Water cycle

The water cycle (or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle), is a biogeochemical cycle
that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of
the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time. However, the
partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and
atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. The water moves
from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere. The processes that drive these movements are evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and
subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice)
and vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of
global evaporation.[2]
 A detailed diagram depicting the global water cycle.
The direction of movement of water between
reservoirs tends towards upwards movement
through evapotranspiration and downward
movement through gravity. The diagram also shows
how human water use impacts where water is
stored and how it moves.[1]

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature
changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools
the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment.
These heat exchanges influence the climate system.

The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water because it causes salts and other
solids picked up during the cycle to be left behind. The condensation phase in the
atmosphere replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice
transports minerals across the globe. It also reshapes the geological features of the
Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is
also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.

Human actions are greatly affecting the water cycle. Activities such as deforestation,
urbanization, and the extraction of groundwater are altering natural landscapes (land
use changes) all have an effect on the water cycle.[3]: 1153 On top of this, climate
change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. Research has shown that
global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of
extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall.[4]: 85
These water cycle changes affect ecosystems, water availability, agriculture, and
human societies.
Description

Video of the Earth's water cycle

(NASA)[5]

Overall process
The water cycle is powered from the energy emitted by the sun. This energy heats
water in the ocean and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Some ice
and snow sublimates directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired
from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water molecule H2O has smaller
molecular mass than the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen (N2) and
oxygen (O2) and hence is less dense. Due to the significant difference in density,
buoyancy drives humid air higher. As altitude increases, air pressure decreases and
the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lower temperature causes water vapor to
condense into tiny liquid water droplets which are heavier than the air, and which fall
unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large
area in the atmosphere becomes visible as cloud, while condensation near ground
level is referred to as fog.

Atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide,
grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation
falls as snow, hail, or sleet, and can accumulate in ice caps and glaciers, which can
store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls as rain back into the
ocean or onto land, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A
portion of this runoff enters rivers, with streamflow moving water towards the
oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as
freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers; much of it soaks into the ground
as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers,
which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to
the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as
groundwater discharge or be taken up by plants and transferred back to the
atmosphere as water vapor by transpiration. Some groundwater finds openings in the
land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there
is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the
hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle. The ocean holds "97% of the total water
on the planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the source
of 86% of global evaporation".[2]

Processes leading to movements and phase changes in water

Important physical processes within the water cycle include (in alphabetical order):

Advection: The movement of water

through the atmosphere.[6] Without
advection, water that evaporated
over the oceans could not
precipitate over land. Atmospheric
rivers that move large volumes of
water vapor over long distances are
an example of advection.[7]
Condensation: The transformation
of water vapor to liquid water
droplets in the air, creating clouds
and fog.[8]
Evaporation: The transformation of
water from liquid to gas phases as
it moves from the ground or bodies
of water into the overlying
atmosphere.[9] The source of
energy for evaporation is primarily
solar radiation. Evaporation often
implicitly includes transpiration
from plants, though together they
are specifically referred to as
evapotranspiration. Total annual
evapotranspiration amounts to
approximately 505,000 km3
(121,000 cu mi) of water,
434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of
which evaporates from the
oceans.[10] 86% of global
evaporation occurs over the
ocean.[11]
Infiltration: The flow of water from
the ground surface into the ground.
Once infiltrated, the water becomes
soil moisture or groundwater.[12] A
recent global study using water
stable isotopes, however, shows
that not all soil moisture is equally
available for groundwater recharge
or for plant transpiration.[13]
Percolation: Water flows vertically
through the soil and rocks under
the influence of gravity.
Precipitation: Condensed water
vapor that falls to the Earth's
surface. Most precipitation occurs
as rain, but also includes snow, hail,
fog drip, graupel, and sleet.[14]
Approximately 505,000 km3
(121,000 cu mi) of water falls as
precipitation each year,
398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it
over the oceans.[10][15] The rain on
land contains 107,000 km3
(26,000 cu mi) of water per year
and a snowing only 1,000 km3
(240 cu mi).[15] 78% of global
precipitation occurs over the
ocean.[11]
Runoff: The variety of ways by
which water moves across the
land. This includes both surface
runoff and channel runoff. As it
flows, the water may seep into the
ground, evaporate into the air,
become stored in lakes or
reservoirs, or be extracted for
agricultural or other human uses.
Subsurface flow: The flow of water
underground, in the vadose zone
and aquifers. Subsurface water
may return to the surface (e.g. as a
spring or by being pumped) or
eventually seep into the oceans.
Water returns to the land surface at
lower elevation than where it
infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures.
Groundwater tends to move slowly
and is replenished slowly, so it can
remain in aquifers for thousands of
years.
Transpiration: The release of water
vapor from plants and soil into the
 air.

