SPORTY’S ®

WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ® SERIES

Ground Lesson Guide

for the
Instrument Rating
Training Course Outline

Sporty’s Academy, Inc.

Clermont County/Sporty’s Airport
Batavia, OH 45103

© 2004, 2021, by Sporty’s Academy, Inc.

All Rights Reserved
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN 978-0-9830729-7-3

For additional copies, reorder #M949A

Call: 1 (USA) 800.SPORTYS
(776.7897)

Fax: 1 (USA) 800.359.7794

1 (USA) 513.735.9200
sportys.com

09/21
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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................viii
References............................................................................................................................................ ix
LESSON 1 – FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS........................................................................................... 1
Note to Instructors......................................................................................................................................... 1
Altimeter......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Types of Altitude............................................................................................................................................. 3
Vertical Speed Indicator................................................................................................................................ 3
Airspeed Indicator.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Types of Airspeed........................................................................................................................................... 4
Pitot-Static Instrument Errors....................................................................................................................... 5
Attitude Indicator – AI .................................................................................................................................. 6
Gyro Driven Heading Indicator – HI ........................................................................................................... 7
Turn Coordinator / Turn & Bank Indicator................................................................................................... 7
Slip & Skid Indicator...................................................................................................................................... 9
Gyroscopic Instrument Errors....................................................................................................................... 9
Glass Panel Flight Instrument Displays........................................................................................................ 9
LESSON 2 – BAI................................................................................................................................ 12
Instrument Scan............................................................................................................................................ 12
Instrument Interpretation............................................................................................................................. 14
Aircraft Control............................................................................................................................................ 14
Control Instruments..................................................................................................................................... 15
Performance Instruments ............................................................................................................................ 15
Primary Instruments.................................................................................................................................... 15
Supporting Instruments................................................................................................................................ 16
Direct Indicating Instruments...................................................................................................................... 16
Indirect Indicating Instruments.................................................................................................................... 16
Instrument Takeoff....................................................................................................................................... 16
LESSON 6 – MAGNETIC COMPASS ........................................................................................... 17
Magnetic Compass Construction................................................................................................................. 17
Principles of Magnetic Attraction................................................................................................................ 17
Magnetic Dip................................................................................................................................................ 17
Magnetic Variation...................................................................................................................................... 18
Magnetic Deviation...................................................................................................................................... 18
Northerly Turning Error.............................................................................................................................. 18
Acceleration Error....................................................................................................................................... 19
Oscillation Error.......................................................................................................................................... 19
Turns to Magnetic Compass Headings........................................................................................................ 19
Emergency Alternatives to Magnetic Compass Turns................................................................................. 20
Calibrating Turn Coordinator..................................................................................................................... 20
Timed Turns................................................................................................................................................. 20
Partial Panel Instrument Flight................................................................................................................... 21
Unusual Attitude Recoveries - Full Panel.................................................................................................... 21
Unusual Attitude Recoveries - Partial Panel............................................................................................... 23
Aeromedical Factors for IFR Flight............................................................................................................ 23
LESSON 10 – VOR FUNDAMENTALS......................................................................................... 27
VOR Principles of Operation / Transmitter / Receiver / Min Operational Network (MON)....................... 27
VOR Receiver Accuracy Check.................................................................................................................... 29
VOR Class Designations & Service Volumes.............................................................................................. 30
VOR Errors & Irregularities........................................................................................................................ 30
VOR Tuning and Identifying........................................................................................................................ 31

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VOR Orientation.......................................................................................................................................... 31
VOR Intercepting......................................................................................................................................... 31
VOR Tracking / Wind Correction Techniques............................................................................................. 31
VOR Station Passage................................................................................................................................... 31
LESSON 13 – GPS PRINCIPLES.................................................................................................... 32
GPS Principles of Operation....................................................................................................................... 32
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)................................................................................... 33
GPS Errors & Irregularities........................................................................................................................ 33
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)................................................................................................... 34
GPS Modes of Operation............................................................................................................................. 35
GPS Use Under IFR..................................................................................................................................... 35
GPS CDI Scaling (En Route, Terminal, & Approach)................................................................................ 36
GPS Waypoints............................................................................................................................................ 37
GPS Direct-To Operations........................................................................................................................... 37
GPS Flight Plan Operations........................................................................................................................ 37
GPS Nearest Functions................................................................................................................................ 38
Substitution of GPS for Other Navigation Radios Under IFR..................................................................... 38
GPS Orientation, Position, and Waypoint Passage / Sequencing............................................................... 39
GPS Course Intercepting and Tracking Procedures / Wind Correction Techniques.................................. 39
Computer Based GPS Procedures Simulator (from Appropriate GPS Manufacturer)............................... 40
Installed GPS Specific Procedures.............................................................................................................. 40
LESSON 15 – AUTOPILOT PRINCIPLES................................................................................... 41
Autopilot Principles of Operation................................................................................................................ 41
Autopilot Errors & Irregularities................................................................................................................ 42
Autopilot Disconnect Options...................................................................................................................... 42
Autopilot Limitations.................................................................................................................................... 42
Installed Autopilot Specific Procedures....................................................................................................... 42
LESSON 17 - FAR / AIM & NTSB 830........................................................................................... 43
14 CFR Part 1 – Definitions and Abbreviations.......................................................................................... 43
14 CFR Part 43 – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration............................. 43
14 CFR Part 61 – Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors.................................. 43
14 CFR Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules.............................................................................. 43
14 CFR Part 97 – Standard Instrument Approach Procedures................................................................... 43
NTSB 830 – Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and Overdue Aircraft, and
Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo, and Records.................................................................. 43
General Description of AIM........................................................................................................................ 43
AIM Chapter 1 – Air Navigation Radio Aids............................................................................................... 44
AIM Chapter 2 – Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids..................................................... 44
AIM Chapter 3 – Airspace........................................................................................................................... 44
AIM Chapter 4 – Air Traffic Control........................................................................................................... 44
AIM Chapter 5 – Air Traffic Procedures..................................................................................................... 44
AIM Chapter 6 – Emergency Procedures.................................................................................................... 44
AIM Chapter 7 – Safety of Flight................................................................................................................. 45
LESSON 20 – HOLDING & IFR CLEARANCES......................................................................... 46
Holding......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Purpose of Holding...................................................................................................................................... 46
Holding Airspace......................................................................................................................................... 46
Legs of a Holding Pattern............................................................................................................................ 46
Standard vs. Nonstandard Holding Patterns............................................................................................... 47
Maximum Holding Speeds........................................................................................................................... 47
Holding Entry Procedures........................................................................................................................... 47
Holding Wind Correction Techniques......................................................................................................... 47

