Indian Independence: Key National Movements

The quest for Indian independence was marked by a unique strategy of non-violent protest known as
Satyagraha, a term coined and conceptualised by Mahatma Gandhi. Satyagraha goes beyond mere
passive resistance; it is a moral philosophy advocating for truth and non-violence as the means to
challenge and negotiate unjust laws and systems. This approach became the linchpin of the Indian
national movement, a testament to Gandhi's belief that moral force was more powerful than physical
force in the struggle for independence.

1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

In the early 20th century, the Champaran district in Bihar became the first site for Satyagraha
in India, where British colonial powers imposed the oppressive system on farmers, forcing them
to grow indigo and pay low prices, leading to poverty. The introduction of synthetic dyes
worsened the situation, leaving farmers unable to grow food crops and struggling during
famines. In 1917, Gandhi was invited to Champaran, where he defied a British order to leave,
marking the beginning of a significant chapter in India's independence movement. Through civil
disobedience and investigation into the farmers' conditions, Gandhi exposed their exploitation,
leading to the abolition of the Tinkathia system and compensation for the farmers. This victory
demonstrated the power of Satyagraha and paved the way for future movements.

2. Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

The Kheda Satyagraha of 1918 was a non-violent protest led by Gandhi in the Kheda district
of Gujarat, where farmers faced high taxes despite crop failure and famine. Gandhi, along
with local leaders, demanded tax relief for the suffering farmers. The movement successfully
united the peasants, leading to a government concession that reduced taxes and provided
relief, further strengthening the power of Satyagraha as a tool for social and political change.

3. Rowlatt Act – 1919

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 allowed imprisonment without trial for up to two years and gave the
British powers to arrest, detain, and suppress nationalist activities. It restricted freedom of
speech and assembly, fueling widespread protests. In response, Gandhi launched the Rowlatt
Satyagraha, uniting Indians against British repression. The brutal crackdown on protests led to
the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, further strengthening the independence movement by exposing
the oppressive nature of British rule.

4. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

To protest the arrest of political leaders, people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh on 13 April 1919
in Amritsar. General Dyer reached the gathering with his troops and ordered firing to disperse
the crowd. Nearly 400 people were killed, and thousands were wounded. The government
imposed martial law in Punjab and followed harsh repressive measures. The massacre shocked
the entire country, and a wave of horror and indignation spread across India. Rabindranath
Tagore surrendered his knighthood as a mark of protest. Mahatma Gandhi returned the Kaisar-
i-Hind medal that he had received for his work during the Boer War.
 1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

Programme of the Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi on 31 August 1920 with
the aim of attaining Swaraj within a year. He started the movement in response to growing
Indian resentment against British rule. Key reasons for its initiation were:

1. Rowlatt Act (1919)

2. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
3. Khilafat Issue: Muslims in India were angered by British policies that weakened the
Ottoman Caliphate after World War I.
4. Broken Trust: Indians realized the British had no intention of granting self-rule despite
earlier promises.
5. Growing Nationalism: Gandhi called for non-cooperation as a way to peacefully resist
British rule by boycotting government institutions, goods, and services.

The movement marked a shift from moderate reforms to active resistance, uniting Indians across
regions and communities in the fight for independence. The movement included:

1. Peaceful and non-violent protest against British rule.

2. Give up titles and resign from government-nominated seats.
3. Resign from government jobs as a form of protest.
4. Withdraw children from British-run schools and colleges.
5. Boycott foreign goods and promote Indian-made products.
6. Boycott elections to legislative councils.
7. Refuse to serve in the British army.
8. Plan to refuse taxes if demands were not met.
9. Boycott of elections and government functions.