Residence times

Average reservoir residence times[16]

Reservoir Average residence time

Antarctica 20,000 years

Oceans 3,200 years

Glaciers 20 to 100 years

Seasonal snow cover 2 to 6 months

Soil moisture 1 to 2 months

Groundwater: shallow 100 to 200 years

Groundwater: deep 10,000 years

Lakes (see lake retention time) 50 to 100 years

Rivers 2 to 6 months

Atmosphere 9 days

The residence time of a reservoir within the hydrologic cycle is the average time a
water molecule will spend in that reservoir (see table). It is a measure of the average
age of the water in that reservoir.

Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth's surface before leaving.[17]
Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains
there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by
evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating,
the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to
the Earth as precipitation.

The major ice sheets – Antarctica and Greenland – store ice for very long periods. Ice
from Antarctica has been reliably dated to 800,000 years before present, though the
average residence time is shorter.[18]
In hydrology, residence times can be estimated in two ways. The more common
method relies on the principle of conservation of mass (water balance) and assumes
the amount of water in a given reservoir is roughly constant. With this method,
residence times are estimated by dividing the volume of the reservoir by the rate by
which water either enters or exits the reservoir. Conceptually, this is equivalent to
timing how long it would take the reservoir to become filled from empty if no water
were to leave (or how long it would take the reservoir to empty from full if no water
were to enter).

An alternative method to estimate residence times, which is gaining in popularity for

dating groundwater, is the use of isotopic techniques. This is done in the subfield of
isotope hydrology.

Water in storage

Water cycle showing human influences and major pools (storages) and
fluxes.[19]

The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water
throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" (or in "pools")
for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses
for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the
1,386,000,000 km3 of the world's water supply, about 1,338,000,000 km3 is stored in
oceans or about 97% It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the
evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.[20] The Earth's ice caps, glaciers, and
permanent snowpack stores another 24,064,000 km3 accounting for only 1.7% of the
planet's total water volume. However, this quantity of water is 68.7% of all freshwater
on the planet.[21]

Changes caused by
humans

Local or regional impacts

Relationship between impervious surfaces and surface runoff

Human activities can alter the water cycle at the local or regional level. This happens
due to changes in land use and land cover. Such changes affect "precipitation,
evaporation, flooding, groundwater, and the availability of freshwater for a variety of
uses".[3]: 1153

Examples for such land use changes are converting fields to urban areas or clearing
forests. Such changes can affect the ability of soils to soak up surface water.
Deforestation has local as well as regional effects. For example it reduces soil
moisture, evaporation and rainfall at the local level. Furthermore, deforestation
causes regional temperature changes that can affect rainfall patterns.[3]: 1153
Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increase the total
amount of water in the hydrosphere. This is because the water that was originally in
the ground has now become available for evaporation as it is now in contact with the
atmosphere.[3]: 1153

Water cycle intensification due to

climate change

Extreme weather (heavy rains,

droughts, heat waves) is one
consequence of a changing water
cycle due to global warming. These
events will be progressively more
common as the Earth warms more
and more.[22]: Figure SPM.6
 Predicted changes in average soil
moisture for a scenario of 2°C global
warming. This can disrupt agriculture
and ecosystems. A reduction in soil
moisture by one standard deviation
means that average soil moisture will
approximately match the ninth driest
year between 1850 and 1900 at that
location.

Since the middle of the 20th century, human-caused climate change has resulted in
observable changes in the global water cycle.[4]: 85 The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
in 2021 predicted that these changes will continue to grow significantly at the global
and regional level.[4]: 85 These findings are a continuation of scientific consensus
expressed in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report from 2007 and other special reports
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which had already stated that the
water cycle will continue to intensify throughout the 21st century.[3]

The effects of climate change on the water cycle are profound and have been
described as an intensification or a strengthening of the water cycle (also called
hydrologic cycle).[23]: 1079 This effect has been observed since at least 1980.[23]: 1079
One example is when heavy rain events become even stronger. The effects of climate
change on the water cycle have important negative effects on the availability of
freshwater resources, as well as other water reservoirs such as oceans, ice sheets,
the atmosphere and soil moisture. The water cycle is essential to life on Earth and
plays a large role in the global climate system and ocean circulation. The warming of
our planet is expected to be accompanied by changes in the water cycle for various
reasons.[24] For example, a warmer atmosphere can contain more water vapor which
has effects on evaporation and rainfall.

The underlying cause of the intensifying water cycle is the increased amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which lead to a warmer atmosphere through
the greenhouse effect.[24] Fundamental laws of physics explain how the saturation
vapor pressure in the atmosphere increases by 7% when temperature rises by 1 °C.[25]
This relationship is known as the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.

