Lesson 2.

1 Man as Biological Entity and Member of Society

What separates us from 'animals'?

Biologically, we are animals, Homo sapiens. However, as members of society,

we look upon ourselves to be at a 'higher' level. According to Thomas
Suddendorf, 'it is our imaginations… and having friends with imaginations', while
it is the ability for speech and writing; the use of fire, tools, engagement in
agriculture; large-scale cooperation', as stated by Bertrand Russell, that
distinguished as from the 'other animals'. However, Jane Goodall, an English
primatologist, changed the view of the world that only humans use tools. She
told the world of her observation of a chimpanzee that used a stick to poke and
fished for termites from its mound. Chimpanzees were also reported to use
leaves likened to a sponge soaked in water for drinking.

We look back at the history of science to realize and appreciate that it is all
along about

 curiosity
 survival
 and more

Why having friends with curiosity matter?

Growing populations are associated with progress. Why is it so? Shrinkage of a

population to a certain threshold has often been correlated with cultural decline.
This was observed in Tasmania, an island offshore of mainland Australia. The
Tasmanian decline occurred from 34,000 BCE to 1800 CE. In 34,000 YA – people
with sophisticated tool-making skills arrived using the land bridge from
Australia, so it was like a metapopulation at that time. However, 8000 YA, the
land bridge submerged by rising oceans, isolating the island with its low
population. In 1840 British colonizers arrived and found only the simplest
technology like hunting using rocks and crude clubs. According to Joseph
Heinrich, this is an example when an island population at some point fell below
the level necessary for complex skills to be passed from generation to
generation. Each generation adds skills, builds it up to ensure success, referred
to as 'cultural brain hypothesis'. When the population is very low, skills and
knowledge can't be passed. The focus will be on mere survival, meet the basics,
not the wants. Good people who are teaching – builds society. Does this remind
you of what is happening in this pandemic time? The resources or assistance
were focused on food and other basic needs. Research is boosted, but for those
that directly affect health, especially for the COVID-19 vaccine. Medicine/vaccine
for good health is a basic need. So, healthy competition for more 'wants'
happens when the population is not worried just for survival.
Lesson 2.2 Pre-classical and Classical Science
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Discussion

Development of Science in Africa

Like the Philippines, African countries were also colonized by Europeans, and
just like us Filipinos, were known to have our own culture before the colonizers
introduced western concepts.

Egyptians

Their excellent prowess in Geometry was needed to optimize the production in

the farmlands along the Nile river. What other structure, in fact one of the seven
wonders in the world, is proof of this specialization? However, at that time, they
were noted to be poor in arithmetic and math, and cannot do fractional
computing. They are also known for Alchemy, the forerunner of chemistry. It is
chemistry that you know, but still mixed with some magic. Astronomy at this
time was considered primitive, but they have excellent calendars, that
established 365 days/year and 24 hrs/day. They tried to reconcile solar and
lunar cycles. Medicine & surgery were already empirical, meaning based on
observation, rather than just pure philosophical thoughts.

Babylonians (Iraq)

They were considered to be excellent at math using the sexagesimal (base 60)
system, used algebra but were found to be poor in geometry. Astronomy was
moon oriented, especially about the eclipse. What stories have you heard how
ancient civilization explained what an eclipse is? Is it comparable to what you
know it to be? Medicine & surgery, although they were already empirical
astrology was also mixed into it.

Greeks

Mixed metaphysical and physical speculation to explain phenomena was

practiced. Astronomy developed conceptual models. Underlying assumptions
include but not limited to that geocentric and geostatic, cosmos is finite. They
have that concept of perfect circular motion. Famous personages include:

 Plato with coherent metaphysics and looked for forms.

 Aristotle (384-322 BCE) who accepted reality as it appeared but also

accepted the idea of change.
o This great Greek Philosopher emphasized natural philosophy based on
observation and systematic logic - inductive reasoning. It was in his time that
the introduction of scientific method happened. It was also at this time that the
notion that disproved earth was flat emanated. He was among the tutors of
Alexander the Great. Founded the Lyceum, the school of philosophy that
critiques the ideas or concepts put forward at that time. This is like the practice
of peer review at present times, of which scientific findings are subjected to
experts' opinions prior to release for public information dissemination.
Aristotelian cosmology includes the concepts of heavens with uniform circular
motion, perfect and incorruptible, sublunar events.

