Chapter 5.
Toxins in the Environment
By Randhir Deo
“In nature, nothing exists alone.” —Rachel Carson, Silent Spring
Learning Objectives
Define different types and sources of toxins.
Discuss the movement, distribution, and fate of toxins in the
environment.
Explain the principle of toxicology.
Discuss ways to minimize toxicity.
Discuss how to evaluate risk assessment and establish health policy.
Questions Students May Have
1. Are all the chemicals toxic at high concentrations?
2. How are organisms able to protect themselves against low
concentrations of chemicals?
Introduction
This chapter focuses on toxins in the environment, including their origins; their
movement within the environment; their effects on various organisms, especially
humans; and the various methods aimed at remediating their effects on organisms.
Toxins in the Environment
Toxins are poisonous substances that are harmful to organisms. They react with the
cellular components of organisms, thereby disrupting their metabolic functions.
These substances are dependent on concentration. At low, toxic-specific
concentrations, toxins are considered harmless; however, once the concentration
exceeds safe levels, they can be harmful, injurious, or even deadly.
The safe concentration level of any given toxin depends on a number of factors,
including, but not limited to, the exposure route and an individual’s weight, age, and
overall health. For example, a certain amount of a particular chemical may be safe
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for an adult, but can be injurious or even deadly for an infant. Consider medication
labels that require particular quantities and regimens for adults, but have quite
different specifications for infants and children.
Types and Sources of Toxins
Allergens
Allergens are chemicals or substances that are foreign to the human body. When
these chemicals enter the body, the body’s immune system activates. The immune
system is the body’s defense against foreign chemicals. Its activation instigates the
production of antibodies, which are proteins specifically designed to counteract and
eliminate foreign chemicals. The presence of foreign chemicals in the body and the
activation of the body’s immune response results in allergic reactions and symptoms,
some of which include headache, rash, swelling, and fatigue.
Formaldehyde is an example of an allergen that is widely used in household
products, such as furniture, carpeting, and particle board. In a poorly ventilated
house, the level of formaldehyde in the air can reach thousands of times higher than
outdoor air levels. Other allergens include mold spores, carbon monoxide, and
nitrogen oxides.
There are a number of chemicals that suppress the body’s immune system and limit
the body’s ability to defend itself against infections that can cause serious illness or
death. While little is known about the nature of chemicals that suppress the immune
system, high levels of pesticide residues, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
have been found to cause immune system issues (Cunningham & Cunningham,
2012).
Endocrine Disrupters
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the uptake of hormones by human
cells for synthesizing beneficial proteins. The purpose of a hormone is to regulate the
development and proper functioning of tissues and organs throughout the body.
Examples of hormones include testosterone, estrogen, thyroxine, insulin, adrenaline,
and endorphins. Figure 5.1 illustrates the mechanism (an established process) by
which chemicals disrupt the endocrine system. The endocrine-disrupting chemical
binds to the intracellular hormone receptors, blocking the uptake of normal
hormones. This results in the disruption of the gene expression responsible for the
production of useful proteins needed by tissues and organs for proper functioning
and development. Examples of endocrine-disrupting chemicals include dioxins, PCBs,
and bisphenol A (BPA).
Figure 5.1
Steroid Hormone Action
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Note. The mechanism of chemicals disrupting the endocrine system. Source: Fig. 8.10
in Cunningham and Cunningham (2012).
Recent concern focused on the use of BPA in food storage containers and
preparation materials.
Some baby bottles, water bottles, and other clear plastic containers are made of
polycarbonate plastic, a polymer made with the chemical bisphenol A (BPA). BPA is a
hormone-disrupting chemical that in animal studies has been associated with
reproductive abnormalities such as lower sperm counts, hormonal changes, enlarged
prostate glands, abnormalities in the number of chromosomes in eggs, and pre-
cancerous changes in the breast and prostate. It also has been associated with
obesity and insulin resistance—a condition that commonly precedes the
development of diabetes. (National Resources Defense Council, 2008, p. 1)
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This research has led to the labeling of many plastic containers used in the food
consumption chain as “BPA-free.”
Neurotoxins
The nervous system shuttles signals using neurotransmitters between cells to
establish communication, which is essential for regulating the body’s activities.
Neurotoxins are a class of chemicals that disrupt this communication by interfering
with the synthesis of neurotransmitters or their transport by blocking
neurotransmitter receptor sites or inhibiting the degradation (breakdown) of
neurotransmitters.
