Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions do not have inverse because

their graphs repeat periodically and hence do not pass the
horizontal line test. To circumvent this problem we will restrict the
domains of trigonometric functions to produce one-to-one
functions and then define the inverse to be the inverses of these
restricted functions
Definition
The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 , is defined to be the
inverse of the restricted sine function
−π π
sin x , ≤x ≤
2 2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions do not have inverse because

their graphs repeat periodically and hence do not pass the
horizontal line test. To circumvent this problem we will restrict the
domains of trigonometric functions to produce one-to-one
functions and then define the inverse to be the inverses of these
restricted functions
Definition
The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 , is defined to be the
inverse of the restricted sine function
−π π
sin x , ≤x ≤
2 2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Definition
The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos−1 , is defined to be the
inverse of the restricted cosine function

cos x , 0≤x ≤π

Definition
The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1 , is defined to be
the inverse of the restricted tangent function
−π π
tan x , ≤x ≤
2 2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Definition
The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos−1 , is defined to be the
inverse of the restricted cosine function

cos x , 0≤x ≤π

Definition
The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1 , is defined to be
the inverse of the restricted tangent function
−π π
tan x , ≤x ≤
2 2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Definition
The inverse secant function, denoted by sec−1 , is defined to be the
inverse of the restricted secant function

sec x , 0≤x ≤π

Example
1
sin x = 2 can be solved using the equation
 −π π 
x = sin−1 y −1≤y ≤1 x∈ ,
2 2

∴ sin−1 ( 12 ) = π
6
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Definition
The inverse secant function, denoted by sec−1 , is defined to be the
inverse of the restricted secant function

sec x , 0≤x ≤π

Example
1
sin x = 2 can be solved using the equation
 −π π 
x = sin−1 y −1≤y ≤1 x∈ ,
2 2

∴ sin−1 ( 12 ) = π
6
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Identities for Inverse Trigonometric Functions

π
arccos x + arcsin x =
p 2
−1
cos(sin x ) = 1 − x 2
p
sin(cos−1 x ) = 1 − x 2
x
tan(sin−1 x ) = √
1 − x2
p
sec(tan−1 x ) = 1 + x 2
√
−1 x2 − 1
sin(sec x ) = (|x | ≥ 1)
|x |

Note: inverse sine and inverse tangent are odd functions

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Irrational Exponents

1
bn = b × b × b × · · · × b n factors and b −n =
bn
If n = 0, then b 0 = 1.
If pq is a positive rational number then

p √
q
−p 1
bq = bp and b q = p
bq

Example
√ √
Irrational powers 2π , 3 2 , π − 7

For all real values of p and q

bp
b p b q = b p+q , q
= b p−q , (b p )q = b pq
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Irrational Exponents

1
bn = b × b × b × · · · × b n factors and b −n =
bn
If n = 0, then b 0 = 1.
If pq is a positive rational number then

p √
q
−p 1
bq = bp and b q = p
bq

Example
√ √
Irrational powers 2π , 3 2 , π − 7

For all real values of p and q

bp
b p b q = b p+q , q
= b p−q , (b p )q = b pq
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

The Family of Exponential Functions

f (x ) = b x where b>0
is called an exponential function with base b
Example
1
f (x ) = 2x , g(x ) = ( )x , h(x ) = π x
2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

The Family of Exponential Functions

f (x ) = b x where b>0
is called an exponential function with base b
Example
1
f (x ) = 2x , g(x ) = ( )x , h(x ) = π x
2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Example
Sketch the graph of the function

f (x ) = 1 − 2x

and find it domain and range

The Natural Exponential Function

The base that plays a special role in calculus, denoted by e, is an
irrational number whose value to six decimal places is

e ≈ 2.718282

The function f (x ) = e x is called the natural exponential function

Note: e x1 +x2 = e x1 e x2 sometimes written as
exp (x1 + x2 ) = exp (x1 ) exp (x2 )
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Example
Sketch the graph of the function

f (x ) = 1 − 2x

and find it domain and range

The Natural Exponential Function

The base that plays a special role in calculus, denoted by e, is an
irrational number whose value to six decimal places is

e ≈ 2.718282

The function f (x ) = e x is called the natural exponential function

Note: e x1 +x2 = e x1 e x2 sometimes written as
exp (x1 + x2 ) = exp (x1 ) exp (x2 )
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Logarithmic Functions
If b > 0 and b 6= 1 then for a positive value of x the expression

logb x

read " the logarithm to the base b of x " denote the exponent to
which b must be raised to produce x
Example

