances.
 Sampling of hydrocarbon products from a point where sampling is not
planned
4. Cold operation. It is recommended that this type of permit be used for the
following tasks.
 Working on vessels contaminated with naturally occurring radioactive
substances.
 Working with radioactive sources
 Working with asbestos or mineral fibre products.
 Civil and excavation work
 Flushing with high-pressure water.
 Cutting water with ultra-high pressure
 Coloring
 Removal of handrails, grilles and ladders.
 Work affecting the serviceability of fire and gas alarm systems
 Installation/dismantling of iron fences
5. Permit to Access to Closed Spaces. This permit is used to work in closed
spaces: Ships, tanks, and sewers contain or may contain toxic, flammable
atmospheres and oxygen deficiency.
An enclosed area has one of the following properties:
 Sufficient access to perform the task at hand
 Presence of limited access and egress
  Poor natural ventilation.
 Not intended for permanent employee work
A confined space permit is different from other permits:
 A Closed Space Permit is issued as a result of a Level 1 inspection by an
authorised gas tester.
 A risk assessment is required
 No other work may be carried out.
 Respiratory system requirement identified.
 LECTURE V
WORKING AT HEIGHTS. DISMANTLING AND DEMOLITION WORK.
CONFINED SPACE. SAFE HANDLING OF WORK EQUIPMENT

In many countries, falls in the workplace are the leading cause of death and
injury.
Issue:
Causes of fatalities and injuries:
 falls from handrails, ladders and other means;
 falls from sloping roofs and chimneys;
 falling into pits, unprotected open floor areas and open manholes;
 falling off an object from above caused death or injury to persons below.
Common factors of falls
 Most falls occur from ladders and are caused by reaching the end of the
ladder, loss of balance and unexpected movement of the ladder.
 Fracture of fragile material is also a common factor.
 Breakdowns of mobile elevating work platforms are rare.
Work at height
Working at height is defined as "working in any area, including a position or
place below which a person or object may fall". Some countries do not have a
minimum fall distance from heights.
This means that if a worker is standing on the edge of a pit or working in a
pit, they are considered to be working at height. A person standing on the edge of a
pit can fall into it. A person working in a pit may collide with an object that has
fallen from above.
Management hierarchy
The first question to ask is, "Do we need to do it at height?" Can't it be
raised to the required level after the work is done at ground level?"
If it is impossible to perform the work in another location other than at
height, it is necessary to protect individuals using control measures.
The preferred hierarchy of control measures is "collective" fall prevention
measures and personal fall protection measures can be used as the last step.
 Collective protection against falling from height.
The provision of a fully loaded platform with a strong guardrail and iron
fence; can protect each person using the platform from falling.
If for some reason this protection cannot be provided, the next "collective"
option:
This involves the installation of safety netting, airbags and covers.
Personal protective equipment against falls
Personal protection using harnesses and slings is the least favoured option.
Risk assessment
A thorough risk assessment should be carried out before work commences.
This assessment should determine the most effective control measures to control
risks and protect workers. Management and the governing body should monitor the
correct use of safe systems.

Excavation and demolition work

One of the dangers associated with drilling is the

possibility of its edges chipping or flying off. The way to
prevent this is to install some type of support. The decision on whether support is
needed is based on a risk assessment.
The temporary supports required for drilling must be determined before
drilling can begin. The following safety precautions should also be considered:
- Prevention of edge collapse;
- Falling materials on people in excavations;
- Falling of people and vehicles into the excavation;
- Collapse of nearby buildings;
- Prevention of touching underground communication lines.
Edge collapse - three approaches can be used:
- that the edges of the excavation are sloped at a safe angle;
- the edges of the excavation have a crease;
- if the excavation has vertical walls, a competent person should install
appropriate supports. If this system is used, the excavation must be checked
before the start of each shift.
Other hazards that should be considered include:
- Falling materials into the excavation;
- Damage to building foundations;
- Accessing/exiting the excavation;
- Vapor/gas;
- Underground communication lines.
Excavation of materials
- Excavated material and vehicles should be kept away from the edge of the
excavation;
- Lightweight material can be excavated to check the baseplate;
- Personnel working in excavations must wear safety helmets.
- People and vehicles caught in the excavation;
- Workers - protective handrails and footings should be placed around the
edges of excavations;
- Vehicles - use wooden beams or other barriers to keep heavy equipment out
of excavations. If it is necessary to use light-tonnage vehicles, retaining
supports should be used to return material to the excavation.

Damage to the building foundation

 - Prior to excavation, determine if structures require bracing. Foundation
enquiries and recommendations from a structural engineer may be required.

Access/exit from excavations

- Provide appropriate entry/exit points with ladders or other means of safe
access. If proper entry/exit points are not provided, workers can enter and
exit using scaffolding. Proper ingress/egress is required by law and is critical
in emergency situations.
Vapor/gas
- Contaminated soil can lead to gas accumulation in excavations. A soil
survey may be required to assess this potential. In areas where gas
accumulation is likely to occur, appropriate precautions should be taken to
ensure the safety of people.
- Excavations may begin to fill with toxic heavier-than-air gases such as
carbon monoxide from petrol/diesel engines. Equipment emitting these
gases should be kept at a distance. The use of gas lighting during
excavations is not recommended due to the possibility of an explosion
hazard due to gas leaking from the equipment.
Underground communication lines
- Contact with underground communication lines can be avoided by using the
following means:
- Plans of cables and other communication lines;
- Tools for locating cable and underground communication lines;
- Use of safe drilling techniques:
1. Hand dug test pit;
 2. Use of shovels and lumbar as opposed to trowel.
- Protecting exposed pipes that may break under their own weight when
opened.
A competent person should inspect the supported earthworks before the start
of each shift. Notes made during the inspection should be logged each week.
Excavations should also be inspected after any event that may affect their integrity.
This includes rock falls/soil slumps and bad weather.

Confined space

Working in confined spaces is a potential source of danger. About 15 people

die each year while working in confined spaces. About 50% of those killed were
attempting a rescue in a confined space.
What is a confined space?
Any place where reasonably certain risks arise, including any chamber, tank,
silo pit, pit, trench, pipe, sewer, chimney or other similar enclosed area.
Confined spaces can be relatively large. Another indicator of confined
spaces is the difficulty of entry and exit. Confined spaces are not usually expected
to have people working all the time.
Hazards associated with confined spaces:
- Lack of oxygen/abundance of oxygen;
- Fire and explosion;
- Gases, fumes, vapors (toxic and/or flammable);
- Liquids, loose solids immediately filling the space;
- Fainting due to heat;
- Contact with moving mechanical equipment.
A key step in effectively controlling risk in a confined space is to ensure that
people do not enter or work in confined spaces, except in the following cases:
- Work cannot be done in any other way and a safe work system is in place
before entry.
- A safe system of work includes emergency measures that will be activated
immediately in case of any problem. This includes providing and
maintaining resuscitation equipment.
Risk Assessment
- Risk controls should be based on risk assessment and the control hierarchy is
as follows:
- Possible design/redesign
- Can designers avoid confined areas by using design tools?
- Can entrances/exits to confined spaces be improved through refurbishment?
- Can the work be done without access?
 - Can time on this work be reduced by removing a component and working
with it outside the enclosure?
- If access is mandatory, a safe system of work must be used. This includes
preliminary atmospheric testing, permit to work, authorized and specialized
personnel, rescue equipment etc.

Safe handling of work equipment

Every year, many people are injured while working on equipment. Causes of
injury:
- Contact with moving parts or materials - impact or getting stuck;
- Getting stuck between moving parts or material and any installed equipment;
- Impact of material or parts of machinery exiting the machinery;
- Clothing, hair or jewellery becoming entangled/jammed in the mechanism.
Other hazards associated with machinery are non-mechanical and include
electrical power, hydraulic/pneumatic power, chemicals and noise.
The most common cause of death in the above accidents is injury from moving
mechanical equipment resulting from failure to effectively isolate equipment from
power sources during maintenance. Effective isolation procedures that are
understood and followed are therefore important.
Protecting people from danger when using mechanical equipment is also
important, and this starts with appropriate systems and procedures:
- selecting the most appropriate equipment for the job;
- providing adequate space and light for safe work, taking into account
ensuring the safe installation of the equipment;
- repairing the equipment;
- ensuring that those using the equipment are properly trained.
 When it comes to mechanical hazards caused by unsafe parts, particularly
moving parts, it is imperative to ensure that operators are adequately protected.
"Work equipment" includes a wide range of devices, from simple hand tools to
massive mechanical devices.
General requirements include:
- Work equipment must be suitable for its intended use.
- Equipment should only be used for its intended purpose.
- Equipment must be maintained in proper condition.
- Users must be provided with the necessary information, instructions and
training on the safe use of the equipment.
Other requirements include:
- Dangerous parts must be adequately protected.
- Persons must be protected from special hazards such as unexpected
destruction and release of any part of the mechanism.
- Very hot/cold surfaces must be clearly labelled.
- Appropriate controls must be provided to stop the equipment in the event of
an emergency.
- It must be possible to disconnect from all power sources.
- Equipment must be stable and well lit.
- It must be possible to carry out maintenance work safely.
- Work equipment that could lead to serious injury must be checked before
first use and records of inspection must be kept if incorrectly installed.
- Equipment that may fail over time and cause serious injury should be
periodically checked and records of this inspection retained until the next
inspection.
 LECTURE VI
AREA TRANSPORT. LIFTING OPERATIONS. SAFETY IN MANUAL
TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS

Area transport security

Every year, a large number of people die or are seriously injured as a result of
vehicle accidents at work. The largest cause of death and injury was head-on
collisions.
Other major causes of death and major injuries are:
• overturning/turning over of the vehicle;
• falling from a vehicle;
• crushing as a result of a load falling from a vehicle;
• hitting a part of the vehicle while driving - (for
example: not wearing a seat belt);
• problems related to vehicles:
• collision with surface obstacles;
• falling into wells;
• hitting poles/ladders;
• refueling/ refueling;
• sudden departure of pedestrians from the workplace exit.
Safety precautions in the workplace
- speed limits;
- barriers at important points to keep pedestrians on the road;
- repaired vehicles;
- competent authorized/designated drivers;
- liaison officers for counter operations and other complex activities;
- sturdy barriers placed around iron dams and manholes;
- marked crossings/ motorways;
- warning signs for pedestrians and drivers at crossings;
- one-way transport system where possible.

Lifting Operations

Cranes
Cranes are widely used in workplaces to lift various types of loads. Most of the
time the loading is successful, but sometimes mistakes can occur. Any error with
cranes or during lifting operations can have serious consequences.
Mainly due to the disturbance of the centre of gravity:
- Cranes overflowing and damaging the environment;
- Loads falling or swinging, resulting in injuries from falling on people or
objects;
- People getting stuck between the lifting mechanism;
- People getting stuck between the crane and secured solid objects;
- Cranes falling onto overhead power lines.
It is essential that the crane is not overloaded beyond the safe working load and
that the crane is properly maintained.
Sometimes accidents occur due to improper installation of mobile cranes.
If more than one crane is used in a workplace, the cranes should be placed at an
appropriate distance to avoid accidental collisions during operation.
To prevent accidents, people using lifting equipment must be trained, and
competent to carry out the work and use correct lifting methods.
Cranes should be located away from overhead power cables on solid ground; such
situations should be assessed before starting work and the appropriate distance
correctly determined.
In many countries, legislation generally requires the following:
- equipment must have adequate strength and stability;
- Instructing persons using the equipment to lift people;
- properly positioning and mounting the equipment to prevent collision with
people or load displacement and falls;
- labelling equipment in the order required for safe working loads and safe
use;
- each lifting operation using lifting equipment is properly planned,
supervised and performed safely;
- a comprehensive inspection after installation and before first commissioning,
and an inspection at least every 6 months for equipment designed to lift
people and at least every 12 months for other lifting equipment;
- The employer must be informed of any defects found during the inspection
that may pose a risk.
- The risk of an accident must be reported to the authorities;
- A written report of the comprehensive inspection must be provided.

Safety in manual handling of goods

What is manual handling?

"Manual handling means carrying or moving loads by hand or by physical
force (including lifting, placing, pushing, carrying or moving them)."
 The problem
Manual handling is responsible for more than three times as many cases of
injuries lasting "more than seven days". Around 1.1 million people are recorded as
suffering from musculoskeletal disorders caused or aggravated at their current or
former place of work, according to a special survey conducted between 2021 and
2022.
An estimated 12.3 million work days were lost, meaning that each victim
lost an average of about 20 days of work over a 12-month period.
Manual Handling Injuries
Damage to discs, ligaments and muscles is always cumulative and not
necessarily the result of a single action.
A factor contributing to many injuries is the use of poor lifting techniques.
Lifting or lowering a load can be done with your legs folded and your back
straight.
Other injuries can occur if the load falls on your foot, fingers or hands get
caught between the device, cut by sharp objects, or debris falls from the surface of
the load.
A factor contributing to many injuries is the use of poor lifting techniques.
Lifting or lowering a load can be done with your legs folded and your back
straight.
Other injuries can occur if the load falls on your foot, fingers or hands get
caught between the device, cut by sharp objects, or debris falls from the surface of
the load.
The most common types of injuries are:
- 65% tension;
- 9% superficial;
- 7% other;
- 7% crushing;
- 7% lacerations;
- 5% fractures;
- 45% waist;
- 16% toes/fingers;
- Purpose 13%;
- the rest lower extremities, torso.
The affected body parts are:
When using safety systems or mechanical aids, workers must monitor the
safety system and use any aids provided by the employer.
If manual handling of objects is required, a risk assessment is required. This
can also be used to develop a safe method for manual handling of loads.
To reduce the risk, the employer:
 - Should avoid dangerous manual handling wherever possible. Note whether
the load has to be carried, if it has to be carried, it should be carried
mechanically using a hoist;
- any unsafe operation that cannot be avoided should be assessed accordingly.
The assessment depends on the weight, shape and size of the load; must be
carried out by the order of the matter, the working conditions and the
qualifications of the worker;
- the risk of injury must be minimized as far as possible, e.g. by using
mechanical lifting devices or by separating the load into parts, rearranging
the task, by providing additional training.

