🧱 Introduction
In this chapter, we delve into the mechanical properties of solids, expanding on our previous
understanding of rigid bodies from Chapter 6. While we often treat objects as perfectly rigid,
they can actually be stretched, compressed, or bent under force. This exploration is crucial
for various engineering designs, from buildings and bridges to airplanes and artificial limbs.
Stress and Strain
When a body is subjected to forces while maintaining static equilibrium, it undergoes
deformation. This deformation, whether visually noticeable or not, results in a restoring
force within the body.
Stress: The restoring force per unit area within a deformed body. Stress=F/AStress =
F/AStress=F/A Where: - FFF is the applied force. - AAA is the cross-sectional area. - Measured
in N/m2N/m^2N/m2 or Pascal (Pa). - Dimensional formula: [ML−1T−2][ML^{-1}T^{-2}]
[ML−1T−2].
There are three primary ways a solid can change dimensions under external force:
• Tensile Stress: Occurs when a cylinder is stretched by forces normal to its cross-
sectional area.
• Compressive Stress: Occurs when a cylinder is compressed under applied forces.
o Tensile and compressive stresses are also known as longitudinal stress.
• Shearing Stress: Arises when forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional area,
causing relative displacement between opposite faces.
o Shearing Strain: The ratio of relative displacement of faces to the length of the
cylinder. Shearing Strain=tan(θ)=x/LShearing \ Strain = tan(\theta) = x/LShearing
Strain=tan(θ)=x/L Where:
xxx is the relative displacement.
LLL is the length of the cylinder.
θ\thetaθ is the angular displacement.
• Hydraulic Stress: Experienced by a solid sphere in a fluid under high pressure, leading
to uniform compression.
o Volume Strain: The ratio of change in volume to the original volume. Volume
Strain=ΔV/VVolume \ Strain = \Delta V/VVolume Strain=ΔV/V
Since strain is a ratio of dimensions, it has no units or dimensional formula.
📏 Hooke's Law
Stress and strain are proportional to each other for small deformations.
Hooke's Law: For small deformations, stress is proportional to strain. Stress=k⋅StrainStress =
k \cdot StrainStress=k⋅Strain Where: - kkk is the modulus of elasticity.
This law is empirical and valid for most materials, although some do not exhibit this linear
relationship.
📈 Stress-Strain Curve
The relationship between stress and strain for a material under tensile stress can be
experimentally determined and is represented graphically.
• Region O to A: Linear region where Hooke's law is obeyed, and the material behaves
elastically.
• Region A to B: Non-proportional relationship between stress and strain, but the
material still returns to its original dimensions when unloaded.
o Point B is the yield point or elastic limit, with corresponding yield strength (σy)(\
sigma_y)(σy).
• Region B to D: Stress exceeds yield strength, and strain increases rapidly with small
changes in stress.
o Removing the load at point C results in a permanent set or plastic deformation.
• Point D: Ultimate tensile strength (σu)(\sigma_u)(σu), beyond which additional strain
occurs even with reduced force, leading to fracture at point E.
o Materials with close points D and E are considered brittle, while those with distant
points are ductile.
🧮 Elastic Moduli
The ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit is a characteristic of the material.
Young's Modulus
Young's Modulus (Y): The ratio of tensile (or compressive) stress to longitudinal strain.
Y=Stress/Strain=(F/A)/(ΔL/L)=(F⋅L)/(A⋅ΔL)
Y = Stress/Strain = (F/A)/(\Delta L/L) = (F. L)/(A.Delta L)
Y=Stress/Strain=(F/A)/(ΔL/L)=(F⋅L)/(A⋅ΔL) - Measured in N/m2N/m^2N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).
* For metals, Young's moduli are generally large, indicating a high force requirement for
small changes in length.
* Steel is more elastic than copper, brass, and aluminum, making it preferable for heavy-
duty machines and structural designs.
Shear Modulus
Shear Modulus (G): The ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. Also known as the
modulus of rigidity. G=Shearing Stress/Shearing Strain=(F/A)/(x/L)=(F⋅L)/(A⋅x)
G = Shearing Stress/Shearing Strain = (F/A)/(x/L) = (F. L)/(A. x)
G = (F/A)/θ = F/(A⋅θ)
- Measured in N/m2N/m^2N/m2 or Pa.
* Shear modulus is generally less than Young's modulus, with $G \approx Y/3$ for most
materials.
Bulk Modulus
Bulk Modulus (B): The ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain.
B=p/(ΔV/V)B
Where: - p is the hydraulic pressure.
* The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with an increase in pressure.
* Measured in $N/m^2$ or Pa.