The effect of the neurotoxin depends on its chemical characteristics. For example,
heavy metals such as mercury and lead kill nerve cells, resulting in permanent
damage to the neurological system. Organic phosphorus insecticides (e.g., malathion,
parathion, and carbamates) bind to acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that regulates
signal transmission between nerve cells, tissues, and organs. Such binding inhibits
degradation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and will cause an increase of
acetylcholine activity. Acetylcholine buildup causes overstimulation of muscles,
glands, and organs, which can lead to convulsions and death. Other neurotoxins
include chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT, dieldrin, and aldrin) and anesthetics
(e.g., ether, chloroform, and halothane).
Mutagens
Mutagens are chemicals and radiations that damage or alter the genetic material
(DNA) in cells. These alterations can have serious effects on organisms, depending on
when the change occurred and where the change was made on the DNA. For
example, changes to DNA may activate the growth of tumor cells or cause birth
defects.
Teratogens
Teratogens are chemicals that have a particularly adverse effect on embryonic
growth and development. Examples of such chemicals include alcohol, metals, and
smoking residues. Teratogens’ adverse effects can also include behavioral problems,
developmental delays, and mental defects throughout the individual’s lifespan.
Carcinogens
Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer, a condition involving the
uncontrolled growth of cells. Examples of carcinogens include asbestos, certain
dioxins, and tobacco smoke. In the United States, cancer is the second most common
cause of death (after heart disease), where it is estimated that about half the
population of males and about a third of females will have some form of cancer
before they die (American Cancer Society, 2014).
The severity of this condition stems from the fast spread of cancer cells to other
parts of the body, where it can invade other tissues. The various names associated
with cancer (e.g., colon cancer, pancreatic cancer) imply the organ or type of cell
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where the uncontrolled growth initiated. Other categories of cancer types include
carcinomas (cancers of the skin or tissues of internal organs), sarcomas (cancers of
the bones and cartilage), leukemia (cancer of the bone marrow), lymphomas and
myelomas (cancers of the immune system), and central nervous system cancers.
Questions Students May Have
Are all chemicals toxic at high concentrations?
All chemicals are potentially toxic if their concentration is higher than the safe
concentration levels. Other factors that may affect toxicity include the chemical’s
bioavailability and exposure route and the exposed organism’s weight, age, and
overall health.
Movement, Distribution, and Fate of Toxins in
the Environment
While there are multiple types and sources of toxins in the environment, their toxicity
(tendency of toxins to harm organisms) is dependent on a number of factors,
including the toxin’s solubility, its mobility through various environmental matrices,
its persistence and availability for uptake by organisms, and its uptake or entry route.
Exposure Routes and Susceptibility
The various types of toxins that can be generated from different environmental
sources create multiple routes of exposure or entry into the human body. These
routes include inhalation, ingestion (consuming a substance), and direct contact.
Exposure to toxic chemicals through the air occurs mostly through inhalation and
skin contact and is the most harmful of all exposure routes. This is because the
quantity of toxins taken in from the air is far higher than the quantity of toxins taken
in through water, food, and medicinal products. The risk of exposure through the air
is even higher in industrialized settings where workers and local residents are likely
to be exposed to airborne toxins at levels much higher than in nonindustrial areas.
Toxins found in water, soil, and synthetic products enter the body mainly through
direct or indirect (i.e., accidental) ingestion, although entry through skin contact is
also a possibility. The major means of entry for toxins found in food is through
ingestion.
The effect of exposure is dependent on a number of factors, some of which include
the affected organism’s body weight, age, and immune system strength. For
example, an unhealthy person is more susceptible to feel the effects of toxic
chemical exposure than a healthy person. Similarly, an infant is more vulnerable than
an adult.
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Solubility and Mobility
The movement and distribution of toxic chemicals is largely dependent on the nature
of the chemical and its solubility (how well the chemical dissolves) in the transport
medium. Toxic chemicals that are hydrophilic (i.e., water soluble) move rapidly and
widely through a water environment from their source. These chemicals are quickly
absorbed by the cells inside an organism.
Hydrophobic (i.e., fat soluble) toxic chemicals are not water-soluble and thus rely on
hydrophobic substances for distribution. Once inside an organism, fat-soluble
membranes outside the cells allow absorption of hydrophobic toxic chemicals into
the cells and tissues, where they may accumulate to dangerous levels.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation refers to a cell’s ability to selectively absorb and store substances
from its surroundings. Along with accumulating nutrients and essential minerals, a
cell can also absorb and accumulate toxic chemicals, especially those that have a
similar structure to beneficial nutrients and minerals. These toxic chemicals may
remain stored in a cell for long periods of time, causing prolonged exposure and
accumulation.