1

log10 100 = 2, log10 = −3
1000
1
102 = 100, 10−3 =
1000
We call the function

f (x ) = logb x logarithmic function with base b

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Logarithmic Functions
If b > 0 and b 6= 1 then for a positive value of x the expression

logb x

read " the logarithm to the base b of x " denote the exponent to
which b must be raised to produce x
Example

1

log10 100 = 2, log10 = −3
1000
1
102 = 100, 10−3 =
1000
We call the function

f (x ) = logb x logarithmic function with base b

Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Natural Logarithm
The function f (x ) = ln x is called natural logarithm, where

ln x = loge x

1
ln 1 = 0, ln e = 1, ln = −1
e

Theorem
If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then b x and logb x are inverse functions.

The equation
x = by
states that y is the logarithm to the base b of x , so it can be
written as
y = logb x
y = ln x iff x = ey
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Natural Logarithm
The function f (x ) = ln x is called natural logarithm, where

ln x = loge x

1
ln 1 = 0, ln e = 1, ln = −1
e

Theorem
If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then b x and logb x are inverse functions.

The equation
x = by
states that y is the logarithm to the base b of x , so it can be
written as
y = logb x
y = ln x iff x = ey
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Natural Logarithm
The function f (x ) = ln x is called natural logarithm, where

ln x = loge x

1
ln 1 = 0, ln e = 1, ln = −1
e

Theorem
If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then b x and logb x are inverse functions.

The equation
x = by
states that y is the logarithm to the base b of x , so it can be
written as
y = logb x
y = ln x iff x = ey
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Algebraic Properties of Logarithm

logb b x = x for all real values of x

logb x
b =x for x >0
Special case when b = e
ln e x = x for all real values of x
ln x
e =x for x > 0
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Algebraic Properties of Logarithm

logb b x = x for all real values of x

logb x
b =x for x >0
Special case when b = e
ln e x = x for all real values of x
ln x
e =x for x > 0
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
If b > 0, b 6= 1, a > 0, c > 0, and r is any real number, then

(a) logb (ac) = logb (a) + logb c (Product)

a

(b) logb = logb (a) − logb c (Quotient)
c
(c) logb (ar ) = r logb (a) (Power)
1

(d) logb = − logb (c) (Reciprocal)
c
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
If b > 0, b 6= 1, a > 0, c > 0, and r is any real number, then

(a) logb (ac) = logb (a) + logb c (Product)

a

(b) logb = logb (a) − logb c (Quotient)
c
(c) logb (ar ) = r logb (a) (Power)
1

(d) logb = − logb (c) (Reciprocal)
c
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
If b > 0, b 6= 1, a > 0, c > 0, and r is any real number, then

(a) logb (ac) = logb (a) + logb c (Product)

a

(b) logb = logb (a) − logb c (Quotient)
c
(c) logb (ar ) = r logb (a) (Power)
1

(d) logb = − logb (c) (Reciprocal)
c
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
If b > 0, b 6= 1, a > 0, c > 0, and r is any real number, then

(a) logb (ac) = logb (a) + logb c (Product)

a

(b) logb = logb (a) − logb c (Quotient)
c
(c) logb (ar ) = r logb (a) (Power)
1

(d) logb = − logb (c) (Reciprocal)
c
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
If b > 0, b 6= 1, a > 0, c > 0, and r is any real number, then