LECTURE VII
WORKING WITH HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES. ASBESTOS AND
SAFETY WHEN WORKING WITH IT. MICROCLIMATE PARAMETERS
OF THE WORKING AREA
Hazardous substances include:
- substances used directly in the work process (e.g.: additives, paint cleaners);
- substances generated in the course of work (e.g. vapours from soldering and
welding work);
- substances of natural origin (e.g. grain powder);
- biological substances such as bacteria and other microorganisms.
Exposure to hazardous substances
Exposure to hazardous substances causes damage to the body. It enters the body in
three main ways:
- inhalation;
- digestion;
- absorption through the skin.
Examples of exposure to hazardous substances include:
- skin flaking or dermatitis due to direct contact;
- asthma resulting from an increased allergy to a substance used during work;
- loss of consciousness as a result of ingesting the substance while at work;
- risk of cancer, which can occur long after exposure to the chemicals that
cause it;
- contamination by bacteria and other microorganisms (biological substances).
The following eight steps should be considered when controlling the risk from
hazardous substances:
Step 1: Assess the risks.
 - Assess the health risks caused by the hazardous substances used or generated
in the work process.
Step 2: Decide what precautions are necessary.
- You must not carry out work that exposes your employees to hazardous
substances without first considering the risks and the necessary precautions
and other cases required by law.
Step 3: Prevent or properly control exposure.
- You must protect your employees from exposure to hazardous substances. If
exposure cannot be reasonably and following experience, it must be
adequately controlled.
Step 4: Ensure that controls are implemented and maintained.
- Ensure that controls are properly implemented and safety procedures are
followed.
Step 5: Exposure Monitoring.
- Monitor worker exposure to hazardous substances as necessary.
Step 6: Conduct appropriate health surveillance.
- Carry out appropriate health surveillance as deemed necessary based on your
assessment or specific legal requirements.
Step 7: Develop plans and procedures for accidents, incidents and emergencies.
- Develop plans and procedures for accidents, incidents and emergencies.
- Develop plans and procedures to prevent incidents, accidents, and
emergencies involving hazardous substances as needed.
Step 8: Ensure that staff are properly informed, trained and supervised.
- You should provide your staff with appropriate and sufficient information
and instructions, as well as training.
 Asbestos and safety in handling asbestos

What are the dangers of asbestos?

When these fibres are inhaled, they can cause serious illnesses that cause
around 4,500 deaths a year. The four main diseases caused by asbestos are:
- Mesothelioma (always fatal);
- Lung cancer (almost always fatal);
- Asbestos disease (not always fatal, but very debilitating);
- Diffuse pleural thickening (not fatal).
Asbestos fibres are present in the environment, so people have very little
exposure to these fibres. But the main risk factor for asbestos-related diseases is
the total amount of fibres inhaled. Working with or around damaged asbestos-
containing materials, whose levels in the environment can number in the hundreds,
or inhaling large amounts of asbestos fibres can increase the risk of developing
asbestos-related diseases.
Where can asbestos be found?
- In asbestos cement products;
- Textured covers;
- In floor tiles, textiles and composites;
- Spray coatings on ceilings, walls and beams/pillars;
- In wood with asbestos insulation;
- In wood coatings;
- In friable asbestos on ceilings or floors.
Asbestos-related diseases do not affect the body immediately, but later. Therefore,
you should protect yourself while you are smoking now to prevent asbestos-related
diseases in the future. It should be noted that people who smoke and are exposed to
asbestos fibres have a very high risk of developing lung cancer.
When working with asbestos you should:
- if you suspect the presence of asbestos or think the work should be carried
out by a licensed contractor, stop the work and get information about it;
- follow the work plan and work instructions; make sure you use the correct
manual for the job;
- be sure to consider other types of risks, such as working at height;
- use personal protective equipment and a properly fitting face mask;
- clean the property before leaving - prevent waste from increasing;
- ensure that waste is stored and disposed of correctly at a licensed facility;
- wash up before a break and before going home;
- check whether you need to issue a workplace warning;
- make sure you have received appropriate training before starting work.
When working with asbestos you must not:
- using methods that generate large amounts of dust, such as using power
tools;
- cleaning up dust and debris - (use an H-type hoover or a damp cloth;)
- taking home special clothing used when working with asbestos;
- reusing disposable clothing or masks;
- smoking;
- eating or drinking on the job.
What should responsible persons do when working with asbestos?
- Determine if asbestos-containing materials are present and, where possible,
plan work to avoid the use of these materials.
- Anyone working with asbestos-containing material should be properly
trained and supervised.
- Work involving asbestos-containing materials should be investigated. For
example: should the work be carried out by an HSE licensed contractor?
- Other risks such as asbestos should also be considered. For example:
working at height. Must take the necessary precautions to carry out the work
safely.
- A plant and activity plan and associated task sheet should be used to ensure
that work is carried out properly and as much as possible to minimize
exposure to asbestos.
 - A work plan should be prepared outlining the cases to be dealt with, work
procedures and checks to be applied.
- You should be provided with appropriate equipment that is clean, in working
order and protects you from asbestos exposure.
- You must be trained in the use of this equipment.
- Ensure that the task is visually inspected at the end of the job to ensure that
it is suitable for re-work.
- Arrangements must be made for the safe disposal of asbestos waste.

Microclimate parameters of the working area

Heat Stress

When the organs that control internal body temperature fail, heat stress occurs. In
addition to air temperature, factors such as work speed, humidity and the clothing
used during work can lead to heat stress. Therefore, this condition may not be
experienced in a workplace where there is a risk of heat stress.

How does the body respond to heat?

The body responds to heat by increasing blood flow to the surface of the skin and
sweating. When sweat evaporates from the surface of the body, it cools the body,
and heat is transferred from the inside to the surface of the body by increasing
blood flow. Heat can also escape from the body surface by radiation and
convection.

A typical example of a heat stress condition

A person wearing protective clothing and performing heavy work in a hot and
humid environment may be at risk for heat stress due to:

- sweat evaporation is limited depending on the type of clothing and the

humidity of the environment;
- due to the speed of the work, heat is released inside the body and if enough
heat is lost, the internal body temperature increases;
- as internal temperature rises, the body increases the amount of sweat
produced. This causes dehydration;
- as the heart rate increases, additional stress is created in the body;
 - if the body gains more heat than it loses, its internal temperature continues to
rise;
- as a result, after a certain limit is reached, the body's control mechanism
fails.

If work is continued under the same conditions, symptoms begin to worsen.

What are the effects of heat stress?

Heat stress can affect people in different ways, and some people are more
susceptible to it than others. Typical symptoms are as follows:

- inability to concentrate;
- muscle cramps;
- skin rashes caused by heat;
- severe thirst - later symptoms of high-temperature stress;
- fainting;
- heat exhaustion - fatigue, dizziness, nausea, headache, moist skin;
- heat stroke - hot dry skin, confusion, irritability and eventually fainting. It is
a most serious illness that can lead to death if not detected early.
-
Where does heat stress occur?

Workplaces where workers suffer from heat stress as a result of hot environments
during processing or in closed spaces are:

- glass and rubber manufacturing plants;

- mines;
- tunnels with a layer of compressed air;
- conventional and nuclear power plants;
- foundries and smelting operations;
- brick and ceramic factories;
- boiler houses;
- bakeries and catering kitchens;
- laundries.
-
In these areas, working in a hot environment may be normal. In others, it occurs
irregularly, depending on the type of work being done and changes in the work
environment. For example: Seasonal changes in air temperature can significantly
increase thermal stress.
 What to do about heat stress?

Over time, people adapt to hot environments by sweating more, changing their
routines with equipment (e.g., taking off clothes, drinking cold water, ventilating
the room, sitting in shaded or cooler areas, and/or reducing work speed). However,
in many work environments, such as asbestos removal, such regime changes may
not be possible. A risk assessment should be carried out if heat stress is likely to
occur.

What should be considered in a risk assessment?

The following main factors should be considered when carrying out a risk
assessment:
- amount of work - the more a person works, the more heat is generated in the
body;
- the working environment - this includes air temperature, humidity, airflow
and the effects of working near a heat source;
- work clothing and personal respiratory protection - can be detrimental to
sweating and other means of temperature regulation;
- worker's age, body structure and medical factors - can affect a person's
tolerance.
-
The first thing to do is to talk to the workers involved (and their safety
representatives) to see if they are suffering from early signs of heat stress. If there
are any concerns, it is advisable to speak to someone more specialized in
identifying risks in heat environments, such as a workplace hygienist, nurse or
doctor.

How to reduce the risks?

- Eliminate or reduce the heat source if possible;

- control the temperature with technical solutions, e.g.: change the process;
- use air conditioning or air-conditioning;
- use physical barriers to reduce exposure to radiation heat;
- where possible, provide mechanical means to reduce the speed of operation.

Ways to regulate the duration of exposure to hot weather conditions:

- allowing employees to enter when the temperature is below a specified level
or at cooler times of the day;
- issuing a permit to work that determines how long your employees can work
where there is a risk;
- providing regular rest breaks and opportunities to rest in cooler conditions.

How to reduce the risks?

- Prevent dehydration. Working in a hot environment causes people to sweat

to cool down. During this time, a person loses a significant amount of water,
and the lost water needs to be replenished. Keep cool water in the workplace
and encourage workers to drink small amounts of water frequently before,
during and after work (this may not be possible in some cases, such as fume
cupboards or asbestos removal) and after work.
- Provide personal protective equipment. Specialized personal protective
equipment includes personal cooling systems or breathable fabrics. These
can help protect workers from some hot environments. When exposed to any
other hazards, such as asbestos, protective clothing or gas masks are often
required. When protecting against other hazards, this equipment can increase
the risk of heat stress.
- Provide training to your employees, especially new and young employees, to
teach them safe working practices and emergency procedures, and inform
them of the risks of heat stress associated with their work and what
symptoms to look out for.
- Give employees the opportunity to adapt to the work environment and
identify which employees are suitable/appreciated to work in a hot
environment.
 - Identify employees who cannot tolerate heat stress (pregnant women or
people with weak hearts) due to health conditions/treatments that predispose
them to heat stress.
- You should consult with a health care provider or doctor.
- Monitor the health of at-risk employees. After many of the necessary control
measures have been implemented, if the risk is no longer present, the health
of at-risk employees should be monitored. In this case, you should seek the
advice of health care professionals who have the necessary knowledge about
the risks of heat stress.
LECTURE VIII
HAZARDS OF MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT AND THEIR
CONTROL. SAFE WORKING WITH CONVEYORS. SAFE OPERATION
OF ROBOTIC EQUIPMENT
Mechanical equipment and facilities
The hazards caused by mechanical equipment and facilities can be categorized
into mechanical and non-mechanical hazards.
It is important that users of the device follow the recommendations below
before using the device.
- Users must be trained to handle parts of the machine and must not work
alone.
- The machine guards must be in place and functioning properly. Supervisors
must be informed immediately of any problems with the machine guards.
- DO NOT wear loose clothing (including ties) around the machine.
- Loose jewellery (e.g. necklaces, earrings, necklaces) should be removed
when near the device.
- Long hair should be tied back and protected.
- Appropriate personal protective equipment should be used to protect eyes,
face and hearing (if necessary).
Mechanical hazards

A good way to learn about mechanical hazards is to observe how moving parts of
equipment work and how a worker's body may be exposed to dangerous
mechanical equipment.

Parts of mechanical equipment move mainly in one of three ways: they may rotate,
slide or cut, pierce and/or remove material.

Health hazards
Workers who operate and maintain mechanical equipment may be exposed to
adverse effects other than physical injuries caused by moving particles. They may
be exposed by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact or absorption through the skin.
For example: without appropriate protective measures, controls and personal
protective equipment, workers may face the risk of occupational diseases from
exposure:
- Toxic or caustic chemicals that cause irritation, burning or skin exposure;
- harmful substances in the air, such as inhaled oil vapours, metal vapours,
solvents and dust;
- heat, noise and vibration;
- ionising radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays;
- non-ionising radiation such as ultraviolet (UV), radio frequency (RF)
radiation and lasers;
- biological contamination and waste;
- Soft tissue injuries (e.g.: arms, shoulders, back or neck) caused by repetitive
motion, unsafe posture, manual lifting and grasping with pressure.
-
Other hazards

In addition to moving parts, there are other hazards:

- slipping, falling or bypassing the mechanism during repair;

- an unstable device with a risk of falling;
- fire or explosion;
- damage caused by pressurization when liquids and gases escape at high
pressure;
- electric current from defective or ungrounded electrical components.

Machines must be guarded to protect workers from these non-mechanical hazards

as well as the more obvious mechanical hazards. Sometimes guarding used to
eliminate or reduce mechanical hazards can also be modified to reduce non-
mechanical hazards. For example:

- a shield designed to prevent access to moving parts can also absorb sound;
- welding curtains, designed to protect against arc flash, can also protect
against dirt and burns;
- fencing around polishing wheels can be used as a cover for the internal
exhaust ventilation system.