Biomagnification refers to increased levels of toxic chemicals in organisms up the
food chain as a result of consuming bioaccumulated toxic chemicals in their prey. For
example, predator organisms may build up unsafe levels of toxic chemicals by
ingesting large amounts of prey that accumulated toxic chemicals, resulting in
adverse health effects for the predator.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the biogeochemical cycle of mercury and the biomagnifications
of methyl mercury. Mercury is released into the environment as Hg2+ from a number
of sources, including mining, bleach production, pesticides, medical waste, and
volcanic activity. The Hg2+ is then converted to methyl mercury by methylating
bacteria. Methyl mercury is lipid (i.e., fat-soluble) and easily bioaccumulated, which
causes hundreds of thousands of times of biomagnification as it travels up the food
chain.
Figure 5.2
The Biogeochemical Cycle for Mercury
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Note. Source: Adapted from
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Persistence
One of the factors worth considering when assessing or evaluating the movement,
distribution, and fate of toxic chemicals in the environment is the chemical’s stability,
or persistence. It is unlikely that a chemical will be mobile in the environment, be
accumulated, and cause toxicity to organisms unless it is stable in its toxic form.
Examples of persistent toxic substances include metals, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
plastics, halogenated hydrocarbons, and asbestos. Organic compounds that are
generally persistent in the environment are referred to as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs). These compounds have a relatively high half-life (t1/2) expectancy
and are halogenated (a chemical reaction with certain elements called halogens). An
example of POPs is polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These compounds are
widely used as flame retardants in textiles, as foam in upholstery, and as plastics in
appliances and computers.
Normally referred to in reference to radioactivity, half-life is defined as "… the time
required for half the amount of a substance (as a drug, radioactive tracer, or
pesticide) in or introduced into a living system or ecosystem to be eliminated or
disintegrated by natural processes" (“Half-life,” n.d., para. 3). For example, if a
substance has a half-life of one month in the human body, the original amount will
be reduced by 50% after one month, and after another month, that reduced amount
is reduced by 50%, and so on until the substance is effectively eliminated.
Principles of Toxicology
Toxicity classification is gauged by considering established permissible exposure
limits (PELs), the chemical’s concentration, the target organism, and the route of
exposure. The analysis of these parameters against comparison data determines if
the measured levels are toxic. A chemical is classified as toxic only if the reported
level is higher when compared to the safe levels.
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How Is Toxicity Measured?
Toxicity is commonly measured by exposing a test organism to different
concentrations of the toxic chemical under controlled conditions and monitoring the
subsequent reactions. The controlled conditions may include the chemical’s exposure
route and the medium of delivery. Based on the results, a safe level is determined.
Exposures above the safety level are considered harmful to the test organism and
therefore toxic.
Although this method of measuring toxicity is widely acceptable and reliable, using
the data to establish environmental policies presents both technical and political
challenges. For example, consider that the measured safe level of a chemical is
determined for a particular test organism that belongs to a specific population. An
ecosystem is comprised of organisms from different population groups and trophic
levels so the safe level may be safe for one population group, but harmful to others.
The most conservative approach would be to comply with the most stringent
guidelines to prevent harm to all flora and fauna within the environment, protecting
all populations of the ecosystem rather than just the human-specific target
population.
Acute vs. Chronic Toxicity
Acute toxicity is when the toxic effect of single or multiple exposures to a chemical
result in sudden adverse effects, usually within 14 days of administration.
Establishing the health risks from acute toxicity is usually simpler and easier
compared to chronic toxicity.
Chronic toxicity occurs over a longer period and the adverse effects are less obvious.
Establishing the health risks of chronic toxicity can be challenging because factors
such as aging, exposure to other toxins, and infectious diseases make it difficult to
accurately attribute the health risks associated with long-term exposure to a specific
toxin.
Effect of Concentration on Toxicity
It is important to note that the occurrence of chemicals within an organism does not
automatically suggest acute or chronic toxicity. With the incorporation of new
technology in analytical instruments, scientists and researchers are able to detect
chemicals at extremely low levels. The toxicity of chemicals, however, is dependent
on the chemical makeup, the concentration, the bioavailability of chemicals in its
matrix, and the receptor organism under exposure. Some organisms are more
susceptible to lower levels than others.
Mechanisms for Minimizing Toxic Effects
Chemicals are considered harmful or toxic toward organisms when their levels are
high compared to established PELs. However, when the chemical is present at lower
levels, the organism is better equipped to protect itself using metabolic degradation
and excretion and cell repair.