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Holding Clearances..................................................................................................................................... 48
Fix Crossing Check (5 T’s).......................................................................................................................... 48
Timing.......................................................................................................................................................... 48
Use of DME while Holding.......................................................................................................................... 48
Use of GPS while Holding........................................................................................................................... 49
Intersection Holding.................................................................................................................................... 49
Communication Requirements..................................................................................................................... 49
Pilot Responsibilities.................................................................................................................................... 50
ATC Responsibilities.................................................................................................................................... 51
Elements of an IFR Clearance..................................................................................................................... 51
Practical Methods for Copying an IFR Clearance...................................................................................... 51
Data Link IFR Clearances........................................................................................................................... 52
IFR Clearance Compliance, Limits, and Void Times.................................................................................. 52
LESSON 22 – TERMINAL PROCEDURES.................................................................................. 53
Note to Instructor ........................................................................................................................................ 53
Terminal Procedures Publications.............................................................................................................. 53
Aircraft Approach Categories...................................................................................................................... 53
Inoperative Components or Visual Aids Table............................................................................................ 53
Airport Surface Hot Spots............................................................................................................................ 54
IFR Take-Off Minimums.............................................................................................................................. 54
Declared Distance Information................................................................................................................... 54
Published Departure Procedures................................................................................................................. 55
Climb Via SID Clearance............................................................................................................................ 56
ATC Communication and Compliance with Departure Instructions........................................................... 57
Situational Awareness during Departure.................................................................................................... 57
Climb & Descent Tables.............................................................................................................................. 57
IFR Alternate Minimums.............................................................................................................................. 57
Radar Instrument Approach Minimums....................................................................................................... 58
Pilot Briefing Information Section............................................................................................................... 58
Plan View..................................................................................................................................................... 58
Profile View.................................................................................................................................................. 58
Minimums Section........................................................................................................................................ 59
Airport Sketch & Airport Diagram.............................................................................................................. 59
Missed Approach Section............................................................................................................................. 59
Minimum Safe Altitude................................................................................................................................. 59
Standard vs Expanded Circling Radii.......................................................................................................... 60
Cold Temperature Restricted Airports / Altitude Corrections..................................................................... 60
Descent Planning......................................................................................................................................... 61
Standard Terminal Arrival Procedures....................................................................................................... 62
Descend Via STAR Clearance...................................................................................................................... 62
LESSON 23 – INSTRUMENT APPROACHES............................................................................. 64
Lesson Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 64
Nonprecision Instrument Approaches.......................................................................................................... 64
Approach Briefing........................................................................................................................................ 65
Missed Approach Procedures...................................................................................................................... 65
Visibility Minimums..................................................................................................................................... 66
Timed Approaches........................................................................................................................................ 67
Radar Approaches........................................................................................................................................ 67
Visual Approaches....................................................................................................................................... 68
Contact Approaches..................................................................................................................................... 68
Charted Visual Flight Procedures............................................................................................................... 69
Visual Descent Point.................................................................................................................................... 70
Circling Approaches.................................................................................................................................... 70

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Vectored Approaches................................................................................................................................... 70
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) Approaches................................................................................................... 71
Lighting Systems.......................................................................................................................................... 71
LESSON 25 – ATC SYSTEM........................................................................................................... 72
Clearance Delivery...................................................................................................................................... 72
Ground Control............................................................................................................................................ 72
Tower Control (Local Control).................................................................................................................... 72
Terminal Approach Control Facilities......................................................................................................... 72
Approach Control........................................................................................................................................ 73
Departure Control........................................................................................................................................ 73
Final Controller........................................................................................................................................... 73
Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)............................................................................................... 74
Tower En Route Control (TEC)................................................................................................................... 75
Federal Airways........................................................................................................................................... 75
Uncontrolled Airspace................................................................................................................................. 76
IFR Flight Planning and Filing Procedures................................................................................................ 77
Closing an IFR Flight Plan.......................................................................................................................... 77
LESSON 27 – PILOT / CONTROLLER RESPONSIBILITIES.................................................. 78
Lesson Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 78
Air Traffic Clearance................................................................................................................................... 78
Contact Approach........................................................................................................................................ 79
Visual Approach........................................................................................................................................... 79
Instrument Approach.................................................................................................................................... 80
Missed Approach.......................................................................................................................................... 80
Radar Vectors.............................................................................................................................................. 81
Safety Alerts................................................................................................................................................. 81
Speed Adjustments........................................................................................................................................ 81
Visual Separation......................................................................................................................................... 82
Instrument Departures................................................................................................................................. 82
Wake Turbulence Separations..................................................................................................................... 82
Compulsory Reporting Points...................................................................................................................... 83
Loss of Communications.............................................................................................................................. 83
Land and Hold Short Operations................................................................................................................. 83
Practice Instrument Approaches.................................................................................................................. 84
IFR Separation Standards............................................................................................................................ 84
See and Avoid............................................................................................................................................... 85
Traffic Advisories......................................................................................................................................... 85
VFR-On-Top................................................................................................................................................. 85
Minimum Fuel Advisory............................................................................................................................... 86
LESSON 28 – INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.................................................................... 87
Lesson Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 87
Localizer Principles of Operation................................................................................................................ 87
Glideslope Principles of Operation............................................................................................................. 88
Marker Beacons........................................................................................................................................... 88
ILS Receiving Equipment............................................................................................................................. 89
ILS Categories.............................................................................................................................................. 89
ILS Errors & Irregularities.......................................................................................................................... 90
Localizer and Glideslope Critical Areas..................................................................................................... 90
Simplified Directional Facility..................................................................................................................... 90
Localizer-Type Directional Aid................................................................................................................... 91
Precision Instrument Approaches................................................................................................................ 91
Back Course Approaches............................................................................................................................. 92
APV Instrument Approaches........................................................................................................................ 92
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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Table of Contents