Obligations
Managers must ensure that equipment users are trained in the safe use of
equipment and mechanical equipment. Regular checks must be made to ensure that
all protective devices are in place and working properly to ensure proper operation
of the equipment. Managers are responsible for ensuring that all deficiencies in the
protection of mechanical equipment are corrected in a timely manner and that
damaged equipment is taken out of service.

Equipment users may only use equipment on which they have been trained.
Equipment users may not operate machinery or equipment without the specified
safety equipment. Only properly trained equipment users may service or repair
equipment. All maintenance and repairs must be carried out in accordance with the
user manual.

Before performing any maintenance, the equipment user must ensure that all
hazardous energy in the equipment is properly controlled. Equipment users must
notify their supervisor immediately of problems with equipment safety features,
accidents, and/or equipment damage.

Requirements for safety equipment

Moving parts of equipment can cause death or serious injury in the workplace,
such as broken fingers or hands, amputation, burns or blindness. Protecting
workers from such unwanted and preventable injuries is extremely important. If
equipment operation or accidental contact causes injury to the operator or others in
the vicinity, the hazard must be either eliminated or controlled. The following
fuses (where applicable) are required for all equipment:

- prevent contact - prevent the worker's body or clothing from coming in

contact with dangerous moving parts;
- secure - must be firmly attached to mechanical equipment and cannot be
easily removed;
- safeguard against falling objects - ensure that no objects fall into a moving
part;
- do not create a new hazard - there should be no cutting points, rough edges
or rough surfaces;
- do not interfere at all - the worker must not be prevented from doing his or
her job quickly and conveniently;
- create conditions for a safe lubrication process. - If possible, it is possible to
lubricate the mechanism without removing the guard.
 -
Operators must be protected from equipment hazards that cannot be eliminated
structurally by a barrier to protect them from injury or death.

Safety and hazard signs and labels must be kept wherever the machine is used.
Safety guards and guards removed for repair must be properly replaced before use.
Moving parts are the most dangerous because their movement is fast, sudden and
continuous.
Training

Managers should ensure that equipment users are adequately trained in the correct
operation of all equipment used. Instructions on the use of equipment should cover
at least the following areas:

- the hazards associated with the machinery involved;

- how the safety equipment provides protection;
- why it is necessary to use the protective equipment;
- how, when and by whom safety measures can be removed;
- what to do if the protective equipment is damaged, inadequate or does not
provide adequate protection.

Safe handling of conveyors

Conveyors are perhaps the simplest form of automation, moving parts,

fixtures or soft materials from one location to another to avoid manual handling.
But conveyors, despite their apparent simplicity, sometimes cause serious and fatal
injuries to workers.
Conveyor belt injuries mainly occur when workers get stuck at a pinch or
tear point:
- especially during conveyor operation, cleaning or repair;
- when reaching the compaction point to transport debris or remove jammed
material;
- when the fabric to be cleaned gets stuck on the conveyor and pulls fingers
and hands towards the conveyor.

Other hazards on the conveyor belt include:

 Improperly guarded devices, sprockets and chains, horizontal and vertical

shafts, lines and splines, and power transmission couplings.
Since most transmission mechanisms are affected, special attention should be paid
to overhead conveyors. Workers are injured or killed when working under
conveyors and in areas with lubrication mechanisms, voltage regulators and other
equipment with hazardous energy sources.

Conveyor Protection

Because conveyor hazards vary, each conveyor must be evaluated to determine

what primary protection methods and energy control measures (lockout/tagout) are
necessary.
Some conveyors require mechanical guardrails to protect workers from pinch
points, shear points, and other moving parts, including power transmission devices.
Mechanical barriers include barriers, guards, railings, railings, fences, and other
barriers that prevent physical contact with parts of the equipment being used, such
as action points, belts, gears, sprockets, chains, and other moving parts.

Typical conveyor hazards and safety methods

Belt conveyors

Hazards
- control mechanisms and conveyor belt feeders;
- conveyor and exit end guard wheels;
- the pinch point where the belt or chain enters or exits;
- where the belt bypasses the wheels;
- solid rollers, such as safety wheels, when the belt changes direction;
- where more than one conveyor belt is connected;
- on conveyor belts or reflectors.

Control measures

- Compression and shear points must be protected.

- Edge protection devices (earth leakage protection devices) must prevent
contact with transmission components, clamping points and transported
materials.
- Secondary means of protection include handrails or guardrails or remote
protection (rooms) and hazard warning devices such as advance signaling
and warning signals.

Screw conveyors
Hazards

Screw conveyors are chutes with a rotating spiral or twisted plate shaft.
Throughout the length of a screw conveyor, the clamping points are between the
rotating shaft and the chute. Screw conveyors can be particularly dangerous
because they are not enclosed and the conveyor is not located at or near floor level.

Control measures

- The screw conveyor enclosure should completely enclose moving parts

(screw mechanism, power transmission devices) except for loading and
unloading areas. Fixed grates or polycarbonate may be installed to allow the
operator to see the operation.
- Alternatively, the side walls of the chute should be high enough to prevent
falling into the chute.
- If open pits are used, workers should be protected by secondary protection
such as grates and guardrails. Food loading and unloading compartments
may be protected by fencing, screens, grates or other protective means
between openings that allow the passage of materials but prevent any part of
the body from passing through. Alternatively, the side walls of the trough
should be high enough to prevent entry into the trough.
- If open pits are used, workers should be protected by secondary protection
such as grates and guardrails. Food loading and unloading compartments
may be protected by fencing, screens, grates or other protective equipment
between openings that allow the passage of materials but prevent the passage
of any part of the body.

Chain conveyors

Hazards

Pinch points occur when the chain makes contact with the sprocket. Pinch points
also occur on devices, terminals, fuses (automatic fuses may also have trip points)
and reels. Clothing, jewelery and long hair can also become entangled in moving
chain conveyors.

Control measures
 - Cover moving chains whenever possible.
- If moving chains cannot be added without disturbing the conveyor, barrier
fencing is installed around moving parts and pinch or shear points can be
eliminated with guardrails.
- Other secondary means of protection include the use of remote (spatial)
protection and warning devices.

Roller conveyors

Hazards

Roller conveyors are used to move materials on driven or self-propelled parallel

rollers. Operating roller conveyors can pinch hands, hair, and clothing between the
roller and stationary conveyor components. Between transmission chains and
sprockets at compression points; between timber and carrier rollers; and can be
present in terminals, fixtures, guards, reels and sharp rollers.

Secondary protection of conveyors

Secondary protection methods, industrial training and equipment are used in

addition to primary protection methods or where primary protection methods are
not suitable, alone or in combination.

Secondary methods are less protective than primary methods.

Reliable distance protection (depending on location).

- As much as possible, keep accidental particles away from workers or keep

workers away from moving accidental particles.
- Use warning devices such as warning signs or lights.
- Only qualified personnel should be allowed to operate and maintain
conveyors.
- Before starting work, visually inspect all conveyors and the work area to
ensure that the operation does not create any hazards. Monitor and test
conveyor safety mechanisms such as alarms, safety devices and safety
methods.
 - Install safety devices on conveyors to allow workers to shut down
equipment in an emergency.

Install clearly labelled, unobstructed emergency buttons or a cord that allows

easy communication with employees.
Provide continuous access to conveyor belts with safety barriers that run the
entire length of the conveyor belt to access the cable from any point along the belt.
Ensure that conveyor controls or power supplies can be fitted with a
locking/labelling device to ensure safe storage.

Safe operation with robotic equipment

Industrial robots

Industrial robots are multifunctional mechanical devices that are programmed to

move materials, parts, tools or special devices through various programmed
movements to perform various tasks. An industrial robotics system includes not
only industrial robots, but also any devices and/or sensors required by the robot to
perform its tasks and to sequence or monitor communication interfaces.

Robots are commonly used to perform safe, dangerous, repetitive and

unpleasant tasks. These include material handling, construction, arc welding,
resistance welding, machine loading and unloading functions, painting, spraying,
etc. It has many different functions.
The performance of robots can be quite different from other mechanisms and
devices. Even in areas larger than the robot itself, robots are capable of high-
energy (fast or powerful) movements.

Types of events
Accidents involving impact or collision. Unexpected movements, component
failures, or unexpected program changes associated with the robot arm or
peripherals can result in impact or collision.
Buckling and sticking events. A limb or other part of a worker's body may
become trapped between a robot arm or other peripheral equipment, or a person
may be physically displaced and crushed by another peripheral device.
Accidents are caused by mechanical parts. Failure of the robot's controls,
tools or operating device, peripheral device, or power source is a mechanical
accident.
 Part separation, failure of the holding mechanism or failure of the power tools
of the work unit (e.g. grinding wheel, polishing discs, adhesive removal tools,
electric screwdrivers and spanners) account for a small proportion of mechanical
failures.
Other accidents can occur when working with robots. The device that powers
and controls the robot presents potential hazards related to electricity and
pressurized fluid flow.
Ruptured hydraulic lines can lead to dangerous high-pressure surges or tangled
hoses. Environmental accidents can occur as a result of arc flash, metal spatter,
dust, electromagnetic or radio frequency interference.
In addition, equipment and electrical cables on the floor can be tripped over.

Sources of danger

Human error (mistake). Installing an active peripheral device before

programming or connecting working I/O sensors to a microprocessor or peripheral
device can lead to dangerous, unexpected robot movement or action due to human
error.
But the main problem is too much familiarity with unnecessary robot actions.
Thus, when a human is programming or repairing a robot, he puts himself in a
dangerous situation.
 Mistakes made during inspection. The main defects in the robot control
system are software errors, electromagnetic interference, and radio frequency
interference.
In addition, these mistakes can also occur due to defects in hydraulic,
pneumatic, or electrical supplementary checks associated with the robot or robot
system.
Unauthorized access. Entering a protected area of the robot is dangerous
because the person entering the area may not be familiar with the security
measures in place or their activation status.
Mechanical defects. Running software cannot be held responsible for defects
in aggregate mechanical parts and may result in unstable or unexpected operation.
Environmental/ecological sources. Electromagnetic or radio frequency
interference (transient signals) are believed to increase the negative impact on
robot operation and increase the likelihood of injury to anyone working in the area.
The elimination of environmental hazards must be documented before the system
is commissioned.
Energy systems. Pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical power supplies with faulty
control or transmission elements in the robot's power system can disrupt electrical
signals to the control and/or power lines. The risk of fire increases with electrical
overloads or the use of flammable hydraulic oil. Electrical shock and removal of
stored energy from storage devices can be hazardous to personnel.
Improper installation. The design, requirements and arrangement of the
equipment and mechanisms of a robot or robot system can cause hazards if they
are not properly designed.

Control measures

Risk assessment. Risk assessment must be performed at every stage of the

design of robots and robotic systems. Each stage has different safety requirements
for the system and personnel.
The appropriate level of protection as determined by the risk assessment must
be applied. In addition, the risk assessment for each design phase should be
documented for further review.
Protective devices. Workers shall be protected from confined space hazards by
one or more protective devices:
- mechanical restraints;
- non-mechanical restraining devices;
- security devices with motion sensors;
- fixed barriers (prevent contact with moving parts);
- locking and barrier protection devices.
 Warning devices. Typical warning devices consist of chain or rope fencing
with support posts or flashing lights, signs, whistles and alarms. They usually work
in conjunction with other safety devices.
Operator protection. The system operator must be protected from all hazards
during operations performed by the robot. When the robot is operating in automatic
mode, all safety devices are activated and no part of the operator's body should be
within the restricted area of the robot.
Ongoing operations. If a person needs to enter or be near a restricted area
where robots are operating, safety measures must be put in place for all ongoing
operations. The robot should move at a slow speed and the operator should put it in
learning mode, enabling them to have full control over all operations. This will
help ensure continuous operations and maintain the safety of all personnel
involved.
Repair crew. Repair crews are very difficult to defend because their job
functions are very diverse. Diagnosing problems and malfunctions with robots,
controllers, instruments or other related equipment is only part of their job. Their
duties also include updating software as well as calibrating instruments, sensors,
gauges and many other types of functions.
When performing maintenance work, the robot must be put into manual or
learning mode, and maintenance personnel must do their work in a protected area
and in a robot restricted area. Since the robot system protection is not active at this
time, there are additional hazards in this mode of operation.
Preventive maintenance. Preventive maintenance of robots or robotic systems
should be carried out regularly and during a periodic inspection program. The
inspection and maintenance program includes the manufacture of robots and
conveyor mechanisms, supply of mechanism parts, tools, sensors, gauges, etc.
including, but not limited to, manufacturers' recommendations for other robotic
system equipment such as
These recommended inspection and maintenance programs are critical to reduce
hazards caused by robot or other system equipment failure, unexpected movements
or malfunction of any component. To ensure a proper preventive maintenance
process, it is recommended that periodic maintenance and inspections be
documented along with the personal information of the personnel performing these
duties.
Safety training. Personnel who are programming, operating, maintaining or
repairing robots or robotic systems must receive appropriate safety training and
have the appropriate competence to perform their work in a safe environment.
Display equipment
A display device is essentially any desktop or laptop computer. The legislation
also includes microfiche readers and control panels in this category.
 This includes display equipment in driver's cabs or control cabs of vehicles or
machinery, systems intended primarily for public use, small panels displaying
information on calculators, cash registers, medical and scientific equipment, etc.
also excludes image panels on printing presses.

Major hazards

The main hazards associated with demonstration equipment are:

- pain and discomfort in the upper extremities;
- eye and vision changes;
- fatigue and stress.

