Lesson 1: Introduction to Microscopy
Significance of Microscopy
It allowed scientists to investigate cell structure, observe the tiniest details of plants,
animals, and fungi, and learn about the presence of microbes.
Early Microscope Inventions and Pioneers
16th Century (1590) - Hans and Zacharias Janssen (Hans Jansen, his son Zacharias
Jansen) developed a rudimentary form of microscope.
17th Century (1665) - Robert Hooke publishes Micrographia and coins the term cell
since when he observed a plant cell, it resembled a storage cellar.
17th Century (1676) - Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe protozoa
and bacteria under his microscope. He called this organism as animalcules.
19th Century (late 1800s) - Carl Zeiss and Ernst Abbe improve optical microscopy
20th Century (late 1930s) - Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska invent the electron microscope
Early Microscope Inventions and Pioneers
Zacharias Janssen - invented the first compound microscope
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek - father of microbiology
Robert Hooke - observed cells in cork
compound microscope - first microscope with multiple lenses
electron microscope - used beams of electrons instead of light
Carl Zeiss- made quality lenses and optics
Ernst Abbe - improved microscope design
cell theory- states that all living things are made of cells
microbiology - studied microorganisms like bacteria
cell - basic unit of life
It was Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll, a physicist and an electrical engineer, respectively,
from the University of Berlin, who created the first electron microscope in 1931.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope - is a type of scanning probe microscope used for
imaging surfaces at the atomic level.
Lesson 2: Parts of the Microscope and Types of Microscopes
light source - provides the light needed to view the specimen
base - supports the microscope and houses the electronics
fine adjustment knob - moves the stage slightly sharpen the image
stage clips - hold the slide in place on the stage
stage - where you place the slide for viewing
arm - used to carry the microscope
diaphragm - controls the amount of light that reaches the slide
eyepiece - contains the ocular lens
coarse adjustment knob - rotated to move the stage up and down for focusing
objective lenses - magnify the image and is found on the revolving nosepiece
Types of Microscopes
Fluorescence Microscope - Shows bright, glowing colors against a dark background.
Electron Microscope - can show things at an atomic level
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): Produces 3D images of a sample's surface.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): Provides 2D cross-sections of internal
structures.
Compound Microscope - provides a detailed 2D view of tiny samples
Stereomicroscope - also known as a dissecting microscope, is used to view larger,
three-dimensional objects at relatively low magnification.
Lesson 3: Cellular Structure and Observation
Cell Theory
● All living things are made up of cells.
● Cells are the smallest units of life.
● New cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division.
Types of Cells
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
are the two primary types of cells that make up all living organisms.
The key difference between them lies in their structural complexity and organization.
Prokaryotic cells, therefore, are cells that lack a true nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells are more complex and are typically larger than prokaryotic cells.
They comprise various organisms, including animals, plants, fungi, and protists.
Parts of the cell
cell membrane - controls entry and exit of nutrients and minerals in the cell
cell wall - provides support and protection
cytoplasm - gel-like substance inside the cell
nucleus - contains the cell's genetic material (DNA
ribosomes - synthesizes proteins
centrioles - cylindrical structures
mitochondria - powerhouse of the cell
endoplasmic reticulum - synthesizes proteins and lipids
Golgi apparatus/ body - modifies, sort and packages proteins
Lysosomes - break down waste and cell debris
Chloroplasts - convert solar energy to chemical energy
Vacuole - storage, waste disposal, growth, and protection
Lesson 4: Unicellular vs. Multicellular Organisms
Unicellular organisms perform all life functions using a single cell only.
Chlamydomonas - A single-celled green alga that can move around using its two whip-
like tails, known as flagella. It uses sunlight to make its food, just like plants.
Euglena - A unique single-celled organism that acts like both a plant and an animal. It
has a long tail for movement and can make its own food using sunlight, but can also
eat other tiny organisms.
Paramecium - Shaped like a slipper and is covered in tiny hair-like structures called
cilia, which help it move and eat by sweeping food into its mouth.
Bacterium - Incredibly small, single-celled organisms that come in different shapes
and are found almost everywhere.
Amoeba - A blob-like organism that moves by changing its shape, extending parts of
its body called pseudopods. It engulfs its food by wrapping itself around it.
Yeast - A type of fungus and a single-celled organism used in baking and brewing. It
feeds on sugars, producing carbon dioxide and alcohol as it grows.
Multicellular Organisms - Consist of many cells that work together. Each cell type in a
multicellular organism specializes in certain functions.