LESSON 31 – AUTOPILOT APPROACHES & DME................................................................. 93

Autopilot Approach Operations & Limitations............................................................................................ 93
Nonprecision Approaches with an Autopilot............................................................................................... 93
APV Approaches with an Autopilot............................................................................................................. 94
Precision Approaches with an Autopilot..................................................................................................... 94
Back Course Approaches with an Autopilot................................................................................................ 95
Missed Approach Procedures with an Autopilot......................................................................................... 96
Holding Procedures with an Autopilot........................................................................................................ 96
DME Principles of Operation...................................................................................................................... 97
DME Errors & Irregularities....................................................................................................................... 98
DME Arc Interception.................................................................................................................................. 98
DME Arc Tracking....................................................................................................................................... 98
Use of GPS as Substitute for DME.............................................................................................................. 99
Instrument Approaches with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators (Partial Panel).................... 100
LESSON 34 – ICING....................................................................................................................... 101
Lesson Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 101
Required Conditions for Ice Formation..................................................................................................... 101
Formation of Frost..................................................................................................................................... 101
Formation of Clear Ice.............................................................................................................................. 102
Formation of Rime Ice............................................................................................................................... 102
Formation of Mixed Ice.............................................................................................................................. 102
Icing Intensities.......................................................................................................................................... 103
PIREPs Specific to Icing............................................................................................................................ 103
AIRMETs Specific to Icing......................................................................................................................... 103
SIGMETs Specific to Icing......................................................................................................................... 104
Winds / Temps Aloft Forecast.................................................................................................................... 104
Deicing and Anti-Icing Equipment............................................................................................................ 104
Icing Avoidance Strategies......................................................................................................................... 106
Inadvertent Icing Encounter Strategies..................................................................................................... 107
Flight in Known Icing Conditions.............................................................................................................. 109
LESSON 35 – THUNDERSTORMS.............................................................................................. 110
Lesson Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 110
Conditions Required for Thunderstorms.................................................................................................... 110
Thunderstorm Lifecycle.............................................................................................................................. 111
Air Mass Thunderstorms............................................................................................................................ 112
Steady State Thunderstorms ...................................................................................................................... 113
Squall Line Thunderstorms ....................................................................................................................... 113
Embedded Thunderstorms.......................................................................................................................... 113
Radar Summary Chart............................................................................................................................... 114
Frontal Thunderstorms.............................................................................................................................. 115
Hazards Associated with Thunderstorms................................................................................................... 116
Forecasts Associated with Thunderstorms................................................................................................ 116
Convective SIGMETs................................................................................................................................. 117
Thunderstorm Avoidance Strategies.......................................................................................................... 117
Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter Strategies....................................................................................... 119
LESSON 37 – FORECASTS & REPORTS.................................................................................. 120
Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)................................................................................................... 120
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)...................................................................................................... 121
METARs..................................................................................................................................................... 121
Winds / Temperatures Aloft (FB)............................................................................................................... 121
Pilot Reports.............................................................................................................................................. 122
Radar Summary Chart............................................................................................................................... 123

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Surface Analysis Chart............................................................................................................................... 123

Freezing Level Chart................................................................................................................................. 124
Upper Level Charts.................................................................................................................................... 125
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts..................................................................................................... 127
SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and Convective SIGMETs ...................................................................................... 129
Recognition of Critical Weather Situations............................................................................................... 130
Wind Shear Avoidance............................................................................................................................... 131
LESSON 40 – CHART REVIEW & EN ROUTE PROCEDURES............................................ 132
Lesson Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 132
Chart Supplements..................................................................................................................................... 132
VFR / IFR Low Altitude Planning Chart................................................................................................... 133
En Route Low Altitude IFR Chart.............................................................................................................. 133
En Route Chart Symbology........................................................................................................................ 133
Air Traffic Service (ATS) Route System..................................................................................................... 134
Intersections and Changeover Points........................................................................................................ 134
ATS Route Course Changes....................................................................................................................... 135
Flight Deck Management........................................................................................................................... 135
Position Reporting Requirements.............................................................................................................. 135
Additional Reporting Requirements........................................................................................................... 135
Loss of Communications Procedures (IMC and VMC)............................................................................. 136
LESSON 41 – IFR CROSS-COUNTRY PLANNING.................................................................. 138
Charts & Publications............................................................................................................................... 138
Weather Briefing........................................................................................................................................ 138
NOTAMs..................................................................................................................................................... 139
Determination of an Alternate................................................................................................................... 140
Preferred IFR Routes................................................................................................................................. 140
DPs / STARs............................................................................................................................................... 141
Takeoff Minimums...................................................................................................................................... 141
Cruising Altitudes...................................................................................................................................... 141
Aircraft Performance................................................................................................................................. 141
Flight Plan Filing....................................................................................................................................... 141
Flight Deck Management........................................................................................................................... 142
Aeronautical Decision Making & Judgment.............................................................................................. 142
Crew Resource Management..................................................................................................................... 143
LESSON 46 – END OF STAGE REVIEW................................................................................... 144
Instrument Pilot Knowledge Test............................................................................................................... 144
Weather Information.................................................................................................................................. 144
Cross-Country Flight Planning................................................................................................................. 144
Aircraft Systems Related to IFR Flight...................................................................................................... 144
Aircraft Flight / Navigation Equipment..................................................................................................... 144
Instrument Flight Deck Check................................................................................................................... 144
FARs Related to IFR Flight & Pilot Qualifications................................................................................... 145
APPENDIX A – ENDORSEMENT GUIDE FOR INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTORS.............. 147
Instrument Rating – Aeronautical Knowledge Test................................................................................... 147
Instrument Rating – Flight Proficiency / Practical Test............................................................................ 147
Instrument Proficiency Check.................................................................................................................... 147
Flight Review............................................................................................................................................. 147
PIC in a Complex Airplane........................................................................................................................ 147
PIC in a High Performance Airplane........................................................................................................ 147
PIC in a Pressurized Aircraft Capable of High Altitude Operations........................................................ 147