Control of Display Equipment

This Act applies to equipment where there is a 'user' who uses the display
equipment continuously as an integral part of normal work.
Employers have the following responsibilities:
- evaluate workstations with demonstration equipment and mitigate identified
risks;
- ensuring workstations meet minimum requirements for screen, keyboard,
desk and chair, working environment, project work and software;
- scheduling screen equipment in relation to interruptions and changes to
screen equipment;
- organize information and training for users of screen equipment.
Individuals who use display equipment are entitled to have their eyesight and
vision tested by an ophthalmologist. If they are not able to use ordinary glasses,
they are also entitled to have them fitted with special glasses.
 LECTURE IX
ELECTRICAL SHOCK. STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electric shock
Many deaths and serious injuries related to electric shock are caused by:
- using defective equipment;
- working near overhead power lines;
- contact with underground utilities;
- hazardous work when using an electrical supply (e.g.: 230 VAC);
- use of inappropriate equipment in an explosive environment.
Types of Injuries
Consequences and injuries caused by contact with electricity include:

- Burns
- Electric shock
- Shock
- Spark/arc flash
- Fire
- Explosions

Although current (measured in amperes) is the primary "cause" of death, using

a lower voltage reduces the risk of serious injury if a mistake is made. But a
voltage as low as 50V can, in some cases, block the signal to the brain and
muscles, causing:
- the heart not beating normally;
- difficulty breathing;
- muscle spasms.
Muscle spasms can lead to physical damage caused by strong involuntary
muscle contractions.
Static electricity
Static electricity generated when you board a vehicle can exceed 10,000 volts.
However, the current, which causes discomfort to the person being shocked, lasts
only a fraction of a second.
Special precautions must be taken to ensure that static electricity is not a source
of ignition in work environments where fire and explosion are likely to occur.
Working with electrical equipment
- Check that it is suitable for operation;
- If possible, use low-voltage appliances;
- In the case of 230 V mains - use a residual current device (RCD);
- Check that the equipment corresponds to the date indicated on the sticker of
the portable tester (PAT);
- Check the transmitter, plug and equipment for obvious hazards;
- Route cables so that they are not tangled or damaged.
Work on electrical equipment, mechanical equipment or installations
Work on electrical equipment, mechanical equipment or devices shall be carried
out in the following manner:
- must be properly planned, including effective isolation of equipment prior to
start-up;
- it must be carried out by people whose competence has been confirmed;
- Appropriate standards of manufacture and work shall be applied.
Overhead power lines
- Precautions must be taken to prevent injury to people operating equipment,
such as cranes while working in areas with high voltage power lines. At the
same time, people have died carrying metal objects, such as ladders or
wooden poles, near uninsulated overhead power lines.
- Most incidents occurred on high-voltage lines fixed to wooden supports.
Direct contact with the line is not allowed, as electrical arcing can occur in
gaps.
- The electricity supply company should be contacted where overhead lines
are present. Any requirements of the supply company must be met.
- Safe distances from power lines must be established and parallel areas must
be fenced off.
- If the device passes under a cable, precautions must be taken to ensure safe
passage. The safe passage must be clearly marked.
Underground communication lines
- Check plans/drawings before starting any excavation work. A cable locator
(CAT) check should be carried out and the area marked accordingly.
- A safe drilling method should then be used to work safely in the subsurface.
 LECTURE X
FIRE SAFETY

Fire is a constant threat in many industrial settings, especially in on-site

construction, including offshore installations where the possibility of fire is
considered a serious hazard.
Nature, causes and hazards of fire
There are three main causes of fire, commonly referred to as the 'fire
triangle':
- fuel;
- a source of heat or ignition;
- oxygen.
Fire prevention is about ensuring that these three elements do not combine in an
uncontrolled manner. If a fire occurs, it can be extinguished by removing one of
these three elements from the environment.
Fire ─ the main hazards
The main hazards arising from fire are as follows:
- smoke/toxic vapors;
- risk of explosion under certain conditions;
- oxygen depletion;
- flame and heat radiation;
- collapse of buildings.
Fire Classification
Fires are classified into six main categories depending on the methods of
ignition and extinguishment:
Portable fire extinguishers
These units can be identified by type using the color code on the fire equipment
identification panel:

Portable/Mobile fire extinguishers

These units can be identified by type using the color code on the fire equipment
identification panel:
Note. Portable fire extinguishers may be used only by the following:
- by trained and competent persons;
- when sounding an alarm;
- when safely storing rescue equipment.
Fire protection strategies

All fire protection strategies should be planned in advance. Effective strategies

should be based on knowledge of the general characteristics and hazards of fire and
the appropriate characterization of the workplace. A fire protection strategy
includes:
- structural and design precautions;
- fire detection and alarm systems;
- provision of fire extinguishing equipment.

Another important element is to ensure that people are informed and instructed on
what to do if an alarm or fire is detected.

Building and design precautions

Architects, engineers and designers can help with fire protection such as:
- building with insulating, non-combustible or low flammable, low smoke
materials;
- partitions, smoke extraction devices, built-in fire extinguishers.

Exclusion from sources of ignition:

- mechanism lubrication/cooling systems;

- electrical protection systems;
- fire protection systems.

Red- Water For wood, paper, textile and solid

material fires. Do not use on
liquid, electrical or combustible
metal fires.
Cream color - Foam Do not use on liquid, electrical or
combustible metal fires. Do not
use on electrical or combustible
metal fires.
Blue – Dry powder For oil, grease and liquid fires
Black – Carbon dioxide Do not use on electrical or
combustible metal fires. Do not
use on combustible metal fires.
Yellow – Liquid chemical
substances
Exclusion or control of fuel sources:

- waste backup, recycling, and control systems;

- shut-off valves and control valves;
- control of gases and flammable liquids;
- dust suppression/fire suppression panels.
-
Fire detectors and alarms

Early detection of fire and prompt notification of anyone who may be affected is
another important element of fire protection.

Fire detection methods include:

- heat detection using sensors that work by melting metal or expanding solids,
liquids and gases;
- Radiation detection using photoelectric cells that detect the emission of
infrared/ultraviolet rays from fire;
- smoke detection by ionizing radiation, incident light rays or light extinction;
- combustible gas detectors, which measure the concentration of gas/vapor in
the atmosphere by comparing the concentration levels of combustible and
explosive substances;
- an alarm should be sounded after a fire is detected by a sensor device or by
people. Alarms to improve efficiency;
- it is different;
- heard in this workplace;
- it must be understood.
If a fire alarm is signalled, the appropriate emergency evacuation procedure must
be implemented immediately.

Firefighting

Firefighting on the property is carried out using portable firefighting

equipment and/or fixed/installed firefighting equipment (e.g. sprinkler systems,
hoses, inert gas filling systems, etc.).
Constitutional duties are divided into seven general categories:

- conducting fire safety assessments of buildings;

- determining the necessary fire safety measures based on the results of the
fire safety risk assessment;
- implementing fire safety measures through risk reduction techniques;
- implementing fire safety measures to monitor and verify compliance with
fire safety measures continuously;
- in addition, compliance with the specific requirements of fire safety
regulations;
- monitoring of fire safety assessment and results;
- accounting, record keeping.
 LECTURE XI
NOISE. VIBRATION

Noise
Many people lose their hearing due to prolonged exposure to loud
noise It is believed that if everyone lived long enough, each of us would
lose the ability to hear as a result of the functioning of the auditory organ
under such influences.
Inside the cochlea, located in the inner ear, there are thousands of
tiny hair cells that transmit sound signals to the brain.
These cells do not regenerate and are destroyed as we age. This leads to
hearing loss.
Prolonged exposure to loud noise accelerates the aging process.
Noise-related hearing loss is irreversible.
Another condition associated with exposure to loud noise is
tinnitus (ringing in the ears). This is when the affected person has a
constant sensation of noise in the head that is not related to an external
sound source.
This is a difficult condition to treat. Since it is impossible to "get
rid" of the noise, victims may develop psychological difficulties over
time.
In many countries, employers are required by law to protect
employees from excessive noise. Exposure to loud noise should be
avoided. If this is not possible, employers should consider the following
to reduce noise levels:
- consider quieter alternative working methods;
- select appropriate work equipment;
- design/layout of the work area;
- use of sound absorbing material;
- equipment repair - no sound is produced during this process;
- rotational labor - reducing the amount of time people are exposed
to noise and as a last resort;
- hearing protection equipment.
Hand-arm vibration syndrome
 Millions of workers suffer from vibration sickness on the job. Many
are exposed to levels of vibration that increase their risk of hand-arm
vibration syndrome (HAVS), sometimes called vibration sickness. Types
of equipment that cause problems include:
- concrete cutters, concrete piercing devices;
- polishers, grinders, disc cutters;
- punches;
- portable hammers;
- chain saws, chopping equipment and machines;
- electric lawn mower;
- polishers or needle guns, etc.
Vibration of the work equipment can cause additional problems - for
example: use of sharpening mechanisms.
Early symptoms of HAVS include (Figure 3.13):

• tingling and numbness in fingers;

• loss of touch;
• loss of sensation of strength in the hands;
• white hands.

Early symptoms of a vibration disease

People who experience these symptoms are strongly recommended

to get medical attention immediately.
Hearing cannot be restored, but the condition can be controlled if
detected early.
Impact of symptoms:
- pain and discomfort;
- difficulty falling asleep;
 - inability to operate small objects manually - for example: difficulty
buttoning buttons;
- exposure to cold air - cold causes increased pain;
- limits employment prospects;
- disturbs people from pursuing hobbies and interests.
Prevention of vibration disease
When using vibrating tools, people should do the following to reduce
the risk of danger:
Keep tools as loose as possible: holding tools firmly increases the
intensity of vibration.
- Ensure proper maintenance and efficient use of tools;
- use the correct tool correctly;
- take regular breaks;
- especially keep hands warm and dry to ensure good blood flow;
- smokers may be at higher risk due to restricted blood flow;
- Do not use "anti-vibration" gloves; studies show they are
ineffective in the long term.

LECTURE XII
Hazards associated with the movement of people. Dangers associated with
carelessness. Causes of stress in the workplace and their control

Hazards associated with the movement of people

Movement of people
Issue:
The second leading cause of injury to people at work (after manual handling) is
related to falls. It was reported that between 2021 and 2022, 25 per cent of injuries
lasting "more than seven days" were related to slips and trips.
Injuries can be serious when people fall on anything other than the floor, or when
they fall from heights or stairs.
Some known causes of slips and trips are:
 - Wet, slippery, oily surfaces;
- Obstacles left on driveways, pavements and partitions;
- poor/rubbly surfaces;
- icy surfaces that cannot be cleared;
- Use of footwear that is not appropriate in normal situations;
- poor lighting may be an important factor.
Managers should be aware of these problems, address them directly, or report them
to the board of directors.
A lesser-known reason why people slip on floor surfaces is that the person moves
from a relatively non-slippery surface to a more slippery surface. Such a problem
is unlikely to be solved in a short time.

To reduce the risk of slips and other injuries, people should:

- Should always use the designated pathway;
- wear appropriate footwear;
- must hold the ladder support;
- pay attention to uneven surfaces;
- if the light is weak, adjust it;
- be careful where there is traffic;
- must observe all safety signs.
Managers have a duty to monitor compliance with the above by those for whom
they are responsible.
Entrances and exits
Personal injuries occur in workplaces at the entrance doors of buildings and at
entrances and exits to and from buildings.
Injuries occur when doors open unexpectedly or when there is an unexpected
hazard when a moving vehicle enters an entranceway.
Entrances and exits should be well-lit, kept clean and unobstructed in case of
emergencies.
The workplace should have the necessary entrances that define separate doors for
pedestrians and vehicles.

Cleanliness hazards
Improper care can lead to:
- injuries associated with slips, trips and falls;
- increased risk of fire;
- accumulation of unwanted insects if food/food waste is not controlled;
- environmental problems - contamination of the environment due to improper
storage of substances.
Individuals must recognise their personal responsibility to clean their workplaces.
Supervisors are responsible for supervising the team working under their
supervision to maintain a high level of cleanliness.

A clean workplace is usually a safe workplace.

Employees should:
- Clean up contaminants and spills;
- Sweep the floor;
- Remove obstructions in aisles and passageways;
- Safely store equipment after use;
- Must comply with hazardous materials disposal regulations;
- Must report substandard/damaged floor surfaces.
Management should ensure that adequate resources are available to provide quality
and timely cleaning of facilities and equipment used by all.
- Cleaning of cupboards, bathrooms, corridors, etc. cleaning;
- Collection/removal of rubbish into rubbish bins.

Hazards associated with machinery and equipment and their control

Mechanical equipment and facilities
The hazards caused by mechanical equipment and facilities can be categorised into
mechanical and non-mechanical hazards.
It is important that users of the device follow the following recommendations
before using the device.

- Users must be trained to handle parts of the machine and must not work
alone.
- The machine guards must be in place and functioning properly. Supervisors
must be informed immediately of any problems with the machine guards.
- DO NOT wear loose clothing (including ties) around the machine.
- Loose jewellery (e.g. necklaces, earrings, necklaces) should be removed
when near the device.
- Long hair should be tied back and protected.
- Appropriate personal protective equipment should be used to protect eyes,
face and hearing (if necessary).