The movement also had a constructive programme, which included:

1. Promotion of Swadeshi, particularly hand-spinning and weaving.

2. Removal of untouchability among Hindus.
3. Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.

Results of the Non-Cooperation Movement

All Congress members started wearing khadi, and the charkha became a symbol of freedom.
Foreign cloth and liquor shops were boycotted, and bonfires of foreign cloth were organized
across India. The visit of the Prince of Wales in 1921 was boycotted, and a complete hartal
(strike) was observed in Bombay on 17 November 1921.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) and End of the Movement

On 5 February 1922, in Chauri Chaura (Uttar Pradesh), police fired at a mob of peasants.
The angry crowd set fire to the police station, killing 22 policemen. The incident disturbed
Mahatma Gandhi, and he called off the Non-Cooperation Movement immediately. The British
government responded with severe repression. Many Congress leaders, including C.R. Das,
Motilal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Maulana Azad, were arrested.
Swaraj Party (1923)

After the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, a debate emerged within Congress on
whether to participate in legislative council elections. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru advocated
entry into the councils to either "end or mend" British rule. When they failed to gain
Congress’s support, they resigned and formed the Swaraj Party, which won many seats in the
1923 elections.

Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) – 1929

The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (December 1929) under Jawaharlal Nehru
declared complete independence (Poorna Swaraj) as its goal. 26 January 1930 was celebrated
as Independence Day across India. The Congress authorized Gandhiji to launch a Civil
Disobedience Movement, including non-payment of taxes, to achieve complete independence.

2. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

The civil disobedience movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930 to demand
complete independence. It was triggered by the failure of the Simon Commission, British
reluctance to grant self-rule, and the Congress's Poorna Swaraj declaration in 1929. The
immediate cause was the unfair salt law, which led Gandhi to lead the Dandi March on March
12, 1930, breaking the law by making salt. This act sparked nationwide protests, including
boycotts of British goods, refusal to pay taxes, and mass civil disobedience, making it a key
moment in India's fight for independence.

Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha – 1930)

The British had imposed a heavy tax on salt, which affected everyone. To protest this, Gandhiji
led the Dandi March (March 12, 1930) from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat), covering
240 miles. On reaching Dandi, Gandhiji broke the salt law by picking up salt from the seashore.
This act launched the Civil Disobedience Movement, inspiring people across India.

Key Features of the Movement

1. Refusal to pay taxes.

2. Boycott of British goods, courts, and educational institutions.
3. Government servants resigned from their posts.
4. Mass participation of women, students, and workers.
5. Government Response

The British imposed harsh repressive measures. Around 60,000 people were arrested,
including Gandhiji and other Congress leaders. To ease tensions, the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact (1931) was signed, leading to the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Gandhi – Irwin Pacrt (1931)

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931 included several key provisions aimed at resolving the ongoing
Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhi agreed to suspend the movement and engage in
negotiations with the British government. In return, the British agreed to release political
prisoners arrested during the movement, except those involved in violent crimes. Indians were
granted the right to produce and sell salt for domestic use in coastal areas, addressing one of the
major grievances behind the movement. The British also agreed to withdraw repressive laws,
restore civil liberties, and return confiscated properties. As part of the agreement, Gandhi
consented to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London as the sole
representative of the Congress.

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

The Second Round Table Conference took place in London from September to December 1931.
Mahatma Gandhi attended as the only representative of the Congress. The talks were mainly
about how India should be governed and the rights of different communities. A major issue was
separate electorates, which meant different religious and social groups would have their own
separate voting system. Gandhi opposed this, but others, like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, supported it.
The British were not ready to grant self-rule, so the conference failed. Gandhi returned to India
disappointed, and the Civil Disobedience Movement started again. In response, the British
arrested him and other Congress leaders.

Communal Award (1932) & Poona Pact

The Communal Award was announced by the British Prime Minister in 1932, granting
separate electorates to minorities, including Dalits (Depressed Classes), Muslims, Sikhs, and
others. This meant that each community would vote separately for its own representatives,
which Gandhi strongly opposed, as he believed it would further divide Indian society. Gandhi
had begun a fast unto death in protest against the British government's decision to grant
separate electorates, fearing that it would divide the Hindu community. After days of fasting,
Gandhi and Ambedkar negotiated the Poona Pact, which resulted in a compromise. The pact
allowed for joint electorates but reserved seats for Dalits in legislatures, ensuring their
representation without creating a division among Hindus.