Compressibility (k): The reciprocal of the bulk modulus, representing the fractional change in
volume per unit increase in pressure. k= 1/B= (1/p)⋅(ΔV/V)k =1/B = (1/p)⋅(ΔV/V)
* Solids are the least compressible, while gases are the most compressible.
Poisson's Ratio
Poisson's Ratio: The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain in a stretched wire.
Poisson′s Ratio=(Δd/d)/(ΔL/L)=(Δd⋅L)/(ΔL⋅d)
Poisson′s Ratio=(Δd/d)/(ΔL/L)=(Δd⋅L)/(ΔL⋅d)
Where: - d is the original diameter of the wire – Δd is the change in diameter –
L is the original length –
ΔL is the change in length
* It is dimensionless and depends on the material's nature.
🔋 Elastic Potential Energy
When a wire is subjected to tensile stress, work is done against inter-atomic forces, storing
energy as elastic potential energy.
• Elastic Potential Energy (U): The energy stored in a stretched wire.
U=12⋅Y⋅A⋅(lL)2⋅L=12⋅Stress⋅Strain⋅Volume
U=21⋅Y⋅A⋅(Ll)2⋅L=21⋅Stress⋅Strain⋅Volume
Where:
o Y is the Young's modulus.
o A is the cross-sectional area.
o l is the elongation.
o L is the original length.
• Elastic Potential Energy per Unit Volume (u): u=12Stress⋅Strain
⚙️Applications of Elastic Behaviour
Understanding the elastic behaviour of materials is crucial in engineering designs.
Structural Design
• Cranes: Require thick metal ropes to lift heavy loads without exceeding the elastic
limit. A≥W/σy=(Mg)/σyA≥W/σy=(Mg)/σy
• Bridges and Buildings: Demand careful consideration of bending under load.
δ=(Wl )/(4bd3Y)\delta = (Wl^3)/(4bd^3Y)
3
Where:
o δ is the amount of sagging
o l is the length
o b is the breadth
o d is the depth
o Y is Young's Modulus
Mountain Height
The maximum height of a mountain is limited by the elastic properties of rocks. The stress at
the base should be less than the critical shearing stress. hρg=30⋅107N/m2h \rho g = 30 \cdot
10^7 N/m^2hρg=30⋅107N/m2 Where:
• h is the height of the mountain
• p is the density of the material
• g is the acceleration due to gravity
Mechanical Properties of Solids
Stress Types and Hooke's Law 📏
Tensile Stress
When a force F is applied perpendicular to a cross-sectional area A, the stress is defined as:
Stress=F/A{Stress} = AF
Here, Y represents Young's modulus of the object.
Shearing Stress ✂️
Shearing stress occurs when forces are applied parallel to the upper and lower faces of a
solid, causing deformation.
The horizontal displacement L of the upper face is perpendicular to the vertical height I
In this case, Hooke's Law is expressed as:
F/A=GLAF/I=GlL
Where:
• L is the displacement of one end of the object.
• G is the shear modulus.
Shearing stress is unique to solids.
Hydraulic Stress 💧
Hydraulic stress involves an object undergoing compression due to a surrounding fluid.
Hooke's Law for hydraulic stress is:
p=BVp/V =BVV
Where:
• $p$ is the pressure (hydraulic stress).
• V/V is the volume strain.
• $B$ is the bulk modulus.
Points to Ponder 🤔
1. Tension in a Wire:
o When a wire is suspended and stretched by a weight $F$, the force exerted by the
ceiling is equal and opposite to the weight.
o The tension at any cross-section $A$ of the wire is $F$, not $2F$.
o Tensile stress is the tension per unit area, equal to $\frac{F}{A}$.
2. Hooke's Law:
o Valid only in the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
3. Young's Modulus and Shear Modulus:
o Relevant only for solids because solids have definite lengths and shapes.
4. Bulk Modulus:
o Relevant for solids, liquids, and gases.
o Refers to the change in volume when every part of the body is under uniform stress,
maintaining the body's shape.
5. Young's Modulus Values:
o Metals have larger values of Young's modulus compared to alloys and elastomers.
o A material with a large Young's modulus requires a large force to produce small
changes in its length.
6. Elasticity Perception:
o In daily life, a material that stretches more is often perceived as more elastic, which is
a misnomer.
o A material that stretches less for a given load is actually more elastic.
7. Stress and Strain:
o A deforming force in one direction can produce strains in other directions.
o The proportionality between stress and strain in such situations cannot be described
by just one elastic constant.
o For a wire under longitudinal strain, lateral dimensions undergo a small change,
described by Poisson's ratio.
8. Stress as a Quantity:
o Stress is not a vector quantity because it cannot be assigned a specific direction.
o Force acting on a portion of a body on a specified side of a section has a definite
direction.