Mechanical hazards
A good way to learn about mechanical hazards is to observe how moving parts of
equipment work and how a worker's body may be exposed to the hazards of
mechanical equipment.
Parts of mechanical equipment move in basically one of three ways: they may
rotate, slide, cut, pierce, and/or remove material.
Health hazards
Workers who operate and maintain mechanical equipment may be exposed to
adverse effects other than physical injuries caused by moving particles. They may
be exposed by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact or absorption through the skin.
For example: without appropriate protective measures, controls and personal
protective equipment, workers may face the risk of occupational diseases from
exposure:

 Toxic or corrosive chemicals that cause irritation, burning or skin exposure;

 harmful substances in the air, such as inhaled oil vapours, metal vapours,
solvents and dust;
 heat, noise and vibration;
  ionising radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays;
 non-ionising radiation such as ultraviolet (UV), radio frequency (RF)
radiation and lasers;
 biological contamination and waste;
 Soft tissue injuries (for example: arms, shoulders, back or neck) caused by
repetitive motion, unsafe posture, manual lifting and grasping with pressure.

Other hazards
In addition to moving parts, there are other hazards:
- slipping, falling off or around the mechanism during repairs;
- an unstable device with a risk of falling;
- fire or explosion;
- damage caused by pressurisation when liquids and gases escape at high
pressure;
- electric current from defective or ungrounded electrical components.

Machines must be guarded to protect workers from these non-mechanical hazards

as well as the more obvious mechanical hazards. Sometimes guarding used to
eliminate or reduce mechanical hazards can also be modified to reduce non-
mechanical hazards. For example:

- A shield designed to prevent access to moving parts can also absorb sound;
- welding curtains, designed to protect against arc flash, can also protect
against dirt and burns;
- fencing around polishing wheels can be used as a cover for the internal
exhaust ventilation system.

Obligations
Managers must ensure that equipment users are trained in the safe use of
equipment and mechanical equipment. All protective devices must be checked
regularly to ensure proper use of the equipment and that they are in place and
working properly. Managers are responsible for ensuring that all deficiencies in the
protection of mechanical equipment are corrected in a timely manner and that
damaged equipment is taken out of service.
Equipment users may only use equipment on which they have been trained.
Equipment users may not operate machinery or equipment without the specified
safety equipment. Only properly trained equipment users may service or repair
equipment. All maintenance and repairs must be carried out in accordance with the
user manual.
Before performing any maintenance, the equipment user must ensure that all
hazardous energy in the equipment is properly controlled. Equipment users must
notify their supervisor immediately of problems with equipment safety features,
accidents, and/or equipment damage.

Requirements for guards

Moving parts of equipment can cause death or serious injury in the workplace,
such as broken fingers or hands, amputation, burns or blindness. Protecting
workers from such unwanted and preventable injuries is extremely important. If
equipment operation or accidental contact causes injury to the operator or others in
the vicinity, the hazard must be either eliminated or controlled. The following
fuses (where applicable) are required for all equipment:

- prevent contact - prevent the worker's body or clothing from coming in

contact with dangerous moving parts;
- secure - must be firmly attached to mechanical equipment and cannot be
easily removed;
- safeguard against falling objects - ensure that no objects fall into a moving
part;
- do not create a new hazard - there should be no cutting points, rough edges
or rough surfaces;
- do not interfere - the worker must not be prevented from performing his or
her work quickly and conveniently;
- create conditions for a safe lubrication process - if possible, it is possible to
lubricate the mechanism without removing the guards.

Operators must be protected from equipment hazards that cannot be eliminated

structurally by a barrier to protect them from injury or death.
Safety and hazard signs and labels must be kept wherever the machine is used.
Safety guards and guards removed for repair must be properly replaced before use.
Moving parts are the most dangerous because their movement is fast, sudden and
continuous.
Training
Managers should ensure that equipment users are adequately trained in the correct
operation of all equipment used. Instruction in the use of equipment should cover
at least the following areas:
- hazards are associated with the mechanisms involved;
- how safety devices provide protection;
- why it is necessary to use protective equipment;
- how, when and by whom safety measures can be removed;
- what to do if safety equipment is damaged, inadequate or does not provide
adequate protection.
Causes of stress at work and its control
Workplace stress is defined as "the negative reaction of people to excessive
pressure or obligations imposed on them".
In some cases, short-term pressure can stimulate and motivate people. That's
because the pressure, and usually the challenge that accompanies it, is perceived as
a kind of challenge that people take on.
When the pressure is constant and excessive, stress occurs.

Causes of the problem

The individual realises that they are being asked to do too much work that they
cannot cope with.
The individual may find it difficult to cope with changes in the workplace. This
change may be forced.
In some cases, the person may feel that he or she has failed. When people cannot
control the pace of work, they find work stressful.
In addition to stress at work, stress can arise from some of the following
difficulties in people's personal lives:
- family problems;
 - serious illness in the family;
- financial problems.
These problems always carry over to the workplace and negatively affect the
business performance. In addition to relieving work-related stress, an organisation
should try to help employees who are stressed at work because of problems in their
personal lives.

Signs and symptoms of stress

Managers need to recognise the signs of stress in team members and themselves.
Symptoms can be as follows:
- Emotional - Such people worry all the time. They may have low self-esteem
and pessimistic outlook on life.
- Physiological - These people may experience stomach complaints, weight
loss or just a bad mood.
- Behavioural. In this case, there can be a noticeable change in character, such
as impatience, as well as an increase in the use of alcoholic beverages. There
is also an increase in tardiness and disrespectful absences.
Management standards
Best practices are based on management standards. These standards consist of the
following:
- requirements - workload, work patterns, and work environment;
- control - the extent to which people have a say in how things are done;
- support - encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the
organisation, levels of management and colleagues;
- relationships - doing everything possible to prevent conflict and trying to
avoid the occurrence of unacceptable behaviour;
- responsibilities - people understand their responsibilities in the organisation
and the organisation ensures that these people do not have conflicting
responsibilities;
- changes - how organisational change is managed and spread through the
organisation.
Other factors that can increase stress in the workplace include harassment or
intimidation, verbal abuse, threats or even physical violence. Fortunately, such
incidents are very rare in the civil engineering sector. In some sectors, suffering
and even assault are quite common - teachers in emergency departments, doctors
and nurses, etc.

Psychological symptoms of bullying may include:

- thoughts of self-harm;
- self-blame;
- loss of self-confidence/trust;
- agoraphobia.
Benefits of effective stress management:
 Reduction in sickness absenteeism;
 increased employee engagement and productivity;
 a healthier and happier workplace for everyone;
 assisted with employee recruitment and retention;
 created a positive image of the organisation.

LECTURE XIII
 DEFINITIONS. PURPOSE OF ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT
INVESTIGATIONS. INCIDENTS "MINOR" ACCIDENTS. DIRECT,
INVISIBLE AND MAJOR CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS. INVESTIGATION
OF INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS

Concepts
An accident is the result of unplanned events that result in injury or
illness to a worker and may cause property damage.
An incident is also an unplanned event that can cause damage and
does not depend on one cause or another. Someone may immediately
intervene in the occurrence of the event, or it simply depends on luck.
Some people call these occurrences "dissolved errors." Incidents or
resolved errors indicate that something is wrong, and it is important to
record and investigate it properly.

Purpose of investigation of accidents and incidents

The main purpose of accident and incident investigation is to
find out what happened and why and to take precautionary measures. As
a result, safer work systems can be implemented to prevent other
accidents in the future. Other reasons to investigate accidents and
incidents include:
• information may be requested by relevant supervisory and
regulatory authorities;
• employees and others affected by the accident and incident are
waiting for the responsible person to investigate the causes of the
incident;
• the organization should gather information to assess the extent of
damage to the business.
The long-term benefits of quality accident/incident investigation
for an organization include:
• a safer workplace for employees and others;
• prevention of business losses due to lost production and general
shortages;
 • protection of employee wellbeing;
• creating a good reputation in the industry;
• creating a good reputation with potential customers.

Incidents and 'Minor' Accidents

Very few accidents occur without prior warning. One reason why
warnings are ignored is that people judge the seriousness of an accident
by the damage caused. This means that accidents with no damage are not
recorded and consequently accidents with minor damage are not
investigated in detail. The key here is to consider not only what
happened, but what could happen. Could the outcome have been worse?
The following triangle, which shows the ratio of incidents or
avoidable errors to accidents resulting in some cases in injury and
damage, is the result of Frank Bird's research.
There are three main factors to consider when investigating an
accident:

Huma
Work Control
n

Three main factors in accident investigations

 Frank Bird's triangle
Firstly, the human factor - the person or persons involved in the issue.
Are they relevant to the issue? Do they have experience in the issue?
What is their attitude towards the work?
Secondly, the work factor: what work is being done? Where is the
work being done? What hazards and risks are likely to arise? What
hazards and risks are likely to arise in the course of the work?
Thirdly, how the first two factors are organized, controlled or
managed.
The immediate cause of an accident (the factor that "provoked" the
accident or unpleasant situation) usually depends on the first factor - a
person or group engages in a hazardous activity or is exposed to a
dangerous.
For this reason, there is usually a tendency at this stage to focus on
individuals and try to identify the culprit. The problem is that
investigations stall and important, unseen causes of the accident are not
identified and addressed.
A proper accident investigation not only finds out what went
wrong, but why it went wrong. This will help to identify the root causes
of deficiencies and weaknesses in the management system as a whole.
Firstly, rather than identifying those responsible, it would be useful
to examine why people make mistakes.
• Lack of skill - a person with sufficient skill does not intentionally
make a mistake under normal circumstances. This may be due to a
sudden lapse of concentration, distraction or interference at critical
moments.
 • Rule-based errors - rules may be misinterpreted or misunderstood.
In necessary cases, the absence of a rule can lead to errors.
• Knowledge-based errors. They occur when people think they have
the necessary experience and knowledge about the events, but in
fact they do not. A work plan is drawn up and carefully followed,
but because of errors in the plan, unpleasant consequences occur.
So, the mistakes that people make are definitely not intentional.
Accidents - Human and organizational factors
People make mistakes when they don't know, can't or don't care.
Organizations need to be aware of these situations and take various
measures in this regard.
They don't know. This is a competence problem. How does the
organization ensure that employees are competent? Is safety ensured by
other means, such as strict supervision, when people are not competent
enough?
They can't - does the organization provide adequate resources in
the form of time, equipment/materials, manpower and advice?
The organization's attitude to safety and development also
influences people's behavior. What mechanisms are in place in the
organization to promote healthy attitudes towards safety and a positive
safety culture to achieve safe behavior?

Direct, invisible/unseen and root causes of accidents

The direct cause or causes of an accident are the circumstance or
combination of circumstances that led to an unfavourable outcome.
Investigating why and how direct causes occur helps to identify the root
causes of an accident. To clarify this issue, we will discuss a fire that
occurred at Bradford City Football Club in the United Kingdom.
On 11 May 1985, the main stand of Bradford City Stadium caught
fire during a football match. As a result of this incident, 56 people,
including children, died in the fire. The main stand completely burned
down within 4 minutes after the incident that triggered the tragedy.
The immediate cause of the accident was a cigarette that fell on the
rubbish under the seats (hazardous situation) and was thrown away
without being crushed (dangerous act).
The unseen causes include :
• The coaster was old and mostly wood. The stand had an "open
step" which allowed the cigarette to fall inside without being
crushed.
• There was no way for the deceased to escape. As they descended
the stairs, they found the main exit doors locked. This was a
common practice in the 1980s. The gates were kept closed so that
people could not get into the stadium any other way than through
the turnstiles.

Direct İnvisible Root

Causes of accideuts
In this case, one of the main root causes of the fire was the construction
of the stadium. If it had been built of solid concrete, with closed steps
and if the emergency exit doors had been equipped with automatic
opening devices, this tragedy would probably not have happened.

Investigation of incidents and accidents

Methods of incident investigation
Root Cause Analysis
 This method is an invisible and convenient method to identify root
causes. The starting point reflects the characterisation of the hazard. For
example, an accident occurred while the operator was on a forklift.
This time, "Why?" The question arises - Why did the accident
occur? Many things can cause this, and they are: "Why?" is the answer
to the question. This method can be used repeatedly until the root causes
are found. The root cause is the situation or condition that causes all the
other causes to occur.
Accident investigation procedures
First aid or professional assistance to an injured person
• If you are at the scene of an accident or are the first person on the
scene after an accident, the first thing you should do is assess the
situation for your own safety before assisting the injured. Injuries
to persons assisting victims at the scene of an accident are
widespread.
• Sound the alarm and call an ambulance as soon as possible.
Contact emergency services if necessary. Stay with the injured and
support them until help arrives.
Protection of the area where the accident occurred
• When an accident occurs, it is important to protect the location
where it happened. While taking care of the victim, try to keep the
area quiet.
• Once the victim has received the necessary treatment, secure the
scene since it may contain valuable evidence for investigators.
Make sure to follow your organization's accident reporting
procedures to ensure that all the necessary information is recorded.