3. Quit India Movement (1942)

The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Kranti Movement, was a pivotal event in
India's struggle for independence from British rule. Initiated on August 8, 1942, during World
War II, it represented a mass protest demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from
Indian soil. The movement was characterized by widespread demonstrations, strikes, and acts
of civil disobedience across the nation.

Causes Leading to the Quit India Movement:

1. Failure of the Cripps Mission: The Cripps Mission, led by Sir Stafford Cripps, was sent
by the British government to negotiate with Indian leaders during World War II. It
promised Dominion Status after the war, a Constituent Assembly to frame a new
constitution, and the right of provinces to opt out of independent India. Some Indian
leaders were also to be included in the Viceroy’s Executive Council to help govern during
the war. However, ultimate power remained with the British, and there was no immediate
transfer of authority. The proposals offered were deemed unsatisfactory by major political
groups, leading to widespread disappointment. Gandhi called it a “post-dated cheque on
 a crashing bank”, meaning it had no real value. Since the mission failed to meet India’s
demand for immediate freedom, it led to frustration among leaders and became one of the
reasons for launching the Quit India Movement in August 1942.
2. Japanese Threat: The rapid advance of the Japanese army towards India's eastern borders
during World War II heightened the urgency for Indian leaders to seek immediate
independence, fearing that British presence made India a target.
3. Economic Hardships: The war had led to significant economic strain in India, causing
shortages of essential commodities and inflation, which fueled public discontent against
British rule.
4. Prevalence of anti-British Sentiment: The anti-British sentiments and demand for full-
independence had gained popularity among indian masses.

Key Events of the Movement:

• August 8, 1942: The All India Congress Committee convened in Mumbai and passed the
'Quit India' resolution, demanding the end of British rule. Mahatma Gandhi delivered his
iconic "Do or Die" speech at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, urging Indians to engage in
passive resistance.
• August 9, 1942: In a preemptive move, the British government arrested Gandhi and other
prominent leaders, leading to mass protests, strikes, and acts of civil disobedience across
the nation.

Phases of the Movement:

1. Initial Phase: Characterized by strikes, demonstrations, and processions, especially in urban

centers like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, and Madras. The British responded with force, leading to
numerous casualties.
2. Escalation: Protesters targeted government buildings, railway stations, and other symbols
of British authority. The British deployed troops to suppress the uprising.
3. Armed Resistance: In regions like Bengal and Madras, the movement saw instances of
armed resistance against British forces.
4. Decline: By late 1942, the movement began to wane due to severe repression, mass arrests,
and the absence of central leadership.

Successes of the Quit India Movement

The Quit India Movement saw the emergence of future leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan,
Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali, who played crucial roles in India’s struggle for
independence and later in post-independence politics. Women actively participated, with
figures like Usha Mehta running an underground radio network and Sucheta Kripalani leading
protests, showcasing their growing role in the freedom struggle. The movement also
increased global awareness of India’s struggle, drawing attention from international powers
which pressured Britain to reconsider its stance on Indian independence. National unity and
morale were significantly bolstered as people from different regions, religions, and castes
united against colonial rule. The protests, administrative disruptions, and underground
resistance weakened British control, making governance increasingly difficult. Although the
movement was suppressed, it forced the British to acknowledge that their rule was
unsustainable, paving the way for the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) and India’s eventual
independence in 1947.
Failures of the Quit India Movement

Despite its strengths, the Quit India Movement faced brutal suppression by the British, with
over 100,000 people arrested, leaders executed, and violent crackdowns on protests. The high
cost of violence and mass arrests led to economic and social hardships, disrupting families and
businesses across the country. The movement also lacked strong international support, as
major Allied powers like the USA and USSR prioritized World War II efforts and did not
directly intervene. Most importantly, the movement failed to achieve immediate
independence, as the British managed to maintain control through political and military
strategies until 1947.

Indian National Army (INA) and Subhash Chandra Bose

Subhash Chandra Bose believed in armed resistance for independence. In 1941, he

escaped from British custody and formed the Azad Hind Fauj (INA) in Singapore. The
INA, with Japanese support, advanced into India, but after Japan’s defeat in World War
II, INA soldiers had to surrender.

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