STUDY OF OSMOSIS BY POTATO OSMOSCOPE

Requirements
Apparatus: Beaker, scalpel, pins
Material: A large sized potato.
Chemical: Water, sugar solution.
Theory
Osmosis is the process of movement of solvent molecules from the region of high
solvent concentration to the region of low solvent concentration through semi
permeable membrane is called osmosis. The movement of solvent molecules
continues until the equilibrium.
Procedure
Take large sized potato and peel the skin.
Cut the base of potato to make it flat.
Make a cup like cavity inside by scooping the flesh of potato using a scalpel (called potato
osmoscope).
Place the potato osmoscope in a beaker containing water just enough to dip a part of
the potato osmoscope.
Fill half of the potato osmoscope by concentrated sugar solution.
Mark the initial level of sugar solution in potato osmoscope by fixing a pin.
Leave it for a two hours.
Observation
After few hour, it can be observed that the level of the sugar solution in the potato
rises up from the initial marked level. Tag the second pin to mark final level.
Explanation and Conclusion
The solution level in the potato osmoscope raised due to endosmosis. The potato
tissue acts as semi-permeable membrane which only allows solvent to pass through
it. This concludes that during osmosis, solvent molecules moves from the region of
high solvent concentration to the region of low solvent concentration through semi
permeable membrane.
Precautions
The skin of potato should be peeled.
The cavity wall should be thin.
There should be no holes in the potato osmoscope.
The sugar solution should be strong than cell sap.
STUDY OF OSMOSIS BY EGG MEMBRANE
Requirements
Apparatus: Beaker, thistle funnel, thread, clamp & stand.
Material: Freshly prepared egg membrane
Chemical: Sugar and water.
Theory
Osmosis is the process of movement of solvent molecules from the region of high
solvent concentration to the region of low solvent concentration through semi
permeable membrane is called osmosis. The movement of solvent molecules
continues until the equilibrium.
Procedure
Take a clean thistle funnel and close its mouth tightly with a freshly prepared egg
membrane using thread.
Fill the inverted thistle funnel up to the neck with sugar solution and dip it into the water
in a beaker.
Fix the inverted funnel in a camp and stand.
Mark the initial level of sugar solution in the funnel.
Keep the experiment set up for a few hours.
Observation
The sugar solution in the funnel stem rises up to a certain height. Mark the raised height as
the final level.
Explanation and Conclusion
In this experiment the water is separated by the semi-permeable egg membrane
from the sugar solution. According to definition of osmosis, solvent molecules
always moves from dilute solution (water) to the concentrated sugar solution
through the egg membrane, which is called endosmosis. This endosmosis is causing
rise in sugar solution level. The rise in water level continues until the equilibrium
takes place. This concludes that the rise in the sugar level is due to endosmosis of
water towards the sugar solution during the process of osmosis.
Precautions
The egg membrane should be without any holes.
The egg membrane should be sealed tightly to the thistle funnel by thread so that
there should not be leakage.
The sugar solution should be strong than water.
The bubble in thistle funnel should be removed.
STUDY OF PLASMOLYSIS IN EPIDERMAL PEELS OF ONION SCALY LEAF D 30% Hypertonic Very High Plasmolysis
Requirements Explanation and Conclusion
Apparatus: Coverslip, glass slide, microscope, Scalpel or blade, Petri dishes, The study of plasmolysis in epidermal peels of onion scaly leaf demonstrates the
dropper. cellular response of plant cells to hypertonic solutions. By observing the changes in
Chemical: Salt solutions of different concentration, distilled water. onion epidermal cells under different salt concentrations, we were able to witness
Material: Onion scaly leaf. the process of plasmolysis and its effects on cell structure. This experiment enhances
Theory our understanding of plant physiology and provides valuable insights into how
Plasmolysis is an important biological process that occurs in plant cells when plants adapt to varying osmotic conditions.
exposed to hypertonic solutions. The water from inside the cell moves out due to Precaution
osmosis, leading to the shrinkage of the protoplasm away from the cell wall. By The onion scaly leaf should be healthy.
studying plasmolysis, we can gain a better understanding of how plant cells respond The folding of epidermal layer inside coverslip should be avoided.
to changes in their external environment. In this project, we focus specifically on the
epidermal peels of onion scaly leaf, as they provide a suitable sample for observing
plasmolysis.