Fungi, plants, animals and humans
Differentiation - Unspecialized cells, like stem cells, develop into specialized cells with
specific functions
Lesson 5: Plant vs. Animal Cells
Cell Membrane - Acts as a selective barrier, regulating the movement of substances in and out
of the cell
Cytoplasm - Jelly-like substance filling the cell, where many cellular activities occur. It provides
a medium for organelles to operate and interact within plant and animal cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Ribosomes
● ER provides a surface for chemical reactions
○ rough ER, studded with ribosomes for protein synthesis,
○ smooth ER, involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification
● Ribosomes, whether attached to the ER or floating freely, are the sites where proteins
are assembled
● Golgi Apparatus - Contains flattened sacs (cisternae), where proteins and lipids are
further modified, sorted, and packaged
● Nucleus - The control center. Holds genetic information and coordinates cell activities:
○ growth
○ metabolism
○ reproduction
● Mitochondria - Powerhouses of the cell
○ Convert nutrients into energy that the cell can use through cellular respiration
○ Unique because they have their own DNA and can reproduce independently
within the cell
● Vacuoles - Storage bubbles found in cells
○ One large central vacuole holds water and helps maintain the cell's shape and
support in plant cells
○ Animal cells have smaller vacuoles that can store nutrients or waste product
● Unique organelles in plant cells:
● cell walls: provide structure and protection
● chloroplasts: involved in photosynthesis, making food for the plant
● Unique organelles in animal cells:
● lysosomes: act as the cell’s waste disposal and recycling center
● centrioles: involved in cell division
● cilia and flagella: used for movement; cilia in the respiratory and reproductive tracts;
flagella in sperm cells.
Lesson 6: Basics of Cellular Reproduction and Understanding Cell Division
Cellular Respiration
● Allows organisms to grow and develop from a single cell into a complex being
● Is vital in repairing damaged tissues.
● Useful in developing treatments for diseases
● Cellular reproduction is essential for living organisms' growth, development,
and repair.
● A cell's life cycle includes different stages, with interphase being the phase
where the cell grows and prepares for division.
● During the G1 phase, the cell grows and duplicates its contents, except the
chromosomes.
● The S phase involves the replication of the cell's DNA, ensuring each new cell
receives a complete genetic copy.
● In the G2 phase, the cell prepares for division, checking for errors and gathering
necessary resources.
● cell cycle the complete sequence of stages in the life of a cell, from one
division to the next.
● interphase the phase where a cell grows, carries out its normal functions, and
prepares for division
● G1 phase the stage in which the cell performs its standard functions and
prepares for DNA replication
● S phase the stage of the cell cycle dedicated to DNA replication
● G2 phase the stage of the cell cycle following DNA synthesis, where the cell
prepares for mitosis
● Mitosis the division of a cell's nucleus and its contents
● Cytokinesis the division of the cytoplasm and the formation of two new cells
● DNA replication the replication of a cell's DNA
● Checkpoint the point in the cell cycle at which the cell checks for DNA damage
and readiness to proceed
● Chromosome thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins that are visible
during cell division
● Meiosis a process of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half,
creating four haploid cells
● cell division the process of one cell dividing into two new cells
● Mutation a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene
● Cancer a disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells
● stem cell an undifferentiated cell capable of giving rise to various other cell
types or tissues
Phases of Cell Cycle
1. Interphase
a. G1=Cell starts a period of growth
b. S = Chromosomes are duplicated through DNA replication
c. G2 = Period of further growth and final preparations for division
2. Mitosis
3. Cytokinesis
TWO TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
Mitosis (Produces 2 identical diploid cells)
1. Interphase – The cell prepares for division by growing, replicating its DNA, and
synthesizing proteins.
2. Prophase – Chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane breaks down, and
spindle fibers begin to form.
3. Metaphase – Chromosomes align in the middle of the cell (metaphase plate).
4. Anaphase – Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.
5. Telophase – The nuclear membrane reforms, and the chromosomes start to
decondense.
6. Cytokinesis – The cytoplasm splits, resulting in two identical daughter cells.
Meiosis I (First division, separates homologous chromosomes
1. Interphase – The cell grows and replicates DNA in preparation for division.
2. Prophase I – Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material
through crossing over. The nuclear membrane disappears, and spindle fibers
form.
3. Metaphase I – Homologous pairs align at the center of the cell.
4. Anaphase I – Homologous chromosomes (not sister chromatids) separate and
move to opposite poles.
5. Telophase I – A new nuclear membrane may form, and the cell prepares for a
second division.
6. Cytokinesis I – The cytoplasm splits, forming two haploid cells.
Meiosis II (Second division, separates sister chromatids)
1. Prophase II – Chromosomes condense again, and spindle fibers reform.
2. Metaphase II – Chromosomes align at the center, similar to mitosis.
3. Anaphase II – Sister chromatids are finally separated and pulled to opposite
poles.
4. Telophase II – The nuclear membrane reforms, and chromosomes loosen.
5. Cytokinesis II – The cytoplasm divides, resulting in four genetically unique
haploid cells.
