MOLECULAR

TRAFFICKING
Unit # 3
Diffusion
■ What is Diffusion in Biology?
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of its higher concentration to
a region of its lower concentration
• Molecules move down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random
movement
• For living cells, the principle of the movement down a
concentration gradient is the same, but the cell is surrounded
by a cell membrane which can restrict the free movement
of the molecules
• The cell membrane is a partially permeable membrane -
this means it allows some molecules to cross easily, but others
with difficulty or not at all
• The simplest sort of selection is based on the size of the
molecules
• Diffusion helps living organisms to:
• obtain many of their requirements
• get rid of many of their waste products
• carry out gas exchange for respiration
Diffusion across the cell membrane
Examples of Diffusion in Living Organisms
Examples of Diffusion Table
• You will need to learn examples of
substances that organisms obtain
by diffusion
• Don’t forget that plants require
oxygen for respiration at all
times, as well as carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis when
conditions for photosynthesis are
right (e.g. enough light and a
suitable temperature)
Where Does the Energy for Diffusion Come
From?
• All particles move randomly at all times
• This is known as Brownian motion
• The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of this random
movement of molecules and ions

Brownian motion
Factors That Influence Diffusion
■ Surface area to volume ratio
• The bigger a cell or structure is, the smaller its surface area to volume
ratio is, slowing down the rate at which substances can move across its surface
• Many cells which are adapted for diffusion have increased surface area in
some way – e.g root hair cells in plants (which absorb water and mineral ions)
and cells lining the ileum in animals (which absorb the products of digestion)

The highly folded surface of the

small intestine increases its surface Cell adaptations for diffusion
■ Distance
• The smaller the distance molecules have to travel the faster transport will occur
• This is why blood capillaries and alveoli have walls which are only one cell thick,
ensure the rate of diffusion across them is as fast as possible
■ Temperature
• The higher the temperature, the faster molecules move as they have more energy
• This results in more collisions against the cell membrane and therefore a faster rate
of movement across them
■ Concentration Gradient
• The greater the difference in concentration on either side of the membrane, the
faster movement across it will occur
• This is because on the side with the higher concentration, more random collisions
against the membrane will occur
Water as a Solvent
• Water is important for all living organisms
as many substances are able to dissolve
in it (it is a solvent)
• This makes it incredibly useful and essential
for all life on Earth
• Water is important as a solvent in the
following situations within organisms:
• Dissolved substances can be easily
transported around organisms – e.g
xylem and phloem of plants and dissolved
food molecules in the blood
• Digested food molecules are in the
alimentary canal but need to be moved to
cells all over the body - without water as a Water as a solvent
solvent this would not be able to happen
• Toxic substances such as urea and
substances in excess of requirements
such as salts can dissolve in water which
makes them easy to remove from the
body in urine
• Water is also an important part of
the cytoplasm and plays a role in
ensuring metabolic reactions can
happen as necessary in cells
Osmosis
• All cells are surrounded by a cell
membrane which is partially
permeable
• Water can move in and out of cells by
osmosis
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water
molecules from a dilute
solution(high concentration of water)
to a more concentrated
solution (low concentration of water)
across a partially permeable
membrane
• In doing this, water is moving down
Osmosis and the partially permeable
its concentration gradient
membrane
• The cell membrane is partially
permeable which means it
allows small molecules (like water)
through but not larger molecules (like
Osmosis Experiments
Immersing plant cells in solutions
of different concentrations
• The most common osmosis practical
involves cutting cylinders of root
vegetables such as potato or radish and
placing them into distilled
water and sucrose solutions of
increasing concentration
• The cylinders are weighed before
placing into the solutions
• They are left in the solutions for 20 - 30
minutes and then removed, dried to
remove excess liquid and reweighed
Potatoes are usually used in osmosis experiments
to show how the concentration of a solution affects
the movement of water, but radishes can be used
too
• If the plant tissue gains mass:
• Water must have moved into the plant tissue from the solution surrounding it by
osmosis
• The solution surrounding the tissue is more dilute than the plant tissue (which is
more concentrated)

• If plant tissue loses mass:

• Water must have moved out of the plant tissue into the solution surrounding it by
osmosis
• The solution surrounding the tissue is more concentrated than the plant tissue
(which is more dilute)

• If there is no overall change in mass:

• There has been no net movement of water as the concentration in both the plant
tissue and the solution surrounding it must be equal
• Remember that water will still be moving into and out of the plant tissue, but
there wouldn’t be any net movement in this case
Investigating Osmosis Using Dialysis Tubing
• Dialysis tubing (sometimes referred to as visking tubing) is a non-living partially
permeable membrane made from cellulose
• Pores in this membrane are small enough to prevent the passage of large molecules (such
as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through
by diffusion and osmosis
• This can be demonstrated by:
• Filling a section of dialysis tubing with concentrated sucrose solution
• Suspending the tubing in a boiling tube of water for a set period of time
• Noting whether the water level outside the tubing decreases as water moves into the tubing via
osmosis
• Water moves from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water
potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane

An example setup of a dialysis tubing experiment

Osmosis in Plant Tissues

• When water moves into a plant cell, the vacuole gets bigger, pushing the cell
membrane against the cell wall
• Water entering the cell by osmosis makes the cell rigid and firm
• This is important for plants as the effect of all the cells in a plant being firm is
to provide support and strength for the plant - making the plant stand upright with
its leaves held out to catch sunlight
• The pressure created by the cell wall stops too much water entering and prevents the
cell from bursting
• If plants do not receive enough water the cells cannot remain rigid and firm (turgid) and
the plant wilts
Osmosis: Extended
• Osmosis is the net movement of water
molecules from a region of higher water
potential (dilute solution) to a region
of lower water potential (concentrated
solution), through a partially permeable
membrane
• It can get a little confusing to talk about the
'concentration of water' when we also talk
about solutions being ‘concentrated’
(having a lot of solute in them), so instead
we can say that a dilute solution has
a high water potential (the right-hand
side of the diagram below) and
a concentrated solution has a low water
potential (the left-hand side of the
diagram below)

How osmosis works

Osmosis in Animals & Plants
■ Plant cells in solutions of different concentrations
• When plant cells are placed in a solution that has
a higher water potential (dilute solution) than inside
the cells (e.g. distilled water) then water moves into the
plant cells via osmosis
• These water molecules push the cell membrane
against the cell wall, increasing the turgor pressure in
the cells which makes them turgid
• When plant cells are placed in
a concentrated solution (with a lower water potential
than inside the cells) water molecules will move out of
the plant cells by osmosis, making them flaccid
• If plant cells become flaccid it can negatively affect
the plant's ability to support itself
• If looked at underneath the microscope, the plant cells
might be plasmolysed, meaning the cell membrane
has pulled away from the cell wall
Animal cells in solutions of different
concentrations
• Animal cells also lose and gain
water as a result of osmosis
• As animal cells do not have a
supporting cell wall, the results on
the cell are more severe
• If an animal cell is placed into
a strong sugar solution (with a
lower water potential than the cell), it
will lose water by osmosis and
become crenated (shrivelled up)
• If an animal cell is placed
into distilled water (with a higher
water potential than the cell), it will
gain water by osmosis and, as it
has no cell wall to create turgor
pressure, will continue to do so until Effect of osmosis on animal
the cell membrane is stretched too cells
 Active Transport
■ Active transport is the movement of particles
through a cell membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher
concentration using energy from respiration
Importance of Active Transport
• Energy is needed because particles are being
moved against a concentration gradient, in the
opposite direction from which they would naturally
move (by diffusion)
• Active transport is vital process for the movement
of molecules or ions across membranes
• Including:
• uptake of glucose by epithelial cells in the villi
of the small intestine and by kidney tubules in
The process of active
the nephron
transport
• uptake of ions from soil water by root hair
cells in plants
Protein Carriers
• Active transport works by using carrier proteins embedded in the cell
membrane to pick up specific molecules and take them through the cell
membrane against their concentration gradient:
1. Substance combines with carrier protein molecule in the cell membrane
2. Carrier transports substances across membrane using energy from respiration
to give them the kinetic energy needed to change shape and move the
substance through the cell membrane
3. Substance released into cell

Carrier proteins in active transport

 Absorbing Nutrients
• Absorption is the movement of digested food
molecules from the digestive system into the
blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty
acids and glycerol)

• Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine

Absorbing Water

• Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and

the colon, but most absorption of water (around
80%) happens in the small intestine
Adaptations of the Small Intestine
• The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has
a highly folded surface with millions of villi (tiny, finger like
projections)