Procedure
Peel a thin layer of the epidermis from an onion scaly le af using a scalpel or razor
blade.
Place the onion epidermal peel on a microscope slide and add a few drops of
distilled water to moisten it.
Gently lower a coverslip onto the onion peel, ensuring there are no air bubbles
trapped underneath.
Examine the onion epidermal cells under a microscope at low magnification to
locate healthy and intact cells.
Prepare a series of salt solutions with different concentrations ( 10%, 20%, 30%) by
dissolving the appropriate amount of salt in distilled water.
Using a dropper, carefully place a small drop of each salt solution at the edge of the
coverslip, allowing the solution to gradually diffuse under the coverslip and reach
the onion epidermal cells.
Observe the onion epidermal cells under the microscope, starting from low
magnification and gradually increasing it.
Record your observations of the changes in the onion epidermal cells, such as cell
shrinkage, detachment of protoplast from the cell wall , and changes in cell shape.
Repeat the experiment with each salt solution , making sure to thoroughly rinse the
slide with distilled water between each trial to remove any remaining salt solution.
Observation and Result
The visual observation through microscope for cells in different concentration was
thoroughly observed and noted the remarks.
Cell Sample Salt Concn Solution Remark
A 0% Hypotonic No Plasmolysis
B 10% Hypertonic Plasmolysis
C 20% Hypertonic High Plasmolysis
STUDY OF DISTRIBUTION OF STOMATA IN THE UPPER AND LOWER
SURFACE OF LEAVES
Requirements
Apparatus: Coverslip, glass slide, watch glass, needle, brush, microscope, forceps,
Petri dishes.
Chemical: Glycerine, safranine, distilled water.
Material: Geranium plant leaf.
Theory
Stomata are vital structures in plants that facilitate gas exchange and regulate water
vapor. Stomatal distribution varies not only between different plant species but also
within the same species, specifically between the upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Studying stomatal distribution provides valuable insights into how plants adapt to
their environments.
Procedure
Obtain a fresh leaf from a Geranium plant and cut the leaf in an oblique manner.
Gently use forceps to detach a portion from the up per surface of the leaf and
carefully transfer it into a watch glass containing water.
Gently use forceps to detach a portion from the upper surface of the leaf and
carefully transfer it into a watch glass co ntaining water.
Using a dropper, a few drops of safranin was added to each of the watch glasses.
Place a cleared glass slide on each peel using a brush, one at a time.
Cut a square or rectangular piece from each and mount in glycerine.
Gently place a cover slip on each peel using a needle and observe under a
microscope.
Observe and count the occurrence of stomata in the upper and lower epidermis .
Observation
The slides were examined under a light microscope, capturing digital images for
analysis. Stomatal density was calculated by counting stomata in randomly selected
areas on both upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Result
The stomatal density on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves was calculated
and compared. The results revealed significant differences in stomatal density
between the two surfaces. The distribution patterns of stomata on the upper and
lower surfaces were analyzed.
Conclusion
The variations in stomatal density and distribution patterns between the upper and
lower leaf surfaces can be attributed to various factors, including sunlight exposure,
water availability, and protection against environmental stresses. The results
suggest that plants have evolved specific adaptations to optimize gas exchange and
water regulation in different environments.
Precaution
The geranium leaf should be healthy.
The folding of epidermal layer inside coverslip should be avoided.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE RATES OF TRANSPIRATION IN THE UPPER
AND LOWER SURFACE OF LEAVES
Requirements
Apparatus: Filter paper, Burner, Glass slide.