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Table of Contents

OPTIONAL LESSON 9A – NDB FUNDAMENTALS................................................................ 149

NDB Principles of Operation..................................................................................................................... 149
NDB Transmitter........................................................................................................................................ 149
ADF............................................................................................................................................................ 150
Types of NDBs & Service Volumes............................................................................................................ 150
NDB Errors and Irregularities.................................................................................................................. 150
NDB Tuning, Identifying, and Monitoring................................................................................................. 151
NDB Orientation Position and Station Passage........................................................................................ 151
Intercepting NDB Bearings........................................................................................................................ 151
Tracking NDB Bearings / Wind Correction Techniques........................................................................... 151

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Preface
What You Should Know

Preface
The Ground Lesson Guide for the Instrument Rating Training Course Outline is an aviation
knowledge source for the instrument instructor in outline form. It was developed with the instructor
in mind but is also a useful study guide for use by students.
The Ground Lesson Guide is a part of Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course. The Guide elaborates on
the ground lesson content found in the Instrument Rating TCO (M377A or part of the online course
and iPad/iPhone/Android apps). The Ground Lesson Guide gives the instructor and the student an
expanded explanation for the ground lessons in this TCO. It is intended to complement the TCO and
Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course.
Sporty’s Academy Staff
Batavia, Ohio
September, 2021

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course References

References
Many of the FAA and Sporty’s Academy references below were used in the preparation of this
manual. Most of the references listed may be purchased from Sporty’s by calling 1.800.SPORTYS
(776.7897) from the USA or by logging on to sportys.com.

FAA References:
14 CFR Part 43 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration
14 CFR Part 61 Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors
14 CFR Part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules
14 CFR Part 97 Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
14 CFR Part 141 Pilot Schools
NTSB Part 830 Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents and Incidents
FAA-H-8083-1 Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook
FAA-H-8083-3 Airplane Flying Handbook
FAA-H-8083-15 Instrument Flying Handbook
FAA-H-8083-16 Instrument Procedures Handbook
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
FAA-H-8083-30 Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook-General
FAA-H-8083-31 Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook-Airframe
FAA-H-8083-32 Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook-Powerplant
AC 00-6 Aviation Weather
AC 00-45 Aviation Weather Services
AC 00-63 Use of Cockpit Displays of Digital Weather and Aeronautical Information
AC 61-65 Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors
AC 61-67 Stall Spin Awareness Training
AC 61-136 FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for Training and Experience
AC 90-48 Pilots’ Role in Collision Avoidance
AC 90-114 Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast Operations
AC 91.21-1 Use of Portable Electronic Devices Aboard Aircraft
AC 91-92 Pilot’s Guide to a Preflight Briefing
AC 120-51 Crew Resource Management Training
AIM Aeronautical Information Manual
Chart Supplements
NOTAMs Notices to Airmen
AFM/POH - FAA-Approved Flight Manual/Pilot Operating Handbook

Sporty’s Academy References:

M377A Instrument Rating TCO
Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course (Online & Apps)
M726A Ground Lesson Guide for the Sport, Recreational, and Private Pilot Training Course Outlines

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage I

LESSON 1 – FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Note to Instructors
 The following discussion assumes that the instrument student has a private pilot level of
understanding of the pitot-static and vacuum systems
 Refer to Lesson 24 of Sporty’s Ground Lesson Guide for the Sport, Recreational, and Private
Pilot Training Course Outlines if additional review is required
Altimeter
 The altimeter measures the height of the aircraft above a
given level
 To use the altimeter effectively, the pilot must
understand its principle of operation and the effect of
atmospheric pressure and temperature on it
 The pressure altimeter is an aneroid barometer that
measures the pressure of the atmosphere at the level
where the altimeter is located, and presents an altitude
indication in feet
 The altimeter uses static pressure as its source of
operation
 The dial of a typical altimeter is graduated with numerals
arranged clockwise from 0 to 9 inclusive Figure 1-1. – Sensitive altimeter.
 A change in atmospheric pressure is transmitted
through a gear train to the three hands which sweep the calibrated dial to indicate altitude
 The triangle on the outer edge indicates altitude in tens of thousands of feet
 The intermediate hand in thousands of feet
 The long hand in hundreds of feet, subdivided into 20 foot increments
 The altimeter can be adjusted to
compensate for nonstandard pressure
conditions
 Nonstandard conditions can result in
a difference of as much as 2,000 feet
between true altitude (actual altitude
above mean sea level) and the altitude
indicated by the altimeter
 The altimeter setting (local station
barometric pressure reduced to sea
level) is set to a barometric scale
located on the face of the altimeter
shown in the Kollsman window

Figure 1-2. – Effects of nonstandard pressure on an altimeter.