• These adaptations massively increase the surface area of

the ileum, allowing absorption to take place faster and more
efficiently
• Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase
surface area for faster absorption of nutrients
• Wall of the villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only
a short distance for absorption to happen by diffusion and
active transport
• Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that
transport glucose and amino acids away from the small
intestine in the blood
• Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty
acids and glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph
Structure of a Villus
Absorption animated

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TRANSPORT IN
ANIMALS
■ Circulatory systems in Mammals
• Mammals have
a four-chambered heart and
a double circulation
• This means that for every one
circuit of the body, the blood
passes through the heart twice
• The right side of the heart
receives deoxygenated
blood from the body and pumps
it to the lungs (the pulmonary
circulation)
• The left side of the heart
receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs and pumps it to the
body (the systemic circulation)

The double circulatory system in

Advantages of Double Circulation

• Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot of
pressure that was given to it by the pumping of the heart, meaning
it cannot travel as fast

• By returning the blood to the heart after going through the lungs
its pressure can be raised again before sending it to the body,
meaning cells can be supplied with the oxygen and glucose they need
for respiration faster and more frequently
The Mammalian Heart
• The heart is labelled as if it was in the
chest so what is your left on a diagram
is actually the right hand side and vice
versa
• The right side of the heart
receives deoxygenated blood from
the body and pumps it to the lungs
• The left side of the heart
receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs and pumps it to the body
• Blood is pumped towards the heart in
veins and away from the heart
in arteries
• The two sides of the heart are
separated by a muscle wall called
the septum
• The heart is made of muscle
tissue which are supplied with blood by
the coronary arteries
Structure of the
Identifying Structures
in the Heart

• The ventricles have thicker muscle walls

than the atria as they are pumping blood
out of the heart and so need to generate a
higher pressure
• The left ventricle has a thicker muscle
wall than the right ventricle as it has to
pump blood at high pressure around
the entire body, whereas the right
ventricle is pumping blood at lower
pressure to the lungs
• The septum separates the two sides of
the heart and so prevents mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

Structure of the heart showing the different

valves
The function of valves

• The basic function of all valves is to prevent blood from flowing

backwards
• There are two sets of valves in the heart:
• The atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricles
• The valve on the right side of the heart is called
the TRICUSPID and the valve on the left side is called
the BICUSPID
• These valves are pushed open when the atria contract but when
the ventricles contract they are pushed shut to prevent blood
from flowing back into the atria
• The semilunar valves are found in the two blood arteries that
come out of the top of the heart
• They are unusual in that they are the only two arteries in the body
that contain valves
• These valves open when the ventricles contract so blood
squeezes past them out of the heart, but then shut to avoid blood
Functioning of the Heart
• Deoxygenated blood coming from the body flows into the right atrium via
the vena cava
• Once the right atrium has filled with blood the heart gives a little beat and the
blood is pushed through the tricuspid (atrioventricular) valve into the right
ventricle
• The walls of the ventricle contract and the blood is pushed into the pulmonary
artery through the semilunar valve which prevents blood flowing backwards into
the heart
• The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries past the alveoli
where gas exchange takes place (this is why there has to be low pressure on this
side of the heart – blood is going directly to capillaries which would burst under
higher pressure)
• Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
• It passes through the bicuspid (atrioventricular) valve into the left ventricle
• The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract strongly to push the blood
forcefully into the aorta and all the way around the body
Monitoring Activity of the Heart