Accident with a
logging machine
 Investigation of the causes of accidents
• In the event of an accident, notify the appropriate internal officials
and relevant external bodies. A "Report Form" should be prepared
and recorded in the "Accident Log".
The Accident Report Form contains a summary of accidents for
future reference. The types of information included in the Report Form
may include the following

Date,time,
place

Cause Name of
assesment victim

Witness
Type of injury
information

Accident
Type of
descriptio
accident
n
 The types of information included in the Report Form

LECTURE XIV
FUNDAMENTALS OF AN ENVIRONMENT.
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION. ENVIRONMENTAL
LEGISLATION

Basics of environment
Origin of the term "environment"
The word "environment" in English means "surroundings", derived
from the French word "environer" which means "to surround", and
describes the basic elements of life on earth, namely water, soil,
atmosphere and climate.
Environmental components
Natural bio(geo)chemical cycles
• Carbon cycle
• Photosynthesis
• Breathing
• Death and decomposition
• Combustible fossil fuels
• Cement production
• Nitrogen cycle
• Phosphate cycle
Human activities affect all natural cycles.
Environmental problems
• Greenhouse effect
a problem with increasing amounts of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, causing temperatures to rise
• Depletion of the ozone layer
chlorine released into the stratosphere attacks ozone molecules,
resulting in thinning of the ozone layer
• Land degradation
the deterioration of the quality of that land as a result of
improper use
• Loss of biodiversity
50 million plant and animal species are on the brink of
extinction, 1/3 will probably be extinct by 2025.
• Urban air pollution
sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc. can lead to poor air
quality
• Water pollution
resulting from industrial processes
• Import of toxic waste
worldwide delivery
Global warming
 In the last century it has become clear that industrial development
has led to increased emissions of 'greenhouse gases'; their effects are
reflected in melting glaciers, rising sea levels, deforestation and species
extinction.
The effects of rising temperatures are already showing.
• Ice is melting around the world, especially at the Earth's poles.
This includes mountain glaciers, the ice sheets covering West
Antarctica and Greenland, and Arctic sea ice.
• Researcher Bill Fraser has observed that the population of Adélie
penguins in Antarctica has declined from 32,000 pairs to 11,000 in
30 years.
• Sea level rise has been faster in the past century.
• Some butterflies, foxes and mountain plants have moved further
north or to higher and cooler areas.
• Precipitation (rain and snow) has increased on average around the
world.
• Thanks to 20 years of warm summers, spruce bark beetles spread
in Alaska. The insects have damaged 4 million acres of spruce
trees.
If warming continues, other consequences may be inevitable by the
end of this century:
• Sea levels are expected to rise by 18 to 59 centimetres by the end
of the century, and continued melting of the poles could amount to
10 to 20 centimetres.
• Hurricanes and other storms are likely to intensify.
• Dependent types may not work in synchrony. For example, plants
may flower before the insects that pollinate them become active.
• Floods and droughts will become more widespread. In Ethiopia,
where drought is already common, rainfall could decrease by 10
per cent over the next 50 years.
Ozone layer
Ozone is a colourless, odourless gas formed from oxygen.
 • The ozone layer protects life on Earth from the sun's ultraviolet
rays. It is 10 to 30 miles above the earth, so it does not affect the
oxygen molecules we breathe.
• The ozone layer is damaged by certain gases that destroy ozone
molecules. This term is known as a Hole in the Ozone Layer.
Causes of damage to the ozone layer:
• Halon gas is used in fire extinguishing systems and explosion-
proof equipment. Although several different types of halons have
been developed since this chemical compound was first
discovered, many have proven to be dangerous or fatal to humans.
Since the late 20th century, two safer types of halons have replaced
earlier versions. These include liquefied halons of types 1211 and
1301. The scientific name for both is known as
bromotrifluoromethane.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerants, solvents, foams
and aerosols. CFCs, mainly chemicals in atomised aerosols that
have been used intensively by industrialised countries over the past
50 years, are the main cause of ozone depletion.
Chlorofluorocarbons, commonly known as CFCs, are a group of
man-made compounds containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
The importance of biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life on a given property: the different
animals, plants, fungi and even microorganisms such as bacteria that
make up our natural world. Each of these species and organisms work
together in ecosystems to maintain balance and sustain life.
Three stages of biodiversity are considered:
• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecosystem diversity
Importance of biodiversity
• Biodiversity contributes to and supports human life and economic
activity at all levels.
 • Biodiversity increases "biological richness."
• Species are directly useful to humans as food, medicines, fuel,
building materials and other necessities.
Types have usage values, e.g:
• raw materials
• food
• fibrous plants
• medicines
• bioenergy
• natural pesticides
• scientific and educational materials
The importance of genetic and ecosystem diversity:
Importance of genetic diversity:
• genetic resources;
• commercial products (agricultural or pharmaceutical products);
• genetic modification;
• genetic engineering.
Importance of ecosystem diversity
There are several important applications:
• food production;
• food supply;
• water supply;
• aesthetics, etc.
Importance of ecosystem diversity:
Deforestation - the process of converting forested areas into non-
forested land.
Reforestation - the process of converting previously degraded land
back to forested land.
Afforestation - the process of creating forest land that "historically"
did not exist.
 Ecosystem diversity
Climate change
The planet is heating up: since 1880, the average temperature has
already increased by at least 1.1° Celsius (1.9° Fahrenheit). (NOAA -
National Centres for Environmental Information, 2022).
The effects of this are as follows:
• There is a significant increase/decrease in the abundance of many
species;
• Animal migration processes change;
• Glaciers melt;
• Sea levels rise;
• Precipitation patterns have changed.
Predictions for the future
• Hurricanes are getting stronger and more frequent;
• Floods and droughts around the world;
• Reduction of fresh water supplies;
• Spread of disease;
• Ecosystem change.
Greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is responsible for much of the warming. We are
increasing CO2 levels by:
• Burning fossil fuels
• Deforestation
Acid rain
What is acid rain?
Acid rain is one of the effects of air pollution. Gases produced by
burning fuel react with oxygen and water vapour in the air to form acids,
which fall on the earth's surface as rain.
 Acid rain, or acid precipitation, is a broad term covering any form of
precipitation with acidic components, such as sulphur or nitric acid, that
falls from the atmosphere in wet or dry form.
The main sources of SO2 and NOx in the atmosphere are:
• Combustion of fossil fuels for electricity generation. Electricity
generators account for two-thirds of SO2 and one-quarter of NOx
in the atmosphere.
• Vehicles and heavy equipment.
• Manufacturing, refineries and other industries.
Wet precipitation/dry precipitation
Wet precipitation
• Wet precipitation is what we most commonly refer to as acid rain.
Dry precipitation
• Acidic particles and gases can fall as dry precipitation from the
atmosphere in the absence of moisture.
• The amount of acids entering the atmosphere through dry
deposition depends on the amount of precipitation in the area.
• Desert areas have a higher ratio of dry to wet precipitation than
areas that receive a few inches of rain each year.
Ecosystem effects of acid rain
• An ecosystem is the association of plants, animals, and other
organisms with their environment, including air, water, and soil.
• Everything in an ecosystem is interconnected. If something
damages one part of the ecosystem - one type of plant, animal, soil
or water - it can affect everything.

Renewable and non-renewable energy

Renewable and non-renewable energy sources
All natural resources can be characterised as renewable and non-
renewable.
A renewable resource is an asset that can be regenerated within a
practical time by nature or man.
 A non-renewable asset is an asset that takes too long to replace or
cannot be replaced at all.
Non-renewable resources:
Petroleum
It is the most used fossil fuel in the world. Crude oil is usually
found in underground reservoirs. The process of extracting crude oil can
be harmful to the environment, and refineries release many chemicals
during processing.

Renewable and non-renewable energy sources

Petroleum products
• Gasoline - releases CO2 when burned.
• Paraffin - a flammable hydrocarbon liquid derived from petroleum.
• Plastic - a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that
use polymers as the main ingredient.
Coal is one of the most toxic natural resources. Coal plants produce
hundreds of millions of tonnes of toxic waste, including fly ash and
sludge containing arsenic, uranium, mercury and other heavy metals.
Coal with high sulphur content causes acid rain.
Natural gas - consists mainly of methane. Ethane, propane, butane,
pentane, sulphur and CO2 are derived from natural gas processes.
 Uranium - found in virtually all rocks and soils in small amounts.
Because of its radioactive properties, it can have extremely harmful
effects on humans and animals. It can interfere with the normal
functions of the heart, liver, brain and kidneys. For this reason, it is
considered a toxic metal.
Exhaustion of non-renewable resources
Exhaustion of natural resources means a decrease in the remaining
resources on earth. It happens when we use up resources faster than they
can be renewed. All the solid fuels we use are fossil energy and minerals
extracted from the earth. Modern society is increasingly dependent on
mineral and fossil energy sources. They differ in use, cost of production,
and geographic distribution. Even if solid fuels, fossil energy resources
and minerals are non-renewable, extracted metals can be largely
recycled and reused.
The Earth's primary mineral resources are not exhausted (at least for
the near future), but exploration and extraction of these resources in
many regions is limited by land use and political and environmental
concerns. Natural resource extraction requires a clear focus on
sustainable development, which includes economic, environmental and
sociocultural [Link] we do not know what the most important
resources will be 100 years from now, we can be certain that society will
still need energy and a wide variety of raw [Link] resources
include oil and gas, coal, uranium, thorium, geothermal and metallic
minerals, industrial and speciality minerals including cement, raw
materials, and rare earth elements.
Renewable energy sources
Water - Like wood, water has a long history as an energy source. A
prime example is the paddle wheels used to grind grain.
Floatation refers to the use of buoyant currents to generate energy.
There are two ways to achieve buoyancy energy: using buoyancy
barrage or jets.
Wave Power - harnessing the energy of the ocean surface.
 Hydropower - utilising the gravity of flowing water.
Sun Ray
• Solar energy - can be used to generate electricity.
Radiation
• Electromagnetic (EM) radiation can be thought of as a stream of photons,
and radiant energy can be considered as the energy carried by these photons.
• Radiant energy can do the same wonders with less than 1 per cent of
conventional electricity.
Wind
• The conversion of wind energy into electrical or mechanical energy.

Geothermal
• The Earth's thermal energy is twice the current human energy consumption.
The Earth's crust is an insulating layer under which large amounts of energy
are stored.
Biomass
• Refers to living or just-dead biological material that can be used as fuel.
Compressed natural gas
• It is created by compressing natural gas to less than 1% of its amount at
standard atmospheric pressure.
Nuclear energy
• Changes can occur in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. These changes are
called nuclear reactions. The energy produced in a nuclear reaction is called
nuclear energy or atomic energy.
• Nuclear energy is produced naturally and by man-made operations under
human control.
Deficiency
• Sometimes renewable resources can become deficient because of overuse by
people.
• Water replaces itself during the water cycle, but if people use too much fresh
water before it is renewed as part of the water cycle, a shortage can occur.
• Trees can also suffer from overuse and become rare if they are not replanted
after they are cut down.
Water
• Water is indeed essential for all life on earth and in the atmosphere.
• 70% of the earth's surface is covered with water.
 • About 97% of this water is salt water.
• Of the 3% of fresh water, only 1% is available for use.
Availability of drinking water
• Water is essential for life. No human being, regardless of his or her
circumstances, should be deprived of water. This is the foundation of the
human right to water.
• Water, unlike other natural resources, is characterised by its
"irreplaceability".
6 countries (Brazil, Russia, Canada, Indonesia, China and Colombia) have 50
per cent of the world's freshwater resources.
"Coal can be replaced by oil, oil by nuclear power, rice by wheat... But water,
essential to life, cannot be replaced." - Ricardo Petrella
Drinking water deficiency
• One-third of the world's population lives in countries experiencing water
scarcity, which is defined as the ratio of a country's water consumption to its
water availability.
• Currently, 600 million people face water scarcity.
• Depending on future population growth rates, between 2.7 and 3.2 billion
people could be living in either water-stressed or water stressed
environments by 2012.
• Nearly one billion people do not have access to safe drinking water.
• 5,000 children die from diarrhoea every day, or one child every 17 seconds.
• More than 1.5 million preventable deaths each year.
• Globally, diarrhoea is the leading cause of disease and death, and 88 per cent
of diarrhoea deaths are due to lack of access to sanitation, as well as
inadequate access to water for hygiene and unsafe drinking water.
Water quantity and quality
Overexploitation: imbalance of water demand and water availability.
Problems with water quantity:
• Lack of attention to water use and sanitation in some countries;
• Groundwater exhaustion in coastal zones: salinisation;
• Agricultural intensification: increase in irrigation water.
Water quality issues:
• Fertilisers + mobilisation of soil and water salts in agriculture: increasing
nutrient levels in surface and groundwater;
• New pollutants (hormones, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and nanoparticles);
• Release of geogenic elements into water as a result of human activities.
 Desertification
• Desertification is the process of turning fertile land into desert.
• Desertification is a process of land degradation caused by human activities,
which includes a permanent transition to severe degradation.
• Desertification is also a condition of desert expansion. This means that the
desert is constantly expanding towards surrounding properties.
Causes of desertification
• Overgrazing
• Deforestation
• Agriculture
• Urbanisation and other land development
• Climate change
• Land deprivation
• Natural disasters
Efficient use of natural resources
Sustainable use is the practice of caring for natural resources so that all
living things can benefit now and in the future. Everything we need to survive,
such as food, water, air and shelter, we get from natural resources. Some of these
resources, such as small plants, can be quickly replaced after use.
Sustainable management of reserves
• Anthropogenic air and water pollution is balanced by natural renewable
processes.
• Efficient utilisation and management of renewable natural resources not
exceeding capacity and reproduction limits.
• Restoration of ecosystem productivity and efficient utilisation.
• Effective utilisation of biological and landscape diversity.
• Flow efficiency and turnover of non-renewable resources.
• Development and implementation of renewable substitutes.

