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Identification of Cations (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry)

How to identify cations (positively charged ions) using chemical tests. ​

The methods primarily involve adding sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution or ammonia
(NH₃) solution to solutions containing metal ions and observing the formation and
behavior of precipitates.

1. Test for Ammonium Ions (NH₄⁺)

Testing for ammonium ions

●​ Ammonium ions can be identified using sodium hydroxide solution.

●​ When NH₄⁺ ions react with NaOH and are gently heated, ammonia gas (NH₃) is
released.
●​ Ammonia gas turns damp red litmus paper blue, confirming the presence of
ammonium ions.

Reaction:

2. Test for Metal Cations using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) Solution

●​ A small amount of NaOH solution is added first to observe the precipitate
formation.
●​ If excess NaOH is added, some precipitates may dissolve, helping to further
identify the ion.

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Observations with NaOH:

Metal Ion Addition of 2-3 Drops of Excess NaOH

NaOH
Al³⁺ (Aluminum) White precipitate forms Dissolves into a colorless
solution

Ca²⁺ (Calcium) White precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Cr³⁺ (Chromium) Green precipitate forms Dissolves into a green

solution

Cu²⁺ (Copper) Light blue precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Fe²⁺ (Iron(II)) Green precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Fe³⁺ (Iron(III)) Brown precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Zn²⁺ (Zinc) White precipitate forms Dissolves into a colorless

solution

3. Test for Metal Cations using Ammonia (NH₃) Solution

QA | Test for Cations (Ammonia)

●​ A small amount of ammonia solution is added first to observe precipitate

formation.
●​ If excess ammonia is added, some precipitates may dissolve, helping further
identification.

Observations with Ammonia Solution:

Metal Ion Addition of 2-3 Drops of NH₃ Excess NH₃

Al³⁺ (Aluminum) White precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Ca²⁺ (Calcium) White precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Cr³⁺ (Chromium) Green precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Cu²⁺ (Copper) Light blue precipitate forms Dissolves into a dark blue solution

Fe²⁺ (Iron(II)) Green precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Fe³⁺ (Iron(III)) Brown precipitate forms Does not dissolve

Zn²⁺ (Zinc) White precipitate forms Dissolves into a colorless solution

4. Summary of Tests
 ●​ Both NaOH and NH₃ form hydroxide precipitates.
●​ Some ions (like Zn²⁺) dissolve in excess of both reagents.
●​ Only Cu²⁺ forms a dark blue solution in excess ammonia.
●​ Iron ions (Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺) do not dissolve in excess NaOH or NH₃, helping to
distinguish them.

Analysis of Metal Cation Test Results

The tests described help to identify metal cations in a solution using two main approaches:

1.​ Precipitation Reactions with NaOH and NH₃

2.​ Flame Tests for Metal Ions

1. Analysing Precipitate Formation with NaOH & NH₃

●​ When a precipitate forms after adding NaOH or NH₃, it indicates the hydroxide is
insoluble in water.
●​ Example: Zinc chloride reaction with sodium hydroxide

Distinguishing Between White Precipitates (Al³⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺)

Cation Excess NaOH Excess NH₃ How to Distinguish?

Al³⁺ Dissolves → Does NOT dissolve Does NOT dissolve in

Colorless solution NH₃

Ca²⁺ Does NOT dissolve Does NOT dissolve Only white ppt that
remains in NaOH

Zn²⁺ Dissolves → Dissolves → Dissolves in both NH₃ and

Colorless solution Colorless solution NaOH

Key Identification Strategy

1.​ Add NaOH: If a white precipitate forms:

○​ If it dissolves in excess NaOH → Either Al³⁺ or Zn²⁺
○​ If it does NOT dissolve → Ca²⁺
2.​ Add NH₃:
○​ If it dissolves → Zn²⁺
○​ If it does NOT dissolve → Al³⁺
2. Examiner Tips for Precipitate Tests
✅ Add NaOH or NH₃ solution slowly – If too much is added, a dissolving precipitate
✅ Differentiate between "colourless" and "clear" – Colourless means no colour, while
may be missed.​

✅ Observe the initial precipitate carefully before adding excess reagent.

clear means transparent.​

3. Flame Tests for Metal Ions

FLAME TEST - Na, Cu, Ca, K, Zn, Fe
Flame Tests of Metal Ions, With Labels

●​ The flame test is used to identify metal cations by the colour they produce in a
flame.
●​ A nichrome or platinum wire loop is used to avoid contamination.
●​ Steps for flame test:
1.​ Clean the wire in concentrated acid and hold it in a blue Bunsen burner flame
until no colour change occurs.
2.​ Dip the loop in the solid sample/solution of the metal ion.
3.​ Hold the wire loop at the edge of the blue flame and observe the flame
colour.