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Instrument
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 Altimeter Construction
 Modern altimeters contain sealed, flexible
aneroid capsules or wafers
 When there is more than one
aneroid wafer, the altimeter is called
“sensitive”
 A stack of three or more is common
 One side of the stack is stationary while
the other side flexes causing movement of
the pointers
 The aneroid stack is inside a sealed
chamber linked to the static port located Figure 1-3. – Sensitive altimeter components.
on the outside of the aircraft and expands
and contracts with changes in atmospheric pressure
 Temperature variations raise or lower the pressure levels that the altimeter is designed to sense
 The 4,000 foot pressure level is higher on a warm day than it would be under standard
conditions
 On a cold day the pressure level is lower than standard
 If the aircraft is flying from an area of high temperature to one of low temperature, the true
altitude will be lower than the indicated altitude
 “High to Low, Look Out Below”
 The mnemonic works when flying from an area of high to low barometric pressure or
high to low humidity as well
 High, Hot, and Humid conditions cause the atmosphere to expand

Figure 1-4. – Effects of nonstandard temperature on an altimeter.

 Unlike temperature and humidity changes, pressure changes can be corrected by adjusting the
altimeter to the new pressure setting
 When flying at or above 18,000 feet, set the altimeter to 29.92 to maintain vertical separation of
aircraft
 When flying IFR, remember to check the altimeter against the known field elevation to ensure
that it is accurate to plus-or-minus 75 feet

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage I

Types of Altitude
 Absolute (AGL) - Height above ground level
 Indicated - Face of the altimeter
 True (MSL) - Actual height of an aircraft above mean sea level
 Pressure - Altitude above the standard 29.92” Hg plane
 Density - Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
Vertical Speed Indicator
 This instrument is not required for IFR or VFR flight
 The VSI is both a rate and trend instrument
 It complements the primary pitch indicators
 The vertical speed indicator – also known as the vertical
velocity or rate-of-climb indicator – is housed within a
sealed case
 The case is connected to the static pressure line
through a calibrated leak – also called a calibrated
orifice
 This is a hole of a specific diameter used to delay
the pressure change in the case
 An aneroid wafer inside the case with a direct, non- Figure 1-5. – Vertical speed indicator.
delayed, connection to the static source expands and
contracts with changing pressures and moves the indicating pointer
 It is considered a differential pressure instrument
 The differential pressure is established between the static pressure in the diaphragm and the
trapped static pressure within the sealed instrument case
 When the pressures equalize in level flight, the pointer reads zero
 When the aircraft begins a climb or descent, static pressure in the diaphragm changes,
and the pointer moves up (climb) or down (descent)
 It takes a few seconds for the differential pressure to stabilize at a constant rate
 The VSI needle should indicate zero when the aircraft is on the ground or maintaining a constant
pressure altitude in flight
 If not at zero on the ground, allow for this indicated error in flight
 VSI indications are not subject to temperature error
Airspeed Indicator
 Airspeed is measured in knots or MPH
 Knot = Nautical Mile per hour
 1 Nautical Mile = 1.15 Statute Miles
 The ASI is a differential pressure gauge that measures the difference between pitot pressure and
static pressure
 Most airspeed indicators consist of a thin, corrugated, phosphor-bronze aneroid that receives
pressure from the pitot tube
 The instrument case is sealed and connected to the static ports

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Instrument
Rating TCO – Stage I What You Should Know

 As the pitot pressure increases or the static pressure decreases, the aneroid expands and is
measured by a rocking shaft that moves the instrument’s pointer
 The dial of the ASI is calibrated in knots or miles per hour

Figure 1-6. – True airspeed indicator. Figure 1-7. – Mechanism of an airspeed indicator.
 Many ASIs have a small circular slide-rule computer on the outer ring of the instrument that
calculates true airspeed
 The slide rule takes the altitude and outside air temperature into account to roughly determine
the true airspeed from the indicated airspeed
 Airspeed Markings
 White arc – Full flap operating range
 Green arc – Normal operating range
 Yellow arc – Operations in smooth air only
 Red line – Never exceed speed
 Important V-speeds for an aircraft
 VS0 – Stall speed in landing configuration  VFE – Flaps extended speed
 VS – Stall speed in clean configuration  VA – Maneuvering speed
 VGLIDE – Best glide speed  VNO – Maximum structural cruising speed
 VX – Best angle of climb  VNE – Never exceed speed
 VY – Best rate of climb

Types of Airspeed
 There are three kinds of airspeed that the pilot should understand
 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) – the direct, uncorrected instrument reading obtained from the
airspeed indicator
 Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) – the indicated airspeed corrected for installation and instrument
errors
 The appropriate AFM/POH should contain either a chart or graph to correct IAS for these
errors and provides the correct CAS for the various flap and landing gear configurations

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage I

 True Airspeed (TAS) – the calibrated airspeed corrected for nonstandard pressure and
temperature
 The calibrated airspeed is corrected for temperature and pressure variation by using the
airspeed correction scale on the computer
 To approximate TAS, add 2 percent of the IAS to the IAS for each 1,000 feet of altitude
 TAS and CAS are the same in standard atmosphere at sea level
 There is a fourth airspeed for those flying faster aircraft – Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
 EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air
 As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be
and a correction for compression must be subtracted from CAS
Pitot-Static Instrument Errors
 If the aircraft has one static port, unusual attitudes (a slip or skid) can force disrupted air past the
static vents (and / or the pitot tube), causing the airspeed indicator to be inaccurate
 A blocked pitot tube causes airspeed indicator errors
 If the airspeed indicator starts to react in an unusual way, or the aircraft is flying in visible
moisture, activate the pitot heat
 A partially or completely blocked pitot head will give an erratic or zero reading
 A blocked static system causes altimeter, airspeed, and vertical speed indicator errors
 If the external static port is clogged, activate the aircraft’s alternate static source
 A pressure differential exists between the normal and alternate static sources, due to a
venturi effect, reducing the air pressure inside the cabin
 Because of this pressure reduction, the altimeter will usually indicate a little higher
than normal, the airspeed will register a little faster than normal, and the vertical speed
indicator will initially indicate a climb even though the aircraft is in level flight
 Check the AFM/POH for calibration figures
 If no alternate static source is available, breaking the glass face of a mechanical VSI may
provide an emergency source
 If, after the break, the VSI works at all, it will work backwards
 If the static port is blocked for some reason, the altimeter indication will freeze
 Use the alternate static source
 Most pressure altimeters are subject to mechanical, elastic, temperature, and installation errors
 They lag in rapid climbs or descents because it takes time for the pressure changes to get
from the static port to the instrument
 The pilot can compensate for these lags by anticipating target altitudes and adjusting the
climb or descent rates accordingly as the target altitude approaches
 Altimeter errors also result if the instrument is incorrectly installed or if the static ports have
not been properly placed
 In the vertical speed indicator, the lag time from the calibrated leak is a source of error
 Sudden or abrupt changes in aircraft attitude cause erroneous instrument readings as the
airflow fluctuates over the static ports
 Turbulence can cause several seconds (and sometimes longer) of unreliable needle
indications

