George I (1714-1727), the first Hanoverian king, was born in Germany and had limited

interest in England, spending much of his reign there. His frequent absences
allowed his ministers to gain more independence, forming a council known as the
cabinet. Robert Walpole, a prominent Whig, became the first Prime Minister
(1721-1742), promoting stability, peace, trade, and reduced taxes. This era saw lively
political debate, intellectual discourse in coffee houses, and increasing social
mobility. However, poverty, crime, and gin drinking led to the rise of Methodism,
which emphasized moral dignity and charity.

George II (1727-1760) faced two foreign wars, including the War of the Austrian
Succession (1740-1748) and the Jacobite rising of 1745, which ended the Stuart claims
to the throne. William Pitt, who became the effective Prime Minister in 1756, led
Britain through the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), a global conflict. The war saw
Britain expand its territories in America and India, marking the beginning of the
British Empire’s global dominance. George II died in 1760, succeeded by his
grandson, George III.

In the 18th century, Britain's population grew rapidly from 5 million in 1700 to 9
million by 1800. Social mobility continued, with a growing middle class that greatly
influenced the era. The upper classes, now including wealthy merchants,
tradesmen, and manufacturers, controlled key industries and supported political
figures like Robert Walpole. They often bought estates to gain prestige and marry
into the aristocracy.

The middle class made up about 15% of the population, with a divide between the
upper middle class (professionals and merchants) and the lower middle class
(artisans and shopkeepers) who worked long hours for low wages. Below them, the
poor lived in terrible conditions, especially in rural areas affected by the enclosure
system. Many rural workers moved to cities in search of jobs, swelling the ranks of
the urban poor.

Diseases like smallpox and scurvy ravaged the poor, and half of London's children
died before the age of five. Surviving children often became apprentices, while
adults were housed in workhouses and hired out to factory owners. Many turned to
gin, and organized crime grew among the unemployed, with gin shops, like those in
St Giles, becoming common.
The 18th century in Britain, often called the Augustan age, is seen as a golden era
marked by political stability, artistic flourishing, and the rise of modern Britain. It
was a time of traditionalism, elegance, and wit, with values such as politeness,
moderation, and rationality being praised. While the society was materialistic and
economically driven, its institutions remained hierarchical and privileged. A
growing focus on personal gain and pleasure became prevalent, and elections were
largely controlled by local landowners who used bribery to secure votes.

The period embraced individualism and opportunities for economic enterprise,

setting Britain apart from other European nations with its relative freedom.
Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Joseph Addison rejected Puritan
pessimism, advocating for liberal ideas such as free will, salvation for all, and the
belief in humanity’s potential for progress. Optimism about human capability and
reason drove the belief in progress and perfectibility, fostering a new outlook on life
and self-reliance.

William Hogarth was a prominent engraver and painter in 18th-century England.

His first series, *A Harlot's Progress*, depicted the tragic life of a country girl who
falls victim to the vices of London. In *A Rake's Progress*, an eight-canvas series,
he tells the story of Tom Rakewell, a young man who squanders his inheritance on
indulgences like alcohol and prostitutes, ending up in a debtors' prison and a
madhouse. *Marriage à la Mode*, a series of six canvases, criticized the weakening
institution of marriage in high society, where wealth or social status often became
the primary consideration in choosing spouses.

Hogarth's *Gin Lane* served as a propaganda piece highlighting the dangers of gin
drinking, illustrating the poverty, misery, and idleness that resulted from it. The
engraving shows a slum-like area where people, including a carpenter and a
housewife, try to sell their belongings for alcohol. A pawnbroker named "S. Gripe"
stands in stark contrast, with his expensive home and clothing. One of the most
tragic scenes shows a drunken woman, smiling and reaching for snuff while her
child falls from a railing. In the same year that the engraving was published,
Parliament passed the 1751 Gin Act to regulate alcohol sales.

The literature of the 18th century reflected the era’s economic and intellectual
progress, alongside a growing interest in reading. Lending libraries became
important, expanding access to books and increasing the reading public. Writing
became a profession based on economic factors, and an author’s value was often
determined by the number of pages they wrote. Literacy increased, with about 60%
of adult men and 40% of adult women being able to read, and more readers coming
from the middle and lower classes.

People preferred prose over poetry and drama, enjoying stories related to practical
trades, pirates, crime, political pamphlets, and novels about distant travels. Novels
expressed the belief in reason and individual capability. A novel was typically a long
prose narrative with realistic, mostly fictional characters and events, often told in
chronological order. The settings were detailed, with specific times, places, and
contemporary names to create a sense of realism. The protagonist was usually a
middle-class character dealing with personal survival or social success, acting as a
voice for the author and a figure readers could empathize with.

The 18th-century novelist became the spokesperson for the middle class. Realism in
novels was more about how life was depicted than the type of life portrayed.
Writers aimed to be understood by even less-educated readers. The novel’s focus
on social status appeals to the self-made, practical-minded tradesman. The themes
of reward and punishment in novels were linked to the Puritan ethics of the middle
class.