(a) logb (ac) = logb (a) + logb c (Product)

a

(b) logb = logb (a) − logb c (Quotient)
c
(c) logb (ar ) = r logb (a) (Power)
1

(d) logb = − logb (c) (Reciprocal)
c
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Change of Base Formula for Logarithms

ln x
logb x =
ln b

Example
Solve

(a) 3 loga x − logx a = 0 (b) 2e −2x = 5x

Example
Prove
1 ln x
(a) loga x = (b) logb x =
logx a ln b
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Change of Base Formula for Logarithms

ln x
logb x =
ln b

Example
Solve

(a) 3 loga x − logx a = 0 (b) 2e −2x = 5x

Example
Prove
1 ln x
(a) loga x = (b) logb x =
logx a ln b
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Change of Base Formula for Logarithms

ln x
logb x =
ln b

Example
Solve

(a) 3 loga x − logx a = 0 (b) 2e −2x = 5x

Example
Prove
1 ln x
(a) loga x = (b) logb x =
logx a ln b
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Example
Find x such that
√
(a) log x = 2 (b) ln(x + 1) = 5 (c) 5x = 7

Example
Solve for x
e x − e −x
=1
2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Example
Find x such that
√
(a) log x = 2 (b) ln(x + 1) = 5 (c) 5x = 7

Example
Solve for x
e x − e −x
=1
2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Limits

Many of the ideas of calculus originated with the following two

geometric problems
The Tangent Line Problem
Given a function f and a point P(x0 , y0 ) on its graph, find an
equation of the line that is tangent to the graph at P.
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

The Area Problem

Given a function f , find the area between the graph of f and an
interval [a, b] on the x -axis
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

The Tangent Problem

Consider the problem of trying to find an equation of the tangent

line t to a curve with equation y = f (x ) at a given point
P(a, f (a)).

f (x ) − f (a)
mPQ =
x −a
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Now imagine that Q moves along the curve towards P as Q → P

the secant line rotates and approaches the tangent line as its
limiting position. We write

m = lim mPQ
Q→P

f (x ) − f (a)
m = lim
x →a x −a

Example
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at
P(1, 1).
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Now imagine that Q moves along the curve towards P as Q → P

the secant line rotates and approaches the tangent line as its
limiting position. We write

m = lim mPQ
Q→P

f (x ) − f (a)
m = lim
x →a x −a

Example
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at
P(1, 1).
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Limits

If the values of f (x ) can be made as close as we like to L by taking

values of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a), then we
write
lim f (x ) = L
x →a

which is read "the limit of f (x ) as x approaches a is L". We also

write f (x ) → L as x → a.
Example

x −1 sin x
lim √ =2 lim =1
x →1 x −1 x →0 x
√
1 − cos x x2 + 4 − 2
lim =0 lim
x →0 x x →0 x2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Limits

If the values of f (x ) can be made as close as we like to L by taking

values of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a), then we
write
lim f (x ) = L
x →a

which is read "the limit of f (x ) as x approaches a is L". We also

write f (x ) → L as x → a.
Example

x −1 sin x
lim √ =2 lim =1
x →1 x −1 x →0 x
√
1 − cos x x2 + 4 − 2
lim =0 lim
x →0 x x →0 x2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Example
The Heaviside function H is defined by

0 if t < 0,
H(t) =
1 if t ≥ 0,

Named after electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925).

Used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time
t = 0.
As t → 0 from left, H(t) → 0 as t → 0 from right, H(t) → 1
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Example
The Heaviside function H is defined by

0 if t < 0,
H(t) =
1 if t ≥ 0,

Named after electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925).