Environmental Protection
Environmental pollution
Pollution is the contamination or damage to the environment as a result of
human activities. It arises from three aspects of the environment:
 Air pollution - caused by smoke, fumes, dust or other by-products emitted
into the air by incinerators, transport or industrial processes.
 Water pollution - liquid waste/wastewater containing toxic substances such
as detergents discharged directly from sewers, factories or surrounding land
 into groundwater, rivers or seawater (e.g. fertilisers washed off agricultural
land by rain).
 Soil pollution - caused by the accumulation of solid waste from industrial
processes in the soil.
Types of pollution
 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Noise pollution
 Radioactive pollution
 Thermal pollution
Sources, pathways and receptors of pollution
 Primary pollutants
 Secondary pollutants
Source - Path - Destination Model

Source. Road.
example: example: Goal. example:
spillage of oil ground water fish in a river
from tank drenage

. Source - Path - Destination Model

Air pollution
The most common sources of air pollution are industry and heating. The
combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil in industrial processes in power
plants, refineries and factories results in the emission of various pollutants, most of
which are of the same type as those emitted during transport and road traffic.
Chemicals released into the atmosphere in sufficiently high concentrations as a
result of natural phenomena or human activity are harmful.
There are two categories of air pollutants:
Primary air pollutants
• A harmful substance is emitted directly into the atmosphere.
• Secondary air pollutants. Primary air pollutants are harmful substances that
are formed in the atmosphere by reacting with substances naturally present
in the atmosphere or with other atmospheric pollutants.
Effects of air pollution
 • Sulphur dioxide and its particles - irritates the respiratory tract and disrupts
gas exchange in the lungs
• Nitrogen dioxide - causes airway obstruction
• Carbon monoxide - It combines with iron in the haemoglobin of the blood.
Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death.
• Ozone - causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort.
Preventing air pollution
 Save energy - at home, at work, everywhere.
 Use public transport where possible, cycle or walk rather than drive.
 Follow refuelling instructions at petrol stations, be careful not to spill fuel
and always close the fuel tank securely.
 If possible, consider purchasing portable fuel containers labelled "spill-
proof".
 Car, boat and other vehicles. tune your engines properly.
 Make sure your tyres are properly inflated.
 Use environmentally friendly paints and cleaners whenever possible.
 Use gas appliances instead of firewood.
Water pollution
 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers,
oceans, groundwater, etc.).
 Water pollution occurs when contaminants are directly or indirectly
discharged into water bodies without proper treatment to remove harmful
compounds.
The most common sources of water pollution are industrialisation, plastic and
polythene bags, pesticides and fertilizers, sewage and other oxygen-demanding
wastes and sewage.
Consequences of water pollution - cause diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera,
dysentery, typhoid and polio.
Prevent water pollution

 Pick up litter and put it in a bin.

 If fertiliser falls on paved areas, blow it off or sweep it onto the grass. Do
not apply fertiliser to the grass just before it rains. Otherwise, the chemicals
will enter drains and waterways.
 Mulch or compost grass and yard waste. Do not sweep leaves into the street.
This can lead to clogged and damaged drainage channels.
 Wash your car or machinery in areas with special drainage.
  Do not pour engine oil down the drain.
Soil pollution
Sources that pollute soil the most
 Soil pollution occurs as a result of the presence of xenobiotic (man-made)
chemicals or other changes in the natural soil environment.
 It is usually caused by industrial activities, the use of agricultural chemicals,
or improper waste disposal.
 The most common chemicals are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvent
pesticides, lead and other heavy metals.
 Pollution is related to the degree of industrialisation and the intensity of
chemical use.
Prevent soil contamination
 Reduce toxins
 Recycle waste
 Buy organic products, especially organic cleaning products, pesticides,
insecticides and fertilisers.
 Avoid trash
 Take the initiative to educate others about the harmful effects of trash.
 Increase soil fertility through reforestation.
Noise
Major source of noise
 Various industries such as textile mills, factory flares, publishing houses,
engineering plants.
 Agricultural machinery such as tractors, combines, artesian wells, etc.
 Defence equipment such as tanks, explosives.
 Transport vehicles
Effects of noise pollution
Noise pollution affects the health and well-being of living things. Animals
use sound for a variety of reasons, including navigation, finding food, attracting the
opposite sex, and avoiding predators. Noise pollution makes it difficult for them to
perform these tasks, which affects their ability to survive.
Increased noise not only affects animals on land, but is also a problem for
those living in the ocean. Ships, oil rigs, sonar and seismic testing have made the
once calm marine environment noisy and chaotic.
Prevention of noise pollution
 Noise pollution can be reduced by offering the right strategies.
  Some of the most commonly used means of reducing road noise include
speed limits, tyre design, noise barriers and others.
 Add to this quieter aircraft engines and building airports away from
wilderness areas.
Radioactive pollution
The main cause of radioactive contamination is mining, processing of
radioactive materials, nuclear power plants, and natural sources.
Consequences of radioactive contamination - When the human body is exposed
to radiation, it reacts to biological molecules that form ions. These ionic cells
destroy proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids.
Preventing radioactive contamination - so there are several options for cleaning
up radioactive waste:
 Storing the waste in special containers that are usually buried underground
and prevent radiation from escaping;
 Isolating radiation waste in remote locations, such as remote caves or
abandoned mines;
 If the first two options are not feasible, emissions can be reduced until
background values are reached.
Thermal pollution
This occurs when heated water from industrial processes is discharged into
waterways.
The main causes of thermal pollution. Some of the important sources of
thermal pollution are nuclear power plants and power stations, oil refineries, steel
mills, coal burning power plants.
Effects of thermal pollution: temperature affects reproductive cycles,
digestion and respiration, and warm water contains less dissolved oxygen than cold
water.

Prevention of thermal pollution. Thermal pollution can be controlled

through a number of effective scientific methods, such as the construction of
artificial lakes, cooling ponds and cooling towers.
Artificial lakes are man-made reservoirs for cooling power plants.
Light pollution
The main sources of light pollution are unwanted or excessive artificial light.
Like noise pollution, light pollution is a form of energy waste that can cause
negative impacts and degrade the quality of the environment.
Effects of light pollution - exposure to light at night suppresses the
production of the hormone melatonin. Melatonin is synthesised in the brain's pineal
gland only when the eyes signal that it is dark. Production begins at night, peaks at
1-2am and stops during the day. This is why melatonin is often referred to as the
hormonal expression of darkness. Strengthens the immune system. Lowers
cholesterol levels. It protects the body's cardiovascular system. It stabilises the
biological rhythm and restores the night cycle, in the absence of rest and melatonin
a person suffers from chronic fatigue.
Avoid light pollution - start with natural darkness, add light only for a
specific purpose. Use intelligent lighting systems, use the lowest intensity lighting
and use non-reflective surfaces of dark colours.
Pollutants in the environment
Our oceans and coastal areas give us so much - from food to boating and
swimming spots to enjoying wildlife. So when these properties become polluted
and unhealthy, it's not only bad for the environment, it's bad for us.
Source: A wide variety of chemicals can contaminate our water, soil or air,
affecting the environment and our health. Environmental pollutants are mainly
from industrial and commercial facilities; oil and chemical spills; unstable sources
such as roads, car parks; and sewage entering through sewage treatment plants and
sewage systems. Many hazardous waste dumps and industrial facilities have been
contaminated for decades and still continue to impact the environment.
Environmental pollutants may look and smell rather unpleasant, but their
effects are more serious than just aesthetics. Some pollutants do not break down or
accumulate in the food chain. These pollutants can be consumed or ingested by
fish and wildlife, which in turn can enter the human body.
Chemicals can also penetrate sediments, affecting large coastal properties,
jeopardising human health and reducing the economic well-being of regions that
depend on clean coastal environments.
What can we do?
• Planting grasses, trees and shrubs in open properties to reduce and absorb
runoff, reduce erosion and improve habitat.
• Proper disposal of animal waste, motor oil and household chemicals.
• Use small amounts of fertilisers and pesticides on lawns and gardens.
• Keeping rubbish out of drains or it will clog drains or end up in the nearest
watercourse or lake.
• Organise property clean-up.
• Car maintenance to prevent oil leaks.
• Emphasising the purchase and use of less toxic household chemicals.
• Recycling of plastic, glass and paper.
Deforestation
What is deforestation?
• The removal of trees over large areas.
 • Natural fires, the use of trees as firewood or alternatives.
This process affects wildlife, the ecosystem, weather, and even climate.
What is the scale of deforestation?
• Every year, 12-15 million hectares of forest area disappear.
• Every minute, a forest area the size of 36 football pitches is destroyed.
• In the rainforests, 2,000 trees are cut down per minute.
• This is all very alarming and serious.
Reasons for deforestation
• Urban development - cutting down trees for lumber used for building
materials, furniture, and paper products has a major impact on forest life.
• Agriculture - forests are cut down to make land available for growing crops
and to increase acreage for farms, ranches, and other food crops.
• forests are destroyed to create land for grazing livestock.
• Fuel - in developing countries, trees are cut down for use as firewood or
turned into charcoal used for cooking and heating.
• Commercial - clearing forests for oil and mineral extraction, building
motorways.
Illegal cutting - many government agencies are fighting illegal logging to
protect forests.
Consequences of deforestation
• Soil erosion - when forested areas are cut down, the soil is exposed to the
sun, dries out too much and eventually becomes less fertile due to the loss of
volatile nutrients such as nitrogen.
• Disruption of the water cycle - Trees contribute greatly to the maintenance
of the water cycle. For example, most of the water circulating in a rainforest
ecosystem stays inside the plants. Cutting down these trees causes the
climate in the area to dry up.
• Biodiversity loss - leads to the disappearance of the unique biodiversity of
different geographical properties on an unprecedented scale.
• Flooding and drought - lack of trees disrupts the water cycle and can reduce
the amount of rainwater, which can lead to drought.
• Climate change - as mentioned above, global warming is mainly caused by
the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
How can we stop deforestation?
• By purchasing products made from recycled materials: paper, napkins, cups.
• Reusing paper bags.
• Thinking before you print!
• Planting trees!
Recycling one tonne of paper can help save 17 trees.
General classification of waste
 The international regulatory framework refers to two general classifications
of waste:
Controlled waste is defined as unwanted waste, substances or any process
surplus, defined as domestic, industrial and commercial waste or any substance.
Special waste - defined as waste that is very hazardous or difficult to treat,
store or dispose of. Handling them requires special attention.
Classification of wastes is shown in the
Wastes
• Biodegradable waste - wastes that microorganisms can break down into
basic compounds: food, paper, degradable plastic, wastewater.
Impact - Methane production in landfills
Solutions - Recycling waste to produce heat, electricity or fuel. This has
been a proven successful method for over 20 years. Dry biodegradation can
be include here.

Wastes

Non-
Controlled
controlled

Air
Household Commercial Industry
emissions

Non- waste
Inert Hazardous
hazardous water

Radioactive

Explosive

Classification of wastes
• Hazardous waste - Wastes that pose a significant or potential threat to public
health or the environment: flammable, chemically active, corrosive, toxic,
etc.
o Effect - Groundwater contamination
o Solutions - Product recycling Cement-based fasteners, Burning
 • Inert waste - Wastes that are neither chemically nor biologically active and
do not decompose: include sand, concrete, glass, bricks, tiles, ceramics.
• Effect - Insignificant as it poses no threat to surface water or groundwater
quality.
Construction waste - Waste consisting of unwanted materials generated
directly or accidentally during construction or industry.
o Effect - Some components, such as drywall, become hazardous after
disposal in landfills, which release hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas, after
decomposition.
o Solution - Construction waste recycling plant.
• Medical waste - Medical waste: blood, needles, scalpels, body parts.
Effect - It is estimated to be infectious or biohazardous because it has the
potential to cause the spread of infectious disease.
Solution - Do not burn and Sterilization
Waste segregation
Waste segregation is the identification, classification, separation and
segregation of rubbish and waste to reduce, reuse and recycle it. To segregate
waste properly, it is important to identify the type of waste generated correctly.
Depending on the biological, physical and chemical properties, waste is segregated
and classified into the following types:
Solid waste - includes both recyclable and non-recyclable materials.
Wet waste - foodstuffs, contaminated food containers, hygiene products,
household waste, napkins paper towels, etc.
Sanitary waste is only liquid or solid waste generated by human activities
and human endeavours.
Household hazardous waste - household products containing corrosive,
toxic, flammable or chemically active substances, except waste oil.
E-Waste - all types of electronic waste.
Hazardous Waste - all substances, products and by-products containing
corrosive, toxic, flammable or chemically active substances.
Inert Waste - waste that is neither chemically nor biologically active and is
difficult to decompose.
Waste Utilisation
In the past, rubbish collection was not a major problem, but with
globalisation and industrialisation, there has been a need for a better way to
dispose of waste. The following are some of the methods used today .
 Waste disposal methods
Landfill
Landfill - modern landfills are well designed and well managed facilities for
the disposal of solid waste. Landfills are located, designed, managed and
monitored to ensure compliance with legal regulations. They are also designed to
protect the environment from contaminants that may be present in the waste
stream.
Composting
Composting - organic waste in landfills produces methane, a potent
greenhouse gas. Methane emissions are greatly reduced by composting food waste
and other organic matter. Composting reduces and in some cases eliminates the
need for chemical fertilisers. Composting contributes to high crop productivity.
Combustion
Combustion is the process of burning hazardous materials at a temperature
high enough to destroy pollutants. Incineration with energy recovery is seen as a
possible solution to the waste problem. Municipal solid waste has a calorific value
of about 40% of coal and is therefore an important source of energy. Waste
reduction is 60-90% and results in slag (can be used for road construction), fly ash
(buried in landfill) and metal (recycled).
 Burning hazardous materials
Hazardous waste
Historically, some hazardous waste has been disposed of in conventional
landfills. This has resulted in huge amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the
ground. These harmful chemicals have infiltrated natural hydrological systems.
Many landfills now require preventative measures against groundwater
contamination, such as installing a barrier along the base of the landfill to contain
hazardous substances that may remain in the landfill.
Waste treatment
Recycling - many hazardous wastes can be turned into new products.
Examples include lead-acid batteries or electronic circuit boards: where heavy
metals are converted into more easily recyclable solids, they can also be used to fill
pavements.
Cement is another widely used type of disposal - cement based curing and
stabilisation. Cement is used because it can get rid of a number of hazardous
wastes by improving physical properties and reducing toxicity and permeability of
pollutants. Manufactured cement is divided into 5 different groups depending on
its strength and components. This may include the addition of pH adjusting agents,
phosphates or sulphurising agents to reduce the settling or setting time of the grout
for cementation, increase compressive strength or reduce leachability of
contaminants.
 Pyrolys
Some types of hazardous waste can be disposed of using ultra-high
temperature electric arc pyrolysis under inert conditions to prevent ignition. In
some cases, incineration at high temperature may be preferable, such as in the
disposal of concentrated organic wastes including polychlorinated biphenyls,
pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants.