Chemical: Cobalt chloride paper, vaseline
Material: Dorsiventral leaf of a potted plant, Rubber band.
Theory
Transpiration is the process in which water is lost in the form of wa ter vapour by the
aerial parts of the plant. Transpiration mainly takes place from the opening called
stomata found in the leaves, their numbers directly affect the rate of transpiration . In
case of dorsiventral leaf, number of stomata is more on the lower surface than the
upper surface. Therefore the rate of transpiration is not the same due to the unequal
number of stomata per unit area on the two surfaces.
Procedure
i. Dip two small square pieces of filter paper in 5% cobalt chloride solution and dry
over the flame or in sunlight.
ii. Take a well watered, healthy potted plant and select a healthy leaf.
iii. Clean out all the moisture and dust present on leaf.
iv. Place the dry pieces of cobalt chloride paper on both side of dorsiventral leaf
opposite to one another with the help of two glass slides and made fit tight by the
help of rubber bands and seal the edges with vaseline.
v. Place the experiment set up in sunlight for couple of hour.
Observation
It is observed that the blue color of dry cobalt chloride paper on the lower surface of
leaf starts to change into light pink color very quick, while the paper on the upper
surface takes more time to turn into pink.
Explanation and Conclusion
As in case of dorsiventral leaf, the distribution of stomata is unequal and the number
of stomata directly affects the rate of transpiration. The quick change of color of
cobalt chloride paper on the lower surface shows that rate of transpiration is
unequal in the two surfaces of the leaf. Therefore it is concluded that the rate of
transpiration is high on the lower surface due to high number of stomata than the
upper surface.
Precaution
i. The potted plant should be well watered and healthy.
ii. Leaf should be cleaned and free from dust.
iii. Cobalt chloride should be dry and should not be touched by hand.
iv. The slides should be properly sealed.
STUDY THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION BY GANONG'S POTOMETER
Requirements
Apparatus: Ganong’s potometer, cork with a hole, beaker, dropper, watch.
Chemical: Vaseline
Material: A healthy plant shoot with leaf.
Theory
Transpiration is the process in which water is lost in the form of water vapour by the
aerial parts of the plant. Transpiration mainly takes place from the opening called
stomata found in the leaves. The amount of transpiration is loss of excess water in
plants which is almost equal to the rate of absorption. Potometer is an apparatus
which is used to measure rate of transpiration in plants.
Procedure
Clean the Ganong’s potometer and fill it with clean water.
Cut a shoot with leaf under water and fix it into the plant inlet of the apparatus with
the help of cork. Make the setup airtight by applying vaseline on the edge.
Make air bubble at the distal end by a dropper and move it to zero in the horizontal
calibrated tube.
Dip the distal end of calibrated tube into the beaker containing water.
Expose the set-up to sunlight for a 24 hours.
Observation
After few hours the air bubble slowly moved through the calibrated tube of
potometer. Mark the point where the air bubble has finally reached and note the
time taken. The rate of transpiration can be measured by the air bubble travelled and
time taken.
Rate of transpiration (cc per hour) = Air bubble moved horizontally in cc (volume o f
water absorbed) / Time (hours)
Explanation and Conclusion
When the water is transpire from the leaf surface, it creates a suction pressure which
sucks up water from the stem. As a result stem of plant draws water from the
horizontal tube dipped in beaker with water. The movement of air bubble is due to
the movement of water i.e. absorption of water by the plant. The amount of water
absorbed is almost same as the amount water loss through transpiration.
Precaution
The apparatus should be air sealed.
The plant branch should be cut under water to avoid air in xylem vessel.
Only one air bubble be should introduced in the calibrated tube.
Experiment should be done in the sunlight place.