 Ptolemy (90-168 AD) was a Greek-Roman astronomer who applied math

to models of the solar system. His combined knowledge in mathematics,
geography and even astrology led to the creation of better models of the
solar system, however, a geocentric model of the Universe.

It is considered that science stagnated during the Middle ages

1. Fall of Western civilization. Remember, that Greek and Roman civilizations

gave the world both philosophical and scientific roots.

2. Scientific inquiries based on often incomplete sources. In the 6th century,

de-urbanization was promoted.

3. Monastic/cathedral schools’ production of written products centered on

the Bible. Latin, considered the language of science, was used to translate the
works of Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Galen, except Plato. Can
you recall the contributions of Galen and Ptolemy? Their impacts on critical
thinking?

4. Black death (1348) ended a massive scientific change. One-third of the

population in Europe died, where innovation was happening. Can you relate this
to the current pandemic? This tremendously affected the transfer of
competency across generations.

Remember how and why the Philippines was colonized by Europeans? Do you
recall the 'noble' purpose of the European colonizers?

 Columbus also sailed with the promise to bring back spices & gold. What
made his itinerary worthy of being financed was the promise to shorten
the duration of the travel. However, as you know now, he is famous for
having discovered America the 'New World', although he claimed and
believed to have discovered 'India' (West Indies). The silver lining, this
expanded Spain & Portugal's colonies. They then controlled the largest
areas & resources, including a wealth of precious metals, plants & animals
 for consumption or commercialization. However, this also contributed to
slavery in Europe. Unlike the Philippines who accepted the 'cross' of the
colonizers, the 'New World' called into question long-held beliefs. It did not
fit existing Biblical descriptions.

 Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), was a German mathematician who

could read Greek and used Ptolemy's data to plot the orbits. He followed
the 'Thought experiment' and proposed that in the center of it all rests the
sun, heliocentric model, albeit the moon still orbits around the earth.
The new discovery, the very concept of the solar system, held to be
factual (except about the orbit of the moon)! He deserves the Nobel Prize!
This overthrew the hierarchy of the ancient and medieval Cosmos. On the
contrary, this was regarded by the Catholic church, which was very
influential at that time, as a heretic.

 Francis Bacon (1521-1626) developed the scientific method using the

induction of data from experiments to discover laws of science not by
using logic-based deductive arguments (remember Aristotle?)

 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was Italian of many scientific

contributions. Have you seen a clock using a pendulum? Do you know
why when someone aims a gun, it is not straight to the target? The Math
of motion: pendulums falling bodies projectiles, can explain that. He
gave Astronomy the telescope that was instrumental in seeing sunspots,
phases of Venus, lunar craters, Moon of Jupiter, Milky Way is made of
stars. He supported Heliocentrism. In 1632, during the Dialogo in Italian
for the public, he compared the Ptolemic system unfavorably to
Copernicus. A courageous thing to do at that time, and be subjected to
the dreaded inquisition.

 Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - French mathematician and a philosopher.

He was accorded the title Father of modern western philosophy. Much
philosophy is based on his writings. He abandoned scholastic
Aristotelianism and focused on the first modern version of mind-body
dualism. Also, he promoted science grounded in observation and
experiment. He is famous for the creation of Cartesian maps using
coordinates. Have you tried using this in locating something? Or you are
now reliant on the GPS function of your cell phone? He is credited with the
universe-mechanistic view of nature. Don't forget, he also coined the term
molecule.

 Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - in his time, also experienced pandemic,

the bubonic plague. Despite the solitude, he was very productive since he
worked on one dreaded subject, calculus. Theories of Light, Motion,
Gravity, Dynamics are all listed in his name. However, Alchemy and
Theology are also on the list. Furthermore, he is also responsible for
studying the terrestrial and celestial mechanics using Euclidian theorems
(remember your Geometry?). Each discovery adds to the next. In February
 1676, this famous statement was traced back to Newton to a letter to
Robert Hooke (do you recall who Hooke is?). "If I have seen further than
others, it is by standing upon the shoulder of giants…"Accordingly, this
was to emphasize the need to learn, enhance, and progress in scientific
endeavors.

Another concept that underwent the rigorous tests of scientific

scrutiny is the theory of evolution.