• Heart activity can be monitored by using an ECG,

measuring pulse rate or listening to the sounds of valves
closing using a stethoscope
• Heart rate (and pulse rate) is measured in beats per minute
(bpm)
• To investigate the effects of exercise on heart rate, record the
pulse rate at rest for a minute
• Immediately after they do some exercise, record the pulse
rate every minute until it returns to the resting rate
• This experiment will show that during exercise the heart rate
increases and may take several minutes to return to normal
Investigating Effect of Physical Activity on
Heart Rate
• It is relatively simple to investigate the effects of exercise on
the body in the classroom
• Breathing rate can be measured by counting the number of
breaths per minute, while heart rate can be measured by taking
a pulse
• Either can be measured before and after an activity is
performed and the results plotted on a bar chart
• It is important that the time over which breathing rate and
pulse rate are measured is consistent, and that individuals
fully recover (rest) before starting a new activity
• Increased physical activity results in an increased heart rate and
breathing rate
• Heart rate remains high for a period of time after physical has
stopped, there is a gradual return to resting heart rate
Explaining the Effect of Physical Activity on Heart
Rate
• So that sufficient blood is taken to the working muscles to provide them
with enough nutrients and oxygen for increased respiration
• An increase in heart rate also allows for waste products to be removed at a
faster rate
• Following exercise, the heart continues to beat faster for a while to ensure
that all excess waste products are removed from muscle cells
• It is also likely that muscle cells have been respiring anaerobically during
exercise and so have built up an oxygen debt
• This needs to be ‘repaid’ following exercise and so the heart continues to
beat faster to ensure that extra oxygen is still being delivered to muscle
cells
• The extra oxygen is used to break down the lactic acid that has been built up
in cells as a result of anaerobic respiration
■ Blood vessels
• The blood vessels are a system of closed tubes within which blood
flows
• Different types of blood vessels transport blood in different directions,
and to different parts of the body
■ Arteries
• These blood vessels carry blood away from the heart at high pressure
• Arteries transport oxygenated
• The single exception to this is the pulmonary artery
• The walls of arteries are thick and muscular and contain elastic fibres
• Arteries have a narrow lumen
■ Veins
• These blood vessels carry blood towards the heart at low pressure
• Veins transport deoxygenated blood away from the body
• The single exception to this is the pulmonary vein
• The walls of veins are thin in comparison to arteries
• Veins have a wide lumen
Arterioles and venules
• As arteries divide more as they get further away from the heart, they
get narrower
• The narrow vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called arterioles
• Veins also get narrower the further away they are from the heart
• The narrow vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called venules

The blood vessel

Arteries and veins diagram

Arteries carry blood away from the heart at high

pressure, while veins carry blood towards the heart
at low pressure
■ Capillaries Capillaries diagram
• These blood vessels carry blood to the cells of
the tissues
• Capillaries transport oxygenated blood from the
arteries to the cells, and deoxygenated blood
from the cells to the veins
• The walls of capillaries are one cell thick and
contain gaps to allow fluid to leak out
• Capillaries have a very narrow lumen

Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that carry

blood to the cells of the body
How Structure of Blood Vessels is Adapted to
their Function
■ Arteries
• Have thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres to withstand the high
pressure of blood and maintain the blood pressure as it recoils after the
blood has passed through
• Have a narrow lumen to maintain high pressure
■ Veins
• Have a large lumen as blood pressure is low
• Contain valves to prevent the backflow of blood as it is under low
pressure
■ Capillaries
• Have walls that are one cell thick so that substances can easily diffuse in
and out of them
• Have ‘leaky’ walls so that blood plasma can leak out and form tissue fluid
surrounding cells
Adaptations of blood
Components of Blood
• Plasma is important for
the transport of carbon dioxide,
digested food (nutrients), urea, mineral
ions, hormones and heat energy
• Red blood cells transport
oxygen around the body from the
lungs to cells which require it for
aerobic respiration
• They carry the oxygen in the form
of oxyhaemoglobin
• White blood cells defend the
body against infection by pathogens
by carrying
out phagocytosis and antibody
production
• Platelets are involved in helping
the blood to clot
Components of Blood
• Blood consists of red blood cells, white
blood cells, platelets and plasma

Components of the Blood

Table

Composition of human
blood
Identifying Red & White Blood Cells
• You need to be able to identify red and white blood cells in
photomicrographs and diagrams
• Red blood cells have a concave disc shape with no nucleus
• White blood cells are usually round in shape with a nucleus

Blood
micrograph
TRANSPORT IN
PLANTS
Transport in plants
What is the function of the xylem and phloem
• Plants contain two types of transport vessel:
▪ Xylem vessels – transport water and minerals
(pronounced: zi-lem) from the roots to the stem and
leaves
▪ Phloem vessels – transport food materials
(mainly sucrose and amino acids)
made by the plant from photosynthesising leaves to
non-photosynthesising
regions in the roots and stem (pronounced: flow-em)
• These vessels are arranged throughout the root,
stem and leaves in groups called vascular bundles

Vascular tissue in a dicotyledonous

plant
 Xylem Function
Xylem diagram
• Function: transport tissue for water and dissolved mineral ions
• Adaptations:
▪ Cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form A long
continuous tube
▪ Cells are essentially dead, without cell contents ,to allow
free passage of water
▪ Outer walls are thickened with a substance called
Lignin, strengthening the tubes, which helps support the plant