The strength of the water cycle and

its changes over time are of
considerable interest, especially as
the climate changes.[26] The
hydrological cycle is a system
whereby the evaporation of moisture
in one place leads to precipitation
(rain or snow) in another place. For
example, evaporation always exceeds
precipitation over the oceans. This
allows moisture to be transported by
the atmosphere from the oceans onto
land where precipitation exceeds
evapotranspiration. The runoff from
the land flows into streams and rivers
and discharges into the ocean, which
completes the global cycle.[26] The
water cycle is a key part of Earth's
energy cycle through the evaporative
cooling at the surface which provides
latent heat to the atmosphere, as
atmospheric systems play a primary
role in moving heat upward.[26]

Related processes

Biogeochemical cycling
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath
the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals.[27] Runoff is
responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from
land to waterbodies.[28] The salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and
transport of dissolved salts from the land. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily
due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then
transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play
significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies.[29] The dead
zone at the outlet of the Mississippi River is a consequence of nitrates from fertilizer
Mexico. Runoff also plays a part in the carbon cycle, again through the transport of
eroded rock and soil.[30]

Slow loss over geologic time

The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light
chemical elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of
the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space
without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into
space is known as planetary wind.[31] Planets with hot lower atmospheres could
result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.[32]

Historical interpretations
In ancient times, it was widely thought that the land mass floated on a body of water,
and that most of the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this
belief can be found in the works of Homer (c. 800 BCE).

In Works and Days (ca. 700 BC), the Greek poet Hesiod outlines the idea of the water
cycle: "[Vapour] is drawn from the ever-flowing rivers and is raised high above the
earth by windstorm, and sometimes it turns to rain towards evening, and sometimes
to wind when Thracian Boreas huddles the thick clouds."

In the ancient Near East, Hebrew scholars observed that even though the rivers ran
into the sea, the sea never became full. Some scholars conclude that the water cycle
was described completely during this time in this passage: "The wind goeth toward
the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind
returneth again according to its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is
not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again"
(Ecclesiastes 1:6-7 (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Ecclesiaste
s) ).[33] Furthermore, it was also observed that when the clouds were full, they
emptied rain on the earth (Ecclesiastes 11:3 (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(Ki
ng_James)/Ecclesiastes#Chapter_11) ).

In the Adityahridayam (a devotional hymn to the Sun God) of Ramayana, a Hindu epic
dated to the 4th century BCE, it is mentioned in the 22nd verse that the Sun heats up
water and sends it down as rain. By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were
speculating that much of the water in rivers can be attributed to rain. The origin of
rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the belief, however, that
water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers. Examples of this
thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the evolution
of land animals from fish[34]) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE).[35] Warring
States period Chinese scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BCE) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu
(239 BCE) had similar thoughts.[36]

The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both
Plato (390 BCE) and Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the
water cycle. Aristotle correctly hypothesized that the sun played a role in the Earth's
hydraulic cycle in his book Meteorology, writing "By it [the sun's] agency the finest and
sweetest water is everyday carried up and is dissolved into vapor and rises to the
upper regions, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth.",
and believed that clouds were composed of cooled and condensed water vapor.[37][38]
Much like the earlier Aristotle, the Eastern Han Chinese scientist Wang Chong (27–
100 AD) accurately described the water cycle of Earth in his Lunheng but was
dismissed by his contemporaries.[39]

Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was wrongly assumed that precipitation alone
was insufficient to feed rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water
pushing upwards from the oceans were the main contributors to river water.
Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE)
and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).

Discovery of the correct theory

The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the
maintenance of rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the
discoverer of the modern theory of the water cycle. Palissy's theories were not tested
scientifically until 1674, in a study commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even then,
these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream science until the early nineteenth
century.[40]

See also

Water
portal
Ecology
portal

Cryosphere – Earth's surface where

water is frozen
Deep water cycle – Movement of
water in the deep Earth
Ecohydrology – interdisciplinary
field studying the interactions
between water and ecosystems
 Water resources – Sources of
water that are potentially useful
Biotic pump – Theory of how
forests affect rainfall

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External links
The Water Cycle (https://water.usg
s.gov/edu/watercycle.html) ,
United States Geological Survey
The Water Cycle for Kids (https://w
ater.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle-kid
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Survey
The Water Cycle: Following The
Water (https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vi
s/a010000/a010800/a010885/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20160323125433/https://svs.
gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a0108
00/a010885/) 2016-03-23 at the
Wayback Machine (NASA
Visualization Explorer with videos)
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Water_cycle&oldid=1244865586"

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