Pyrolysis process

Waste Management Organisations

By providing innovative solutions to pressing waste management dilemmas,
waste management companies around the world strive to achieve the highest level
of confidence in their services. Globally, waste management is handled by
companies operating under special authorisations.
Although producers entrust the disposal of their waste to the appropriate
companies, they must take responsibility for controlling the disposal process.

5.4. Environmental law

Approach to Environmental Legislation
 International
 Regional
  National
International environmental organisations
A healthy environment plays a key role in achieving many of the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals. With less than 10 years to go until the target date of 2030, the
world's societies and economies will need to step up and do more to find better
solutions to pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss in order to truly
transform them. The following international organisations are doing their part to
achieve these goals:
- United Nations (UN)
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
- United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD).
- Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
European legislation
- European Union - Environmental Commitments
- European Environmental Action Programme
- Climate Change
- Nature and biodiversity
- Environment and Health
- Sustainable use of natural resources and waste

International law
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in
1973 after the UN Conference on the Environment held in Stockholm in 1972.
Laws emanating from the UN are often categorised as 'hard law' or 'soft law'.
When a country formally agrees to become a party to a treaty, convention or
protocol, it must legally abide by it. This is "hard law."
Examples include: Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
(Montreal, 1987); and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (New
York, 1992).
Other UN laws do not impose any legally binding obligations. This 'soft law'
attempts to influence state action. Examples include recommendations, statutes
such as:
Stockholm Declaration (1972); and Agenda 21 (Rio de Janeiro, 1992).
Violations of international law can be adjudicated before the International Court
of Justice.
Enforcement of international law can involve costly, time-consuming and
complex negotiations.
 Major international environmental agreements
Solutions to environmental problems with global or transboundary impacts are
usually secured through multilateral UN environmental agreements. The main ones
are:
 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
(Globe Summit, 1992);
 Earth Summit Agreements;
 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development;
 Declaration of Forest Principles;
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC);
 Kyoto Protocol of 1997 (KPI);
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD);
 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora.
 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 1992 (UNCCD);
 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987;
 Geneva Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution
(CLRTAP), 1979;
 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1992.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
(Globe Summit, 1992)
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
also known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3 to 14
June 1992. This global conference, held in Stockholm, Sweden in 1972 on the
occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Conference on the Environment, brought
together political leaders, diplomats, scientists, media representatives and non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) from 179 countries to discuss the impact of
man on the environment. on the socio-economic situation.
Kyoto Protocol of 1997 (GHG)
The Protocol brought into force the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC). 192 countries pledged to reduce their emissions by an
average of 5.2 per cent by 2012, which is about 29 per cent of the total amount of
global emissions. The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement calling on
industrialised countries to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Other
agreements, such as the Doha Amendment and the Paris Climate Agreement, also
aim to mitigate the global warming crisis.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legal
instrument aimed at "the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of
its components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the
utilisation of genetic resources". 196 countries have acceded to this convention.
The Convention on Biological Diversity, through the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety, covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic
resources, and biotechnology. This convention covers everything from science,
policy, education to agriculture, business, culture, etc. including all possible areas
directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development. The
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is located in
Montreal, Canada.
Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(CLRTAP) 1979.
The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(CLRTAP), the first multilateral agreement to address transboundary air pollution,
established a regional framework applicable to Europe, North America, Russia and
the former Eastern Bloc countries to reduce transboundary air pollution and better
understand the science of air pollution. The Convention consists of 51 parties and
eight protocols, most of which address specific pollutants. The Heavy Metals
Protocol (1998) aims to control emissions of lead, cadmium and mercury from
anthropogenic activities and their long-range atmospheric transport.
Local legislation
Local environmental legislation around the world includes a wide range of legal
and administrative government instruments that facilitate the implementation of
international environmental law. Local legislation is a legislative system that each
country introduces on its own. This includes the following:
- Legal instruments may include constitutions, laws, decrees, ordinances, acts,
regulations, and others;
- Administrative documents may include guidelines, standards, rules and
procedures;
- Other government documents may include protocols, resolutions and various
intergovernmental agreements (World Health Organisation, 2019).
 Legal and regulatory framework
Environmental problems do not recognise international boundaries, whether
political or geographical. Global problems such as ozone depletion and climate
change require global solutions.
To cope with the consequences of a rapidly evolving global economy,
integrated global strategies are needed to ensure the future well-being of the planet.
The United Nations (UN) and its agencies play a key role in providing a
framework for international debate and co-operation and, where necessary, in
establishing international legislation.
The European Union (EU) plays an important role in supporting and funding
UN initiatives in general and is particularly active in addressing environmental
issues.
Local governments in environmental regulation
"The Global Summit (1992) concluded that the concept of sustainable
development is an achievable goal for all peoples of the world, regardless of the
governing body in most countries, whether at the local, national, regional or
international level. In most environmental issues, the ultimate controlling body is
the government itself.
For example, most thermal power plants are owned by the government and
only the government owns dams, roads, railways, etc. can build Industry or other
related activities cannot be started without the permission of the government.
Therefore, the government has to carry out various checks and controls for proper
management of the environment.

LECTURE XV
HISTORY OF ISO 45001. ISO45001-2018. SUCCESS FACTOR AND
APPROACHES. ISO 45001:2018. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND
SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Currently, occupational health and safety management is based on the

requirements of the international standard ISO 45001.
The word "ISO" comes from the Greek word "isos", which means "equal".
 ISO 45001 was first proposed in October 2013. The ISO/PC 283 committee,
established in 2013, had direct responsibility for the standardisation process.
The preparation and work of the committee continued until December 2015.
From 2015 to 2017, the first draft was not sufficiently endorsed by ISO members,
so it was revised, approved and finalised in a second draft.
ISO 45001 is the ISO standard for occupational health and safety (OSH)
management systems, published in March 2018. The aim of ISO 45001 is to reduce
occupational injuries and illnesses in the workplace, including the promotion and
protection of physical and mental health.
The OHSAS 18001 standard is based on International Labour Organisation
conventions and guidelines, as well as national standards. It includes additional
elements to OHSAS 18001.
ISO 45001-2018 Success Factors and Approaches
Success Factors
Implementing a OHS (occupational hesalth safety ) management system is a
strategic and operational decision for an organisation. The success of the OHS
management system depends on the leadership, commitment and involvement of
all levels and functions of the organisation.
The implementation and maintenance of the PST management system, its
effectiveness and its ability to achieve its intended results depend on a number of
key factors.
These include:
• Top management leadership, commitment, productivity and accountability;
• The development, management and promotion of a culture that supports the
intended outcomes of the PST management system in the organisation by senior
management;
• information sharing;
• consultation with employees, participation of employees and their representatives
in the process, if any.
• Allocating resources to maintain the system;
• A OHS policy that is consistent with the overall strategic goals and direction of the
organisation;
• Effective process(es) for identifying hazards, controlling OHS risks and utilising
OHS opportunities;
• Continuous evaluation and monitoring of the OHS management system to improve
performance;
• Continuous performance evaluation and monitoring of the OHS management
system to improve OHS performance;
• Integration of the OHS management system into the organisation's business
processes;
• OHS objectives that are consistent with OHS policy and take into account the
organisation's threats, OHS risks and OHS
opportunities;
• Its compliance with legislative and other
requirements.
ISO 45001:2018 Approaches
There are three main approaches to ISO
4[Link]
- Process and systems management using "PDCA" (Plan - Do - Check -
Improve);
- Continuous monitoring of risks (risk-based thinking);
- Defining the processes required to achieve the planned outcomes.
Plan-Do-Check-Advance (PDCA).
The approach to the PST management system used in this standard is based on the
concept of "Plan-Do-Check-Advise-Improve" (PDCA).
The PDCA concept is an iterative process used by organisations to achieve
continuous improvement.
It can be applied to the management system and to each of its individual elements
as follows:
Plan: identify and assess OHS risks and opportunities, as well as other risks and
other opportunities, develop and establish the necessary OHS objectives and
processes to achieve results in accordance with the organisation's OHS policy;
Do: execute processes as planned;
Check: monitor, measure and report on the performance of activities and processes
related to the OHS policy and OHS objectives;
Act: take action to continuously improve OHS performance to achieve the intended
results.
Risk-based thinking
Risk-based thinking is a key principle of ISO 45001. It requires the management
team to continually assess issues affecting aspects of the organisation's OHS and
ensure that appropriate objectives, resources and controls are in place.
Risk-based thinking allows organisations to dynamically change their objectives
and focus, while ensuring that resources are available to manage change and
contingencies.
In terms of OHS, risk-based thinking extends to areas outside the organisation that
can affect safety. For example, the procurement of products and services (including
contractors) and the impact of the products and services delivered.
The organisation should define a methodology for risk-based thinking, taking into
account compliance obligations and employee involvement.
For operational aspects, the standard clearly defines a hierarchy of controls to
identify hazards and mitigate risks with employee involvement.
This methodology requires the organisation to reduce the risks associated with
hazards to an acceptable practical level.
Process approach
ISO standards encourage the use of a process-oriented approach. The process
approach is the fundamental basis of the ISO management system approach. Thus,
OHS can be considered as a holistic process that turns investments into results.
The process approach to organisational management views an organisation as a
series of interrelated processes.
Any organisation is made up of a number of interacting processes. A process is a
set of activities that utilise resources (people, machines, etc.) to transform inputs
into outputs.
The process approach looks at these processes and the relationships between inputs
and outputs that link them. The output of one process becomes an input to another.
Given the goals of the OHS, actions can be developed to manage and improve the
planning process to achieve the desired outcomes during the planning process.
1) Identify key processes;
2) Identify health and safety criteria for these processes;
3) Decide how to measure the performance of the OHS process;
4) Document your approach to achieve the desired outcomes defined by your
measurements;
5) Evaluate and continuously improve OHS performance.
Once these are identified, an organisation can ensure that its processes are effective
and efficient.

ISO 45001:2018 Occupational health and safety management system

ISO 45001 is an international standard that specifies requirements for occupational
health and safety management systems (OHSMS). Its purpose is to provide a
framework for organisations to actively manage health and safety risks, prevent
work-related injuries and illnesses, and create a safe working environment. It offers
organisations a comprehensive framework for establishing, implementing,
maintaining and continually improving health and safety practices, ensuring a safer
workplace and employee wellbeing. The standard covers various elements, each of
which is important for promoting a systematic approach to health and safety risk
management.
The detailed requirements of ISO 45001 are summarised below:

1. Organisational context: Organisations need to understand their context, taking

into account both internal and external factors that may affect their occupational
health and safety. This includes analysing the organisational environment,
identifying stakeholders and determining the amount of OHS.
2- Leadership and employee engagement. Leadership commitment plays an
important role in building a strong system. Senior management should demonstrate
their commitment by developing OHS policies, defining roles and responsibilities,
and ensuring that the goals of the OHS system are aligned with the overall goals of
the organisation. Employee participation in health and safety decision-making
processes should be encouraged.
3. Planning. Planning involves conducting a comprehensive risk assessment to
identify potential hazards, evaluating the risks and determining the necessary
controls to reduce or eliminate those risks. In addition, in addition to ensuring
emergency preparedness through response procedures, setting measurable OHS
objectives and developing plans to achieve them are critical.
4. Support. Adequate resources are fundamental to successful OHS
implementation. Organisations must provide the necessary resources, including
human resources, training, infrastructure and financial support. It is critical to
ensure that staff have the necessary competencies through training and to establish
effective channels of communication on OHS issues.
5. Operation. Implementing planned controls and processes is essential to
achieving PST objectives. This includes managing change within the organisation,
ensuring that health and safety performance is recorded, and monitoring
contractors and outsourced activities to maintain a safe working environment.
6. Performance evaluation: Regular evaluation of PST performance against
established goals and objectives is essential. Internal audits help assess compliance
and identify areas for improvement. Investigation of incidents, accidents and non-
conformances to determine root causes and corrective actions are an integral part
of this phase.
7. Improvement. Continuous improvement is at the heart of ISO 45001. Corrective
actions should be taken to eliminate non-conformities and the PST management
system should be continually improved based on the results of assessments and
audits. In addition, the implementation of preventive measures to address potential
hazards and risks is essential for long-term improvement.
Implementing ISO 45001 helps organisations to systematically manage health and
safety risks, improve workplace safety, reduce incidents and injuries, and develop
a health and safety culture among employees. Compliance with this standard not
only ensures compliance with legal and regulatory obligations, but also improves
an organisation's reputation, increases stakeholder confidence and reduces the costs
associated with accidents and illnesses in the workplace.
ISO 45001 provides a comprehensive framework for organisations to establish,
implement, maintain and continually improve effective health and safety
management systems, ensuring a safer and healthier workplace for all employees.
LECTURES ARE COMPILED BY REYHANKHANIM GANIYEVA