Used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time
t = 0.
As t → 0 from left, H(t) → 0 as t → 0 from right, H(t) → 1
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

One-Sided Limits

If the value of f (x ) can be made as close as we like to L by taking

values of x sufficiently close to a (but greater than a), then we
write
lim+ f (x ) = L
x →a

and if the values of f (x ) can be made as close as we like to L by

taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but less than a) then we
write
lim f (x ) = L
x →a−
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

The Relationship Between One-Sided and Two-sided Limits

The Two-sided Limit of a function f (x ) exists at a iff both of the
one-sided limits exist at a and have the same value, that is

lim f (x ) = L iff lim f (x ) = L = lim+ f (x )

x →a x →a− x →a

Infinite Limits
The expressions

lim f (x ) = +∞ and lim f (x ) = +∞

x →a+ x →a−

denote that f (x ) increases without bound as x approaches a from

the right and from the left, respectively. If both are true, then we
write
lim f (x ) = +∞
x →a
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

The Relationship Between One-Sided and Two-sided Limits

The Two-sided Limit of a function f (x ) exists at a iff both of the
one-sided limits exist at a and have the same value, that is

lim f (x ) = L iff lim f (x ) = L = lim+ f (x )

x →a x →a− x →a

Infinite Limits
The expressions

lim f (x ) = +∞ and lim f (x ) = +∞

x →a+ x →a−

denote that f (x ) increases without bound as x approaches a from

the right and from the left, respectively. If both are true, then we
write
lim f (x ) = +∞
x →a
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Similarly

lim f (x ) = −∞ and lim f (x ) = −∞

x →a+ x →a−

denote that f (x ) decreases without bound as x approaches a from

the right and from the left, respectively. If both are true, then we
write
lim f (x ) = −∞
x →a

Theorem
Let a and k be real numbers, then

(a) lim k = k (b) lim x = a

x →a x →a
1 1
(c) lim = −∞ (c) lim+ = +∞
x →0 x
− x →0 x
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Similarly

lim f (x ) = −∞ and lim f (x ) = −∞

x →a+ x →a−

denote that f (x ) decreases without bound as x approaches a from

the right and from the left, respectively. If both are true, then we
write
lim f (x ) = −∞
x →a

Theorem
Let a and k be real numbers, then

(a) lim k = k (b) lim x = a

x →a x →a
1 1
(c) lim = −∞ (c) lim+ = +∞
x →0 x
− x →0 x
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
Let a be a real number, and suppose that

lim f (x ) = L1 and lim g(x ) = L2

x →a x →a

That is, the limits exist and have values L1 and L2 , respectively.
Then
h i
(b) lim f (x ) + g(x )
x →a
= lim f (x ) + lim g(x )
x →a x →a
= L1 + L2

h i
(c) lim f (x ) − g(x )
x →a
= lim f (x ) − lim g(x )
x →a x →a
= L1 − L2
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
h i
(a) lim f (x )g(x )
x →a
= lim f (x ) lim g(x )
x →a x →a
= L1 L2

Example

lim (x 2 − 4x + 3) = 52 − 4(5) + 3 = 8
x →5

Theorem
For any polynomial p(x ) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn x n and any real
number a,

lim p(x ) = c0 + c1 a + · · · + cn an = p(a)

x →a
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
h i
(a) lim f (x )g(x )
x →a
= lim f (x ) lim g(x )
x →a x →a
= L1 L2

Example

lim (x 2 − 4x + 3) = 52 − 4(5) + 3 = 8
x →5

Theorem
For any polynomial p(x ) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn x n and any real
number a,

lim p(x ) = c0 + c1 a + · · · + cn an = p(a)

x →a
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem
h i
(a) lim f (x )g(x )
x →a
= lim f (x ) lim g(x )
x →a x →a
= L1 L2

Example

lim (x 2 − 4x + 3) = 52 − 4(5) + 3 = 8
x →5

Theorem
For any polynomial p(x ) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn x n and any real
number a,

lim p(x ) = c0 + c1 a + · · · + cn an = p(a)

x →a
Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Limits

Theorem

f (x )
(d) lim
x →a g(x )
limx →a f (x )
=
limx →a g(x )
L1
= provided L2 6= 0
L2

p
(e) lim n f (x )
x →a
q
= n lim f (x )
x →a
pn
= L1 provided L1 ≥ 0 if n is even

Moreover, these statements are also true for the one-sided limits