Flame Test Colours for Metal Cations

Cation Flame Colour

Li⁺ (Lithium) Red
Na⁺ (Sodium) Yellow
K⁺ (Potassium) Lilac
Ca²⁺ (Calcium) Orange-red
Ba²⁺ (Barium) Light-green
Cu²⁺ (Copper) Blue-green

Key Considerations for Flame Tests

✅ Only test one ion at a time – Mixed ions can produce misleading colours.​
✅ Do not overheat the wire – A red-hot wire might be mistaken for a flame colour.​
✅ Use a blue Bunsen burner flame for clear colour observations.

Final Summary: Identifying Metal Cations

1.​ Use precipitation tests with NaOH and NH₃ to identify transition metals and
Group 2 metals.
2.​ Use flame tests to identify Group 1 and Group 2 metals with distinct flame
colours.
3.​ Follow proper testing procedures to ensure reliable identification.

These tests are fundamental in qualitative analysis and help chemists identify unknown
metal ions in a solution.

Identification of Gases ​
GCSE Science Chemistry (9-1) - Tests for Gases

Several chemical reactions produce gases, which must be tested to confirm their identity.
The gases included are:

1.​ Ammonia (NH₃)

2.​ Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
3.​ Chlorine (Cl₂)
4.​ Hydrogen (H₂)
5.​ Oxygen (O₂)
6.​ Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

1. Test for Ammonia (NH₃)

✅ Characteristics:
●​ Ammonia has a sharp, choking smell.
●​ Turns damp red litmus paper blue.

✅ Test Procedure:
●​ Hold damp red litmus paper near the mouth of a test tube containing the suspected
gas.
 ●​ If ammonia is present, the litmus paper turns blue.

🔹 Exam Tip:
●​ Ammonium (NH₄⁺) is different from ammonia (NH₃).
●​ NH₄⁺ is an ion in solution, while NH₃ is a gas.

2. Test for Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

✅ Characteristics:
●​ Carbon dioxide bubbles through limewater and turns it cloudy white.

✅ Test Procedure:
●​ Bubble the gas through limewater (Ca(OH)₂ solution).
●​ If CO₂ is present, the solution turns milky/cloudy due to the formation of calcium

carbonate (CaCO₃):

🔹 Exam Tip:
●​ Do not use a burning splint test to confirm CO₂. While CO₂ extinguishes a flame,
other gases (e.g., nitrogen) can also do this.

3. Test for Chlorine (Cl₂)

✅ Characteristics:
●​ Chlorine has a sharp, choking smell.
●​ Damp blue litmus paper turns red, then white (bleached).

✅ Test Procedure:
●​ Place damp blue litmus paper into the gas.
●​ It first turns red (chlorine reacts with water to form acidic HCl).
●​ Then, it turns white as chlorine bleaches the paper.

🔹 Exam Tip:
●​ Smelling chlorine ("like swimming pools") is NOT a valid test.
●​ Always perform this test in a fume cupboard as chlorine is toxic.
4. Test for Hydrogen (H₂)
✅ Characteristics:
●​ Burns with a squeaky pop when ignited.

✅ Test Procedure:
●​ Hold a burning splint at the mouth of the test tube.
●​ If hydrogen is present, it reacts explosively with oxygen, producing a squeaky

pop sound:

🔹 Exam Tip:
●​ Do not insert the splint too deep; hydrogen needs oxygen to burn.
●​ Remember: a lit splint (H for Hydrogen) makes a squeaky pop, while a glowing
splint (O for Oxygen) is used for testing oxygen.

5. Test for Oxygen (O₂)

✅ Characteristics:
●​ Supports combustion and relights a glowing splint.

✅ Test Procedure:
●​ Place a glowing splint into a test tube of gas.
●​ If oxygen is present, the splint relights.

🔹 Exam Tip:
●​ If the splint glows very brightly but does not relight, this is still a positive result.
●​ In exams, always state "oxygen relights the glowing splint".

6. Test for Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

✅ Characteristics:
 ●​ Sharp, choking smell.
●​ Reduces acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple to colourless.

✅ Test Procedure:
●​ Bubble the gas through acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution (KMnO₄).
●​ If sulfur dioxide is present, the solution changes from purple to colourless.

🔹 Exam Tip:
●​ This test is similar to the test for the sulfite ion (SO₃²⁻), which also reduces
potassium manganate(VII).

Final Summary: Gas Identification Tests

Gas Test Observation

Ammonia (NH₃) Damp red litmus paper Turns blue

Carbon Dioxide Bubble through limewater Turns cloudy/milky

(CO₂) white

Chlorine (Cl₂) Damp blue litmus paper Turns red, then

bleached white

Hydrogen (H₂) Burning splint test Squeaky pop sound

Oxygen (O₂) Glowing splint test Splint relights

Sulfur Dioxide Acidified potassium Purple → Colourless

(SO₂) manganate(VII)