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Attitude Indicator – AI
 The attitude indicator is a gyroscopic instrument, powered by either a vacuum or electrical
system
 An air-driven system or an electric motor spins the gyro to turn the rotor at high speed
 The gyro spins on a horizontal plane about the vertical axis
 The gyro is mounted on a double gimbal to allow movement about the longitudinal and
lateral axis
 The horizon bar is linked to the gyro by a lever
 Gyroscopic rigidity maintains the horizon bar parallel
to the natural horizon
 Before the gyro can spin in the horizontal plane, it must erect
itself
 On a vacuum-driven AI, this is accomplished through the
action of Pendulous Vanes
 Filtered air is sucked into the housing and directed against
the rotor vanes through two openings
 The air passes through four equally spaced ports in the
lower part of the rotor housing and is sucked out into the Figure 1-8. – Attitude indicator.
vacuum pump or venturi tube
 The four exhaust ports are each half-covered
by a pendulous vane, which allows discharge
of equal volumes of air through each port
when the rotor is properly erected
 Any tilting of the rotor disturbs the total balance
of the pendulous vanes, tending to close one
vane of an opposite pair while the opposite vane
opens a corresponding amount
 The increase in air volume through the opening
port exerts a precessing force on the rotor
housing to erect the gyro, and the pendulous
vanes return to a balanced condition
 On the face of the AI is a miniature aircraft, fixed to
Figure 1-9. – Attitude indicator gyro mechanism.
the case, which banks and pitches with the aircraft
 The gyro remains in a fixed position relative to the horizon, and both the aircraft and
miniature aircraft move around it
 The electric attitude indicator is much like the air driven model except that it substitutes an
electrical motor to drive the gyro rather than using air
 The motor is powered by 115 volt alternating current (AC)
 This is normally supplied by inverters that convert direct current (DC) to AC
 An inverter may be either a separate device or built into the instrument
 In some cases, AC is supplied by an engine driven alternator or generator
 Erection is brought about by either a special air powered mechanism or by an electric
magnetic system (erection torque motor)

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Gyro Driven Heading Indicator – HI

 Also known as a directional gyro – DG
 The HI’s gyro is mounted in a double gimbal in such a way that
its spin axis is horizontal
 This allows it to sense rotation about the vertical axis of the
aircraft
 Most HIs must be set to the magnetic compass
 Set the HI to the magnetic compass every fifteen minutes in
flight
 Flying at pitch and bank attitudes that exceed the HI’s
normal limits will cause some HIs to tumble – not
Figure 1-10. – Heading indicator.
common in modern HIs
 Older HIs have caging knobs to hold the gyro gimbals in the level-flight position
 If the gyro tumbles, the pilot cages the instrument to erect or “right” the gyroscope,
and then uncages the HI because a caged gyro is, in effect, turned off
 Most modern HIs have been designed to be non-tumbling or self-erecting
 Many HIs are air-driven by evacuating the case and
allowing filtered air to flow into the case and out through a
nozzle
 The exhausted air blows against buckets cut into the
periphery of the gyro’s wheel
 In the modern HI, the gyro drives a vertical dial
 The heading of the aircraft is shown against the nose
of the symbolic aircraft on the instrument’s glass –
serving as a lubber line
 On many HIs, tick marks are also inscribed on the
instrument face at the 45°, 90°, and 180° positions to
make course intercepts and reciprocal headings easier
to determine Figure 1-11. – Heading indicator mechanism.

Turn Coordinator / Turn & Bank Indicator

 Many aircraft today have a turn coordinator, a gyroscopic instrument powered either by air or
electricity
 The calibrated markings on both sides of the instrument’s face indicate a standard-rate turn
 A turn coordinator uses a symbolic aircraft rather than a needle as an indicator
 Most general aviation aircraft are calibrated for two-minute standard-rate turns
 The turn coordinator operates on precession
 Its gimbal frame is angled upward about 30° from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, thus, it
senses both roll and yaw

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Figure 1-12. – Turn coordinator gyro & gimbal. Figure 1-13. – Electric turn coordinator.

 The turn is coordinated when the ball is in the center of the inclinometer
 Often, the words “No Pitch Information” are printed on the dial of the TC
 An older version of what became the turn coordinator is the turn-and-bank indicator, also
referred to as a, turn indicator, needle-and-ball, or turn-and-slip indicator
 The turn-and-bank indicator shares many characteristics of the turn coordinator
 It is mounted so that it precesses about the yaw axis only
 Pitch and acceleration changes have negligible effects on it
 The needle shows rate of turn but does not show an indication of roll rate like the turn
coordinator does
 The ball indicates the need for directional (yaw) adjustment
 If the aircraft is slipping or skidding, the turn indicator won’t appear calibrated
 That’s why the inclinometer or slip / skid ball became an integral part of the instrument
 When the aircraft is in a standard-rate turn, the pointer deflects until it aligns with one of the
“doghouse” shaped marks on the dial
 If the instrument is marked “2 Min Turn” – some are 4 Min – it will take 2, or 4 minutes to
complete a 360° turn, when the needle is placed on the doghouse

Figure 1-14. – Two minute turn-and-bank indicator. Figure 1-15. – Turn-and-slip indicator gyro & gimbal.