STUDY THE RATE OF RESPIRATION IN FLOWER BUDS/LEAF TISSUE AND
GERMINATING SEEDS
Requirements
Apparatus: A set of conical flask, double bent glass tube, cork, small test-tube,
thread
Chemicals: Potassium hydroxide, Vaseline
Materials: Germinating seeds
Theory
Aerobic respiration is the process of complete oxidation or breakdown of
carbohydrate by the help of oxygen giving energy and liberating CO2 and H2O as bi-
products.
The germinating seeds also use atmospheric oxygen and liberate carbon dioxide
with the release of energy.
C6H12O6(glucose) + 6O2(oxygen) 6CO2(carbon dioxide) +
6H2O(water) + 686 Kcal Energy
Procedure
Remove the seed coat from the germinating seeds and place them in a conical flask.
Suspend a small test-tube having KOH(caustic potash) inside the flask by the help of
thread.
Close the conical flash tightly with a cork and seal with vaseline.
Insert the bent delivery tube into the cork hole and dip another end into the beaker
half filled with water.
Seal the junction of tube and cork by applying Vaseline.
Mark the initial level of water in delivery tube dipped inside beaker.
Allow the experiment for a 5 hours.
Observation
After a few hours, it is observed that, water level in the delivery tube rises up from
lower level to a certain height.
Explanation and Conclusion
From the above experiment, it is concluded that the germination seeds respire using
oxygen inside the flask and release CO 2. The liberated carbon dioxide is absorbed by
the caustic soda which creates partial vaccum inside the flask. The system acts as
suction pump and pulls water up from the beaker. It causes the rise in water level
from initial level to a certain height. Since, KOH absorbs only CO 2 gas, therefore, the
evolved gas is not other than CO 2.
Precaution
The system should be made airtight by applying vaseline.
The germinating seeds should be well soaked and without seed coat.
The distal end of bent glass tube should properly dip inside water in the beaker.
OBSERVATION AND COMMENTS ON ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Requirements
Apparatus: Kuhne’s fermentation tube, beaker, forceps.
Chemicals: Potassium hydroxide (KOH) stick, 15% sugar solution, vaseline
Materials: Brewer’s yeast
Theory
Fermentation is the process of incomplete oxidation or breakdown of carbohydrate
in absence of oxygen giving energy and liberating CO 2 as bi-product. It is an
anaerobic respiration process carried by an enzymatic action of zymase enzyme
produced by micro-organism. Yeast produces an enzyme, called, zymase, which
carries fermentation of sugar.
C6H12O6(glucose) 2C2H5OH (ethyl alcohol) + 2CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 50-
58 Kcal Energy
Procedure
Kuhne’s fermentation tube is a upright tube on both side and a bulb like opening in its
vertical wall.
Take beaker and prepare 15% sugar solution in water by mixing 15 gm sugar in
100ml water.
Add some amount of fresh brewer’s yeast into sugar solution.
Mix well by shaking the solution to make a homogenous sugar solution.
Fill the fermentation tube by prepared solution through the open till the upright
tube is filled completely and the bulb is partly filled.
Close the open end of kuhne’s fermentation tube with a lid or a cotton plug.
Keep the set-up in a warm place for 24 hours.
Observation
After 24 hours it is observed that gas is collected at the top of the tub e. The
produced gas displaced the solution downwards filling the bulb by solution and
emitting an alcoholic smell.
Test of carbon dioxide
Insert a KOH stick into the tube with the help of forceps. Within a minutes the
solution level rises again to fill the space in the tube.
Explanation and Conclusion
Yeast are facultatively aerobic fungi i.e conditionally anaerobic also. When the yeast
get the sugar solution, it produces zymase enzyme, which results fermentation of
sugar and produces ethanol, CO2 and energy. The productions of CO 2 push the
solution down in the tube. As KOH stick is inserted, the collected gas at the top of
the tube is absorbed and solution level rise up. The alcoholic smell also confirms the
production of alcohol.
Precautions
The sugar solution and yeast should be mixed well.
The kuhne’s fermentation tube and sugar solution should be germ free.
Seal the lid of tube airtight by vaseline.
The experiment set-up should be placed in a warm place.
