N OMENCLATURE

a Acceleration, m/s2 Pcr Critical pressure, kPa

a Specific Helmholtz function, u – Ts, kJ/kg Pi Partial pressure, kPa
A Area, m2 Pm Mixture pressure, kPa
A Helmholtz function, U – TS, kJ PR Reduced pressure
AF Air–fuel ratio Pv Vapor pressure, kPa
c Speed of sound, m/s P0 Surroundings pressure, kPa
c Specific heat, kJ/kg·K pe Specific potential energy, gz, kJ/kg
cp Constant-pressure specific heat, kJ/kg·K PE Total potential energy, mgz, kJ
​c​v​​ Constant-volume specific heat, kJ/kg·K q Heat transfer per unit mass, kJ/kg
COP Coefficient of performance Q Total heat transfer, kJ
·
COPHP Coefficient of performance of a heat pump ​​Q​​ Heat transfer rate, kW
COPR Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator QH Heat transfer with high-temperature
d, D Diameter, m body, kJ
e Specific total energy, kJ/kg QL Heat transfer with low-temperature body, kJ
E Total energy, kJ r Compression ratio
EER Energy efficiency rating R Gas constant, kJ/kg·K
F Force, N rc Cutoff ratio
FA Fuel–air ratio rp Pressure ratio
g Gravitational acceleration, m/s2 Ru Universal gas constant, kJ/kmol·K
g Specific Gibbs function, h – Ts, kJ/kg s Specific entropy, kJ/kg·K
G Total Gibbs function, H – TS, kJ S Total entropy, kJ/K
h Convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2·K sgen Specific entropy generation, kJ/kg·K
h Specific enthalpy, u + ​Pv​, kJ/kg Sgen Total entropy generation, kJ/K
H
_ Total enthalpy, U + ​PV​, kJ so, s+ Ideal gas entropy functions, kJ/kg·K
​_​C
h​ Enthalpy of combustion, kJ/kmol fuel SG Specific gravity or relative density
​_f​
h​ Enthalpy of formation, kJ/kmol t Time, s
​ ​R
h​ Enthalpy of reaction, kJ/kmol T Temperature, °C or K
HHV Higher heating value, kJ/kg fuel T Torque, N·m
i Specific irreversibility, kJ/kg Tcr Critical temperature, K
I Electric current, A Tdb Dry-bulb temperature, °C
I Total irreversibility, kJ Tdp Dew-point temperature, °C
k Specific heat ratio, cp/​​c​v​ Tf Bulk fluid temperature, °C
k Spring constant, N/m TH Temperature of high-temperature body, K
k Thermal conductivity, W/m·K TL Temperature of low-temperature body, K
KP Equilibrium constant TR Reduced temperature
ke Specific kinetic energy, V2/2, kJ/kg Twb Wet-bulb temperature, °C
KE Total kinetic energy, mV2/2, kJ T0 Surroundings temperature, °C or K
LHV Lower heating value, kJ/kg fuel u Specific internal energy, kJ/kg
m Mass, kg U Total internal energy, kJ
​​m· ​​ Mass flow rate, kg/s v Specific volume, m3/kg
M Molar mass, kg/kmol vcr Critical specific volume, m3/kg
Ma Mach number vR Pseudo-reduced specific volume
MEP Mean effective pressure, kPa ​V​ Total volume, m3
·
mf Mass fraction ​​V​​ Volume flow rate, m3/s
n Polytropic exponent V Voltage, V
N Number of moles, kmol V Velocity, m/s
P Pressure, kPa Vavg Average velocity