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Figure 1-16. – Electric two-minute turn coordinators indicating slips and a skid.

Slip & Skid Indicator

 The slip and skid indicator – also known as an inclinometer – is often incorporated into the face
of the turn coordinator and the turn and bank indicator
 The inclinometer is comprised of a black agate or metal ball encased in a curved glass tube
 The tube is partially filled with a liquid, usually kerosene, to dampen the ball’s movement
 The concept evolved from a simple pendulum that would
swing when the forces in a turn became unbalanced
 The ball swings to the outside of the turn in a skidding turn
and to the inside of the turn in a slipping turn Figure 1-17. – Inclinometer.
Gyroscopic Instrument Errors
 The attitude indicator is free from most errors
 Due to the function of the erecting system, there may be a slight nose-up indication during a
rapid acceleration and a nose-down indication during a rapid deceleration
 After a 180° turn, there can be a small error in bank and / or pitch
 A non-slaved heading indicator will precess due to bearing friction and should be set against the
magnetic compass every 15 minutes during flight
 Other sources of precession include unbalanced gyro components and the effect of the earth’s
rotation
 The rotational forces of the earth result in a tendency for the gyro to tilt. This tendency is
counteracted by the design of the HI’s air or electrical drive system, which precesses the
gyro in the proper direction and keeps it approximately horizontal
 Idling and power changes sometimes result in varying levels of vacuum power, which alters
the gyro’s speed and the instrument’s accuracy
Glass Panel Flight Instrument Displays
 Many modern training aircraft have instrument representations displayed on electronic screens
 Variations in display and design of these systems are numerous
 A general overview of basic design elements is included here
 For students training in or planning to fly a glass panel equipped aircraft, additional, targeted
training will be required

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 Instruments may be represented on separate display units or combined into a single Primary
Flight Display (PFD)
 Early electronic flight information (instrument) systems were glass cathode ray tubes (CRTs)
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) units have replaced most CRTs and will typically be found in
GA aircraft

Figure 1-18. – Three common PFDs.

 Data for an instrument display unit may come from sensors and devices built into the unit or
from separate boxes containing the appropriate equipment
 An attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) provides information to the display unit that
would previously had been provided by traditional gyroscopic instruments
 Early, heavy AHRS systems used ring-LASAR gyros, expensive inertial sensors, and flux
valves
 Modern, light AHRS for GA use small solid-state systems integrating a variety of
technologies such as low cost inertial sensors, rate gyros, and magnetometers
 An air data computer (ADC) receives and processes pitot pressure, static pressure, and outside
air temperature to calculate and send altitude, IAS, TAS, and OAT to a display
 Multifunction Displays (MFDs) are often included in flight decks using glass panel flight
instrument displays
 May be able to provide a backup display of critical instruments and flight information in the
event of a PFD failure
 May display information such as:
 Moving maps
 Detailed waypoint information
 Approach charts
 Aircraft checklists
 Terrain awareness information
 Weather depiction
 System setup and preferences
 Other boxes may also be driving the displays for:
 Engine and system monitoring and alerting
 Navigation and communication systems and integration
 Redundancy is built into most systems to prevent a single failure taking out the entire system
 Typical systems supply power to components from multiple, independent electrical busses
 In small GA aircraft, electronic systems must provide an equivalent or higher level of
reliability when compared to instruments & systems being replaced

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 Display systems in certified aircraft require some backup system which may include:
 An emergency bus with an independent battery to supply power to certain key components
for a minimum of 30 minutes after a failure of the primary electrical system
 Backup instruments powered by an independent source
 May be analog instruments using traditional vacuum and pitot-static systems
 Location of backup instruments will vary
 Reversionary mode may allow display of critical information on multiple displays in case
one fails

Figure 1-19. – Backup airspeed & attitude indicators, altimeter, and magnetic compass.

 Glass panel flight instrument displays can have a number of advantages:

 Allows consolidation of information for display in a concise and intuitive manner
 Can provide additional useful information at a glance that otherwise might not be available
 Unnecessary information for a phase of flight may be removable from the display
 Can provide improved situational awareness
 Warns you when a particular item has failed or is giving potentially erroneous information
 Improvements and updates may be as simple as a software upgrade
 Glass panel flight instrument displays can also have a number of disadvantages:
 Large number of buttons and information may cause pilots to spend too much time with their
heads inside the flight deck
 More to learn initially and to maintain proficiency in the long run
 Transition may be difficult for non-computer savvy pilots
 Lack of standardization
 Improvements and updates may be as simple as a software upgrade making keeping up on
changes difficult, especially for renter pilots
 Potential erosion of basic pilot skills

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LESSON 2 – BAI
Instrument Scan
 Instrument Scan & Crosscheck – the first fundamental
 The pilot scans the flight instruments by moving his or her eyes from one to the other in a logical
and meaningful way depending on what information he or she is seeking
 Two methods of scan
 The Control / Performance Scan
 The Primary / Supporting Scan
 Five of the six basic flight control instruments are
treated exactly the same in both methods
 The biggest difference is that the attitude
indicator becomes the prominent control
instrument in the control / performance
method
 Control / Performance Scan utilizes the
underlying principle of PITCH + POWER =
PREDICTABLE PERFORMANCE
 The control / performance scan divides the
panel instruments into three categories
 The Control Instruments
 The Performance Instruments
 The Navigation Instruments
 See later this chapter for explanation Figure 2-1. – In the Control/Performance cross-check
method, the AI is the prominent control instrument.
 The Primary / Supporting Scan Method
 In a given situation, instruments present either primary information or supporting information
 Since all maneuvers involve some degree of motion about the lateral, longitudinal, and
vertical axes, the instruments are grouped accordingly
 Pitch instruments  Power Instruments
 Attitude Indicator  Airspeed Indicator
 Altimeter  Engine Instruments
 Airspeed Indicator  Manifold Pressure Gauge (MP)
 Vertical Speed Indicator  Tachometer / RPM
 Bank Instruments  Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) – Jet
 Attitude Indicator
 Heading Indicator
 Magnetic Compass
 Turn Coordinator
 For each maneuver or flight condition, one instrument from each group is considered primary
and the rest are considered supporting
 Discuss examples of these with your students