OBSERVATION AND COMMENTS ON PHOTOTROPISM
Requirements
Black card board box (Phototropic box), blade, well-watered potted gram seedling.
Theory
Phototropism is a key plant response to light that enable s them to adapt to their
environment and maximize energy capture. Understanding the mechanisms of
phototropism is essential for comprehending plant growth and dev elopment.
Procedure
Take a well-watered potted gram seedling.
Place the seedling inside a phototropic box.
Create a small hole on any side of the box.
Close the top of the box securely.
Place the box in a location where light can enter through the hole.
Leave the setup for a few days.
Open the box and observe the gram seedling.
Comments
Notice the bending or curvature of the stem towards the hole, following the
direction of the light stimulus.
This response is known as positive phototropism, indicating the plant's growth
towards the source of light.
OBSERVATION AND COMMENTS ON APICAL BUD REMOVAL
Requirement
2 well-watered, healthy potted plants of the same species that exhibit limited
branching, scalpel or blade for the procedure.
Theory
Stem growth is primarily influenced by the division of apical meristematic cells
located at the tip of the stem. Alongside the apical bud, plants possess axillary buds
situated in the leaf axils. However, the axillary buds usually remain dormant and do
not undergo active growth. This dormancy is a result of the inhibitory effect exerted
by the apical bud. Apical dominance is the term used to describe this natural
suppression of lateral bud growth, which occurs due to the presence and activity of
the apical bud.
Procedure
Using a blade, carefully trim the apex of the stem of the experimental plant A.
Select a control plant B from the same species and ensure that its stem tip remains
intact without any cutting or alteration.
Regularly provide water to both plants and closely observe their growth and
development.
Observation
After a period of approximately 8-12 days, plant A will exhibit a noticeable increase
in the number of lateral (axillary) branches compared to plant B.
Comments
The removal of the apical bud in plant A eliminates apical dominance, leading to the
activation of lateral buds, which subsequently develop into lateral branches.
OBSERVATION AND COMMENTS ON SUCTION DUE TO TRANSPIRATION
Requirements
A healthy twig (10-15cm) of a shrub, beaker, rubber tube (10cm), vaseline, stand
with clamp, pipette, safranine, water.
Theory
The process of transpiration pull relies on a continuous water column that
originates from the mesophyll cells in the leaves, where water is lost, and extends
to the root hairs, where water is absorbed. This force of transpiration pull is crucial
for the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals through the stem.
Procedure
Securely attach a graduated pipette to one end of a rubber tube, ensuring a tight fit.
Choose a twig then carefully create an oblique cut using a knife, taking care to
avoid damaging the bark. Moist the cut edge with water.
Create suction to fill the rubber tube and pipette with water.
Ensure a firm insertion of the twig into the opposite end of the rubber tube, making
sure it is tightly secured with a thread to create an airtight seal.
Position the setup using a burette stand and clamp, ensuring it is fixed securely, as
shown in the figure.
Fill a glass tube or beaker wit h colored water, using safranine dye if available, and
place the nozzle of the pipette into the water.
Record the initial level of colored w ater in the pipette, then expose the setup to
sunlight or place it under a fan for one hour. After the designated ti me, observe
and record the final level of colored water in the pipette.
Observation
Upon setting up the experiment initially, a continuous column of water can be
observed in the pipette. However, after approximately an hour, there is an
observable rise of colored water within the pipette.
Comments
Transpiration in the experiment created a suction force in the water column.
The suction force was a result of a water potential gradient between the stomata
and spongy mesophyll.
Water moved from the mesophyll to the stomata, establishing a gradient along the
leaf veins, midrib xylem, petiole xylem, and stem xylem.
Suction pressure in the experiment enabled water to defy gravity, similar to how
plants absorb water through their root xylem and root hairs.
Precaution
The system should be air sealed.
The plant branch should be cut under water to avoid air in xylem vessel.
Experiment should be done in the sunlight place for better result.