945
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NOMENCLATURE

w Work per unit mass, kJ/kg

Subscripts
W Total work, kJ
· a Air
​​W​​ Power, kW
abs Absolute
Wrev Reversible work, kJ
act Actual
x Quality
atm Atmospheric
x Specific exergy, kJ/kg
avg Average
X Total exergy, kJ
c Combustion; cross-section
xnonflow Nonflow or closed system exergy, kJ/kg
cr Critical point
xflow Flow or stream exergy, kJ/kg
CV Control volume
xdest Specific exergy destruction, kJ/kg
e Exit conditions
Xdest Total exergy destruction, kJ
· f Saturated liquid
​​X​dest Rate of total exergy destruction, kW
fg Difference in property between saturated ­liquid
y Mole fraction
and saturated vapor
z Elevation, m
g Saturated vapor
Z Compressibility factor
gen Generation
Zh Enthalpy departure factor
H High temperature (as in TH and QH)
Zs Entropy departure factor
i Inlet conditions
i ith component
Greek Letters in input (as in Qin and Win)
α Absorptivity L Low temperature (as in TL and QL)
α Isothermal compressibility, 1/kPa m Mixture
β Volume expansivity, 1/K out output (as in Qout and Wout)
Δ Finite change in quantity R Reduced
ε Emissivity rev Reversible
ϵ Effectiveness s Isentropic
ηth Thermal efficiency sat Saturated
ηII Second-law efficiency surr Surroundings
θ Total energy of a flowing fluid, kJ/kg sys System
μJT Joule-Thomson coefficient, K/kPa v Water vapor
μ Chemical potential, kJ/kg 0 Dead state
ν Stoichiometric coefficient 1 Initial or inlet state
ρ Density, kg/m3 2 Final or exit state
σ Stefan–Boltzmann constant
σn Normal stress, N/m2
σs Surface tension, N/m Superscripts
· (overdot) Quantity per unit time
ϕ Relative humidity _
γs Specific weight, N/m3 (overbar) Quantity per unit mole
ω Specific or absolute humidity, ° (circle) Standard reference state
kg H2O/kg dry air * (asterisk) Quantity at 1 atm pressure
Conversion Factors
DIMENSION METRIC METRIC/ENGLISH

Acceleration 1 m/s2 = 100 cm/s2 1 m/s2 = 3.2808 ft/s2

1 ft/s2 = 0.3048* m/s2
Area 1 m2 = 104 cm2 = 106 mm2 = 10−6 km2 1 m2 = 1550 in2 = 10.764 ft2
1 ft2 = 144 in2 = 0.09290304* m2

Density 1 g/cm3 = 1 kg/L = 1000 kg/m3 1 g/cm3 = 62.428 lbm/ft3 = 0.036127 lbm/in3
1 lbm/in3 = 1728 lbm/ft3
1 kg/m3 = 0.062428 lbm/ft3
1 kJ = 1000 J = 1000 N·m = 1 kPa·m3
Energy, heat, work, 1 kJ = 0.94782 Btu
1 kJ/kg = 1000 m2/s2
internal energy, 1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ
enthalpy
1 kWh = 3600 kJ = 5.40395 psia·ft3 = 778.169 lbf·ft
1 cal† = 4.184 J 1 Btu/lbm = 25,037 ft2/s2 = 2.326* kJ/kg
1 IT cal† = 4.1868 J 1 kJ/kg = 0.430 Btu/lbm
1 Cal† = 4.1868 kJ 1 kWh = 3412.14 Btu
1 therm = 105 Btu = 1.055 × 105 kJ
(natural gas)
Force 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2 = 105 dyne 1 N = 0.22481 lbf
1 kgf = 9.80665 N 1 lbf = 32.174 lbm·ft/s2 = 4.44822 N
Heat flux 1 W/cm2 = 104 W/m2 1 W/m2 = 0.3171 Btu/h·ft2
Heat transfer 1 W/m2·°C = 1 W/m2·K 1 W/m2·°C = 0.17612 Btu/h·ft2·°F
coefficient
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 106 μm
Length 1 m = 39.370 in = 3.2808 ft = 1.0926 yd
1 km = 1000 m 1 ft = 12 in = 0.3048* m
1 mile = 5280 ft = 1.6093 km
1 in = 2.54* cm
Mass
1 kg = 1000 g 1 kg = 2.2046226 lbm
1 metric ton = 1000 kg 1 lbm = 0.45359237* kg
1 ounce = 28.3495 g
1 slug = 32.174 lbm = 14.5939 kg
1 short ton = 2000 lbm = 907.1847 kg
Power,
1 W = 1 J/s 1 kW = 3412.14 Btu/h
heat transfer rate
1 kW = 1000 W = 1.341 hp = 737.56 lbf·ft/s
1 hp‡ = 745.7 W 1 hp = 550 lbf·ft/s = 0.7068 Btu/s
= 42.41 Btu/min = 2544.5 Btu/h
= 0.74570 kW
1 boiler hp = 33,475 Btu
1 Btu/h = 1.055056 kJ/h
1 ton of refrigeration = 200 Btu/min
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Pressure 1 Pa = 1.4504 × 10−4 psia
3 −3
1 kPa = 10 Pa = 10 MPa = 0.020886 lbf/ft2
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars 1 psi = 144 lbf/ft2 = 6.894757 kPa
= 760 mm Hg at 0°C 1 atm = 14.696 psia = 29.92 in Hg at 30°F
= 1.03323 kgf/cm2 1 in Hg = 3.387 kPa
1 mm Hg = 0.1333 kPa
Specific heat 1 kJ/kg·°C = 1 kJ/kg·K = 1 J/g·°C 1 Btu/lbm·°F = 4.1868 kJ/kg·°C
1 Btu/lbmol·R = 4.1868 kJ/kmol·K
1 kJ/kg·°C = 0.23885 Btu/lbm·°F
= 0.23885 Btu/lbm·R