Xylem cells lose their top and bottom walls to form a

continuous tube through which water moves through from the
roots to the leaves
 Root hair cells
• Root hairs are single-celled extensions of
epidermis cells in the root

• They grow between soil particles and absorb water

and minerals from the soil
• Water enters the root hair cells by osmosis
• This happens because soil water has a higher
water potential than the cytoplasm of the root hair cell

•The root hair increases the surface area of the cells

significantly

•This large surface area is important as it

increases the rate of the absorption of water
by osmosis and mineral ions by active transport
 Pathway taken by water

• Osmosis causes water to pass into the root hair cells,

through the root cortex and into the xylem vessels:
• Once the water gets into the xylem, it is
carried up to the leaves where it
enters mesophyll cells

• So the pathway is:

root hair cell → root cortex cells → xylem
→ leaf mesophyll cells

Pathway of water into and across a root

Investigating water movement In plants

• The pathway can be investigated by placing

a plant (like celery) into a beaker of water
that has had a stain added to it (food
colouring will work well)
• After a few hours, you can see the leaves of
the celery turning the same colour as the
dyed water, proving that water is being taken
up by the celery
• If a cross-section of the celery is cut, only
certain areas of the stalk is stained the
colour of the water, showing that the water is
being carried in specific vessels through the
stem - these are the xylem vessels
Investigating water movement in plants using a stain
Transpiration

• Water travels up xylem from the roots into the leaves of the plant to replace the
water that has been lost due to transpiration
• Transpiration is defined as the loss of water vapour from plant leaves by
evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by
diffusion of water vapour through the stomata
• Xylem is adapted in many ways:
▪ A substance called lignin is deposited in the cell walls which causes the
xylem cells to die
▪ These cells then become hollow (as they lose all their organelles and
cytoplasm) and join end-to-end to form a continuous tube for water and
mineral ions to travel through from the roots
▪ Lignin strengthens the plant to help it withstand the pressure of the water
movement
• Movement in xylem only takes place in one direction - from roots to
leaves (unlike phloem where movement takes place in different directions)
Water uptake, transport and transpiration
• Transpiration has several functions in
plants:

o Providing water to keep cells turgid in

order to support the structure of the plant
o Providing water to leaf cells
for photosynthesis
o Transporting mineral ions
o Keeping the leaves cool (the conversion of
water (liquid) into water vapour (gas) as it
leaves the cells and enters the airspace
requires heat energy. The using up of heat to
convert water into water vapour helps to cool
the plant down)
Transpiration in plants
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 Investigating the Effect of Temperature & Wind Speed on Transpiration Rate

Investigating the role of environmental factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a leafy
shoot

7.
1. Cut a shoot underwater to prevent air entering the Record the starting location of the air bubble
xylem and place in tube
8. Leave for a set period of time
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and
make sure it is airtight, using vaseline to seal any 9. Record the end location of air bubble
gaps
10. Change the wind speed or temperature (only one -
3. Dry the leaves of the shoot (wet leaves will affect
whichever factor is being investigated)
the results)
4. Remove the capillary tube from the beaker of water11. Reset the bubble by opening the tap below the
to allow a single air bubble to form and place the reservoir
tube back into the water
12. Repeat the experiment
5. Set up the environmental factor you are
investigating 13. The further the bubble travels in the same time
6. Allow the plant to adapt to the new environment for period, the faster transpiration is occurring and
5 minutes
vice versa
An experimental setup for testing the
effect of light intensity on transpiration
rates. The apparatus can be modified to
test the effects of temperature and wind
speed.
Environmental factors can be
investigated in the following
ways:

▪ Temperature: Temperature of room (cold

room and warm room)
• As temperature increases, the rate of
transpiration also increases
▪ Wind speed: Use an electric fan to mimic
different wind speeds
• As wind speed increases, the rate of
transpiration also increases
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 Transpiration

• Water molecules are attracted to each other

by cohesion - creating a continuous column of
water up the plant
• Water moves through the xylem vessels in a
continuous transpiration stream from roots to
leaves via the stem
• Transpiration produces a tension or ‘pull’ on
the water in the xylem vessels by the leaves
• As water molecules are held together
by cohesive forces (each individual molecule
‘pulls’ on the one below it), so water is pulled
up through the plant
• If the rate of transpiration from the
leaves increases, water molecules are pulled
up the xylem vessels quicker
The generation of the transpiration stream
 The effects of temperature, wind speed & humidity