 Charles Darwin - changed the concept of the world's creation & its
evolution while on a voyage aboard HMS Beagle. He took the courage to
challenge religious belief & unscientific ideas, or the scientific ideas in his
time. In 1844 he wrote but did not publish his revolutionary findings as
stated in the 'Theory of the Origin of Species'. With the encouragement of
his friends, in 1858, the simultaneous publications by Wallace and
Darwin's natural selection were realized. A year later, Wallace published
his book on natural selection, which he called Darwinism. Which
characteristics of a scientist do you recall that can describe Darwin and
Wallace? Did Darwin conduct experiments to prove his theory? He did
not!. But pieces of evidence prior to Darwin's theory were in the form of
fossils. These fossils were even called 'figured stones' as evidence of
God's playful nature, replicas of living things. It is also corroborated with
the geologic history by Lyell, the species change by Lamark, and
extinction by Cuvier.
 Sigmund Freud - is known for Psychoanalysis, an observational method
to gather scientific data about human behavior. However, on his time, his
unorthodox method was not yet understood by the field of medicine. His
works on sexuality and the evil side of man were not acceptable. An
example is his stand that life was built round tension and pleasure. All the
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all
pleasure came from its discharge. However, Freud's use of the term sexual
referred to all pleasurable actions and thoughts, not just the erotic aspect.
At present, psychoanalysis is a recognized scientific approach and even
honored in legal proceedings, although critics remain.

 James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin

- discovered the double helix structure of DNA (1953) considered as the
basis for modern biotechnology. Watson & Crick won the 1962 Nobel Prize
in Physiology and Medicine. What makes it revolutionary is the realization
that these two helices are complimentary copies of each other. Review or
do readings on DNA as materials for genes. When you can accept a DNA
test to prove paternity, it is then that you understand the impact of this
discovery.

 Edwin Hubble - One of the most influential astronomers since the times
of Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, posits the expanding Universe. Using the
Hubble telescope in 1925, he discovered other galaxies that profoundly
changed the way we look at the Universe, the Milky Way is not the only
galaxy in existence. Can you name the other galaxies? In 1929 he
demonstrated that the Universe is expanding – one of the most
cosmological discoveries ever made. According to Hubble's law, galaxies
move away from the Milky Way at speed directly proportionate to their
distance from it.

 Stephen Hawking - a theoretical physicist affected by amyotrophic

lateral sclerosis (ALS). Remember the ice bucket challenge? The felt
numbness is similar to what an ALS patient feels. Despite his condition,
Hawking discovered/described Black holes and Big bang theory. He proved
'singularity' that led to the creation of the Universe. His opinion on
artificial intelligence (AI) as a threat to humanity is a well-referred work.
Lesson 2.3 Cradles of Early Science
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Discussion

 Mesoamerica- refers to the entire area of Central America from Southern

Mexico to up to the border of South America, look it up in the map/atlas.
Prior to European colonization, it has a rich culture.

 Maya civilization – lasted for 2,000 years. At that time, this civilization
was known to be good in astronomy, even using their temple for
astronomical observation, considered to be advanced in their time. Have
you heard of the Maya Calendar? e.g., the pyramid of the Chichen Itza in
Mexico is at the location of the sun during the spring & fall equinoxes.
They had the technology to grow crops & to build elaborate cities with
hydraulics systems; looms for weaving other work of arts. They had
produced rubber even before Goodyear (famous brand for tires) got its
patent. They are among the first to have hieroglyphics and developed the
concept of zero.

 Inca civilization - starting in this time, roads were paved with stone,
earthquake resilient stone building, and irrigation systems were used. The
calendar had 12 months. The first suspension bridge was noted. Any
suspension bridge looks dangerous, but what is the advantage of
such? Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts
can interpret, equate to secret codes or signals in modern times. Textiles
were regarded for artistic achievements.

 Aztec civilization- so as early as this civilization, mandatory education

was already implemented. Most will be thankful to this civilization for
introducing chocolates! Theobroma, commonly known as cacao, was used
as currency and even as a tribute to gods. Antispasmodic medication and
Chinampa, rectangular agricultural areas surrounded by canals, were
already used. This could be equivalent to modern irrigation or drip
irrigation. They developed their own Aztec calendar and take note, this
time, they were using the canoe.

Development of Science in Asia

 India - Iron, steel, and other mineral were available in developed
metallurgical works before the colonization. However, this was highly
regulated by the British colonizers, for what reasons? Even to this time,
they are famous for medicine including alternative medicine. In
Astronomy, they adhered that the earth is spherical. They are good in
Mathematics and mathematical analysis, and known for accurate
measurements. They introduced the decimal digit and the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system.