*Exact conversion factor between metric and English units.

†Calorie is originally defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C, but it varies with temperature. The international steam table (IT) calorie
(generally preferred by engineers) is exactly 4.1868 J by definition and corresponds to the specific heat of water at 15°C. The thermochemical calorie (generally preferred by physi-
cists) is exactly 4.184 J by definition and corresponds to the specific heat of water at room temperature. The difference between the two is about 0.06 percent, which is negligible. The
capitalized Calorie used by nutritionists is actually a kilocalorie (1000 IT calories).
‡Mechanical horsepower. The electrical horsepower is taken to be exactly 746 W.

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CONVERSION FACTORS

DIMENSION METRIC METRIC/ENGLISH

Specific volume 1 m3/kg = 1000 L/kg = 1000 cm3/g 1 m3/kg = 16.02 ft3/lbm
1 ft3/lbm = 0.062428 m3/kg
Temperature
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15 T(R) = T(°F) + 459.67 = 1.8T(K)
ΔT(K) = ΔT(°C) T(°F) = 1.8T(°C) + 32
ΔT(°F) = ΔT(R) = 1.8ΔT(K)
Thermal 1 W/m·°C = 1 W/m·K 1 W/m·°C = 0.57782 Btu/h·ft·°F
conductivity
Velocity 1 m/s = 3.60 km/h 1 m/s = 3.2808 ft/s = 2.237 mi/h
1 mi/h = 1.46667 ft/s
1 mi/h = 1.6093 km/h
Volume 1 m3 = 1000 L = 106 cm3 (cc) 1 m3 = 6.1024 × 104 in3 = 35.315 ft3
= 264.17 gal (U.S.)
1 U.S. gallon = 231 in3 = 3.7854 L
1 fl ounce = 29.5735 cm3 = 0.0295735 L
1 U.S. gallon = 128 fl ounces
Volume flow rate 1 m3/s = 60,000 L/min = 106 cm3/s 1 m3/s = 15,850 gal/min (gpm) = 35.315 ft3/s
= 2118.9 ft3/min (cfm)

Some Physical Constants

Universal gas constant Ru =

 8.31447 kJ/kmol·K
= 8.31447 kPa·m3/kmol·K
= 0.0831447 bar·m3/kmol·K
= 82.05 L·atm/kmol·K
= 1.9858 Btu/lbmol·R
= 1545.37 ft·lbf/lbmol·R
= 10.73 psia·ft3/lbmol·R
Standard acceleration of gravity g = 9.80665 m/s2
= 32.174 ft/s2
Standard atmospheric pressure 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 1.01325 bar
= 14.696 psia
= 760 mm Hg (0°C)
= 29.9213 in Hg (32°F)
= 10.3323 m H2O (4°C)
Stefan–Boltzmann constant 𝛼 = 5.6704 × 10−8 W/m2·K4
= 0.1714 × 10−8 Btu/h·ft2·R4
Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.380650 × 10−23 J/K
Speed of light in vacuum co = 2.9979 × 108 m/s
= 9.836 × 108 ft/s
Speed of sound in dry air at 0°C and 1 atm c = 331.36 m/s
= 1089 ft/s
Heat of fusion of water at 1 atm hif = 333.7 kJ/kg
= 143.5 Btu/lbm
Enthalpy of vaporization of water at 1 atm hfg = 2256.5 kJ/kg
= 970.12 Btu/lbm