■ Wind speed, humidity and temperature all

have an effect on the rate at which
transpiration occurs
■ A potometer can be used to investigate
the effect of environmental factors on the
rate of transpiration
• The table below explains how these
factors affect the rate of transpiration
when they are all high; the opposite effect
would be observed if they were low

Transpiration Rate Factors Table

 Wilting

• If more water evaporates from the leaves of a

plant than is available in the soil to move into the
root by osmosis, then wilting will occur
• This is when all the cells of the plant are not full
of water, so the strength of the cell walls
cannot support the plant and it starts to
collapse

A wilted plant cannot support itself and starts to

collaps
GAS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS
 11.1 Gas exchange in humans

1. 1 Describe the features of gas exchange surfaces

in humans, limited to: large surface area, thin
surface, good blood supply and good ventilation with
air
2. 2 Identify in diagrams and images the following
parts of the breathing system: lungs, diaphragm,
ribs, intercostal muscles, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries
3. 6 Identify in diagrams and images the internal and
external intercostal muscles

4. 7 State the function of cartilage in the trachea

 Properties of efficient gas exchange
surface
•Large surface area to allow faster
diffusion of gases across the surface
•Thin walls to ensure diffusion distances
remain short
•Good ventilation with air so that
diffusion gradients can be maintained
•Good blood supply to maintain a high
concentration gradient so diffusion occurs
faster
Parts of Respiratory System
Parts of Respiratory System

Function of Cartilage in the Trachea

•Rings of cartilage surround the trachea

(and bronchi)
•The function of the cartilage is
to support the airways and keep them
open during breathing
•If they were not present then the sides
could collapse inwards when the air
pressure inside the tubes drops
Mechanism 0f Breathing
 Protecting the Breathing System

• The passages down to the lungs are lined

with ciliated epithelial cells

• Cilia comes from the Latin for eyelash, so

unsurprisingly these cells have tiny hairs on the
end of them that beat and push mucus up the
passages towards the nose and throat where it
can be removed

• The mucus is made by special mucus-producing

cells called goblet cells because they are shaped
like a goblet, or cup

• The mucus traps particles, pathogens like

bacteria or viruses, and dust and prevents
them getting into the lungs and damaging the
cells there
Composition of Inspired and Expired Air
Differences between inspired and expired
air
• When we breathe in, the air is drawn
through boiling tube A
• When we breathe out, the air is blown
into boiling tube B
• Lime water is clear but
becomes cloudy (or milky) when
carbon dioxide is bubbled through it
• The lime water in boiling tube A will
remain clear, but the limewater
in boiling tube B will become cloudy
• This shows us that the percentage of
carbon dioxide in exhaled air is
higher than in inhaled air
Reasons for the differences
between inspired and expired
air
Explaining the Link Between Physical Activity & Breathing

Why does rate of breathing change?

• Frequency and depth of breathing increase when exercising
• This is because muscles are working harder and aerobically respiring more and they need
more oxygen to be delivered to them (and carbon dioxide removed) to keep up with the
energy demand
• If they cannot meet the energy demand they will also respire anaerobically,
producing lactic acid
• After exercise has finished, the lactic acid that has built up in muscles needs to
be removed as it lowers the pH of cells and can denature enzymes catalysing cell
reactions
• It can only be removed by combining it with oxygen - this is known as ‘repaying the oxygen
debt’
• This can be tested by seeing how long it takes after exercise for the breathing rate and depth
to return to normal - the longer it takes, the more lactic acid produced during exercise
and the greater the oxygen debt that needs to be repaid
Explaining the Link Between Physical Activity & Breathing

How does rate of breathing change?

• The rate of respiration increases in muscle cells when exercising heavily
• CO2 is a product of aerobic respiration, so CO2 levels increase in the muscle cells
• This CO2 diffuses out of the cells into the blood plasma
• CO2 in solution causes a slight drop in pH so the blood becomes slightly more acidic
• The blood flows around the circulatory system and passes to the brain where the increased
carbon dioxide levels are detected by chemoreceptors in the brain
• Chemoreceptors are cells that detect chemical changes in the body
• They can detect changes in blood gas levels, as well as changes in pH
• The chemoreceptors are located in the medulla oblongata of the brain
• The brain sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles to increase
the rate and depth of muscle contraction
• The rate of inspiration increases, along with the the volume of air moved in and out with each
breath
• The result is greater absorption of oxygen and removal rate of carbon dioxide