 Middle East (the golden age of Islam) - this civilization valued the
observance of the scientific method. Among the personages worthy of
being mentioned is Ibn al-Haytham, Father of optics for work on the
intromission of light in contrast to the earlier belief of extromission. The
other most commonly used number system, the Arabic numeral system, is
reflective of its origin. Decimal point notation is also rooted in this
civilization. Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan Al-Azdi, is considered the father of
Arab chemistry and one of the founders of modern pharmacy. Conduct of
clinical trials in medicine was already practiced at this time. The
contagious nature of infectious diseases was recognized to address such
medical concerns better. Does this sound familiar to you in this CoVid 19
pandemic? However, just like other colonized societies, decline followed
after conquest by the Mongols, whereby libraries, observatories, and other
learning institutions were destroyed.
Lesson 2.4 Roots of Early Philippine Scientific Development
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Discussion

Approximately 50,000 YA – first inhabitants arrived by a land bridge in Palawan

& Batangas. In the next 40,000 years, simple tools & weapons of stone flakes
eventually using sawing, drilling, and polishing hard stones & metal smelting
were used. This changed when trading with other civilizations like that of
Chinese and European colonizers were practiced.

In 1521 when the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, they found numerous,
scattered, thriving, relatively self-sufficient autonomous communities with
simple appropriate levels of technological development, compared to Chinese &
Japanese, but sufficient for their needs. It was reported that engagement in
science was basically primitive or the first wave of technology. At that time,
Filipinos were knowable of the curative values of plants, including medicine
extraction from herbs. They had an alphabet, a system of writing, a method of
counting, weights, and measure. They had no calendar, counted years by the
moon, and from one harvest to another. A Notable impact of this time was the
development of schools (Colegio de San Ildefonso (Cebu), the first educational
institution in Asia by Europeans and Colegio de San Ignacio in Manila); hospitals
and orphanages. Silver lining in this time was the technological innovation and
scientific research out of the need to provide necessities while doing missionary
work and financing the colleges, hospitals, and orphanages. However, the
Manila Galleon trade caused neglect of agriculture & mining, as well as the
decline of native handicrafts/industries. Only shipbuilding was entirely by
Filipinos (so, even at that time, the Philippines is already known for maritime
manpower), excellent work showed abstruse science & math capability. But
during the 17th century, when the Galleon trade was subjected to shipwrecks
and piracy, the declining trade led to economic depression. In 1780, the Real
Sociedad Economica de Los Amigos del Pais de Filipinas focused on agriculture
research, especially indigo, cotton, cinnamon, & silk. By 1789, Asian shipping
allowed increasing exports of rice, hemp, tobacco, sugar, and manufacturing
goods.

Spanish Colonial Support for Education & Science

  1863- a royal decree to reform the educational system
 1871- UST school of Medicine & Pharmacy
 62 degrees of Licenciado en Medicina in 15 years
 Doctorate en Medicina in 15 years
 Leon Guerrero – Father of Philippine Pharmacy, Medicinal Plants,
was among the 1st six UST pharmacy graduates

 No school of engineering
 Four years of nautical school for pilots of merchant marine
 Manila observatory founded by Jesuits
 Collected & published available typhoon/climate data
 1879- 1st public typhoon warning
 April 1884 – observatory run by Jesuits have a network of meteorological
stations

 1901-the observatory was made a central observatory station of the
Philippine Weather Bureau by the American Colonial Authority
 1879- 1st public typhoon warning

American Administration

This time, the Philippines experienced rapid advances in S&T. The government
promoted extensive public education or secularized public school education.
There were grants for scholarships for higher education in science &
engineering. Furthermore, there were organizations of science research
agencies and establishments of science-based services. The curriculum
Introduced science subjects, industrial & vocational. Special effort was made to
attract Filipinos to pursue advanced studies leading to careers as engineers.

American Administration was credited for the

 1908 – establishment of the University of the Philippines

 1909 – College of Agriculture in Laguna
 1910 – Colleges of Liberal Arts, Engineering & Veterinary Medicine
 1911 – College of Law
o 1,400 students that increased to 2398 students by 1915
 1915 – School of Pharmacy & Graduate School of Tropical Medicine &
Public Health
 1916 – School of Forestry and Conservatory Music
 1918 – College of Education

All experiences of the Philippines in S&T is indicative of its capability to

innovate,,,, not just copy!!