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Metabolic Degradation and Excretion
Most organisms are able to degrade and excrete lower levels of accumulated toxic
chemicals with the help of enzymes. In humans and other mammals these enzymes
are present in the liver, which metabolizes toxic chemicals into water-soluble
products for excretion via urination. Other avenues of excreting metabolized waste
products include exhalation (e.g., carbon dioxide) and perspiration (e.g., excess salts).
Repair Mechanisms
Although the human body has an efficient system of eliminating toxic chemicals,
prolonged exposure and elevated levels of toxic chemicals can cause harm to various
organs involved in the efficient removal of toxic chemicals. These organs are
equipped with mechanisms for repairing damaged cells; however, the frequent
damage and repair of cells may adversely affect cell cycle controls, which can lead to
uncontrolled mitosis (cell division) and the formation of tumors. As such, it is
essential to limit toxic chemical exposure whenever possible.
Questions Students May Have
How are organisms able to protect themselves against low concentrations of
chemicals?
Organisms are able to protect themselves against low chemical concentrations
by degrading and excreting chemicals with the help of enzymes and self-
repairing damaged cells.
Risk Assessment and Acceptance
Determining the potential for adverse effects from chemical exposure involves
conducting a risk assessment to evaluate factors such as the exposed chemical's
identity and dosage, the route and length of exposure, and the chemical’s stability
and persistence in the environment. Although direct exposure to humans would
theoretically be the most efficient method to quantify any adverse effects on
humans, such an approach would not always be practical. Thus, certain animals, such
as rabbits, dogs, and mice, that have reactions similar to those of humans are often
used to estimate the risk. From there, research can determine which reactions may
be extrapolated to humans.
Assessment of risk from exposure to certain chemicals does not necessarily
predicate the acceptance or remediation of exposure-related risk. The media,
politicians, lobbyists, government officials, and other private interests often play a
role in how specific risk assessment results are presented, which influences the
public’s opinion on the need, urgency, and funding for remediation. Further, various
affected parties may resort to the use of misinformation and disinformation to
further their particular agendas.
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Establishment of Health Policy
After characterizing and assessing the risk from exposure to hazardous chemicals,
the identified risk factors undergo a management phase to establish regulations and
health policies while considering socioeconomic, technical, and political challenges
and repercussions (see Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3
Risk Assessment and Risk Management
Note. Source: fig. 8.18 in Cunningham & Cunningham (2012)
Selecting appropriate target at-risk organisms presents technical challenges in the
risk-assessment process. Organisms in an ecosystem will vary according to tolerance
of chemical exposure. The assessment process criteria might consider whether safe
levels of exposure are established based on the exposure effects of the most
sensitive or least sensitive organisms, if plants that comprise the ecosystem should
be considered target organisms, or if only humans should be considered the target
organism. Taking these and other difficult questions into consideration, policymakers
must make regulatory decisions that, when implemented, will apply to all
stakeholders, including individuals; businesses; federal, state, and local governments;
nonprofit organizations; and others. Two examples of widely known environmental
toxin regulations are the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act.
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Clean Air Act
In 1963, the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Clean Air Act
regulated air emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. In particular, this
law authorizes the EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
and regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants, thereby protecting the public
health and public welfare. The major amendments to the law came in 1970, 1977,
and 1990 “primarily to set new goals (dates) for achieving attainment of NAAQS since
many areas of the country had failed to meet the deadlines” (United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), n.d.a, para. 2).
Clean Water Act
The Clean Water Act was initially established as the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act in 1948 to regulate “discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States
and regulating quality standards for surface waters” (USEPA, n.d.b., para. 1). In 1972,
reorganization and expansion of the act prompted its name change to “Clean Water
Act.” Other major amendments were enacted in 1977 and 1987. Major
accomplishments of the law include setting industrial wastewater standards and
water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters (USEPA, n.d.b).
Review Learning Outcomes
Toxins are poisonous substances that are harmful to organisms.
The different types of toxins are allergens, endocrine disruptors,
neurotoxins, mutagens, teratogens, and carcinogens.
Toxins can be water-soluble or fat-soluble. Water-soluble toxins are
readily mobile.
Toxin exposure routes include air, water, food, soil, and synthetic
products.
Bioaccumulation is the organism’s ability to absorb and store substances
from its surroundings.
Biomagnification refers to the concentration of a toxic chemical in the
food chain.
Persistent chemicals are very stable and are available for
bioaccumulation over long periods of time.
Toxicity is measured under controlled conditions.
Acute tox
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