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 Types of Instrument Scan (sometimes known as Cross-Check)

 Common methods of instrument scan include
 Selected Radial Cross-Check (also known as Hub and Spoke)
 Inverted-V Cross-Check
 Rectangular Cross-Check
 In selected radial cross-check, the pilot’s eyes spend 80 or 90 percent of the time looking at
the attitude indicator as in the Control / Performance method
 The pilot takes a quick glance at the other flight instruments to confirm the desired
information presented by the AI
 The pilot always looks back at the AI and then on to the next instrument
 The eyes never travel directly between the other flight instruments
 In the inverted-v cross-check, the pilot moves the eyes from the AI down to the turn
instrument – turn coordinator, then back up to the AI and down to the vertical speed indicator
 This method is good on long flights to combat fatigue
 In the rectangular cross-check, the pilot moves the eyes across the top three instruments
– Airspeed, AI, and Altimeter
 He or she then drops them down to scan the bottom three instruments – Vertical Speed
Indicator, HI, and turn instrument
 The path that the pilot’s eyes travel is in a rectangular pattern
 Two problems occur with this method
 It gives equal weight to the information from each instrument regardless of its
importance to the maneuver being performed
 It takes more time for the eyes to return to an instrument critical to the successful
completion of the maneuver

Figure 2-2. – Selected radial Figure 2-3. – Inverted-V cross-check. Figure 2-4. – Rectangular
cross-check. cross-check.

 Scan Errors
 Fixation: In scanning the instruments, the pilot must not become fixated on any one
instrument – must not stare at a single instrument
 Example: Staring at the altimeter, which reads 200 feet lower than expected, and
wondering how it got there causing other errors to occur
 Omission: Leaving an important instrument out of the cross-check
 Could be caused by failure to anticipate significant instrument indications following an
attitude change
 Example: The pilot rolls-out from a 180 degree steep turn and establishes straight-
and-level only on the AI – neglecting the HI
 Emphasis: Placing too much attention on one instrument
 Example: Maintaining altitude control only with the AI – must also include the altimeter
in this cross-check

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 The pilot scans the instruments to cross-check one instrument against the other
 The pilot must not believe the information that a particular instrument conveys without a
cross-check of other flight instruments
 For example, in straight-and-level flight, the pilot holds the aircraft in a constant attitude
by reference to the attitude indicator, occasionally cross-checking the directional gyro
and the turn coordinator on a supporting basis to confirm that the aircraft is maintaining
the appropriate heading. Also, the pilot cross-checks the altimeter and the VSI, on a
supporting basis, to confirm that he or she is holding the desired altitude
 In scanning and cross-checking, the pilot spends only the necessary time on a particular
instrument to ensure that he or she understands the information it is conveying
Instrument Interpretation
 During instrument interpretation – the second fundamental – the pilot determines what the
instrument is saying
 Proper instrument interpretation allows the pilot to analyze specific flight instrument changes
and thus make the appropriate attitude / power corrections
 Concepts necessary to master
 Know the performance characteristics of the aircraft being flown
 Consider what is necessary regarding the particular maneuver being performed
 Understand the flight conditions in which the aircraft is operating
Aircraft Control
 Aircraft control – the third fundamental
 The thought processes and control responses are the same whether the pilot is flying the aircraft
in relation to outside or inside references
 In both cases, the pilot maintains an attitude, or changes it, by moving the appropriate
controls
 There are four aspects to aircraft control
 Pitch control – controlling the rotation of the aircraft about the lateral axis
 Proper use of elevators
 The pilot interprets the pitch attitude from the proper flight instruments
 The pilot then exerts control pressure to affect the desired pitch attitude with reference to
the horizon – real or artificial
 Bank control – controlling the angle made by the wing in relation to the horizon
 Proper use of aileron and rudder
 The pilot interprets the bank attitude from the appropriate instruments
 The pilot exerts the necessary pressures to move the ailerons and rudder to roll the
aircraft
 Power control – controlling the thrust of the aircraft
 The pilot interprets the proper instruments which indicate the necessity to change thrust
 Trim control – eliminating the control pressures from the elevator, rudder, or ailerons
 The pilot notices the control pressure on the various axes and eliminates it
 An improperly trimmed aircraft needs constant control pressure
 Causes tension and distracts one’s attention from the proper cross-checking of the
flight instruments
 Contributes to abrupt and erratic attitude control
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Control Instruments
 The control instruments display immediate attitude and power indications
 The tachometer, manifold pressure, and / or fuel flow setting (depending on the aircraft)
establishes power and the attitude indicator yields attitude
 Make all control inputs with reference to the control instruments
Performance Instruments
 The performance instruments support the control instruments by providing an indication of the
results of the control inputs
 They consist of
 Heading Indicator
 Altimeter
 Vertical Speed Indicator
 Airspeed Indicator
 Turn Coordinator
Primary Instruments
 An instrument is considered primary in a given situation because it is the only instrument, for
that maneuver, that portrays instantly and directly the actual flight attitude of the aircraft
 The primary instrument allows the pilot to adjust the pitch, bank, and power settings for any
desired attitude
 There are three primary instruments for any given flight condition
 One that indicates pitch attitude
 One that indicates bank attitude
 One that indicates power
 The attitude indicator cannot give the pilot fine tuned information regarding a specific pitch or
bank situation
 Thus the need for primary flight instruments
 Primary instruments change depending on the chosen flight attitude
 As an example: To transition from straight-and-level to either a straight, constant airspeed
climb or descent
 The primary pitch instrument is the AI as the climb or descent is initiated
 Primary bank is the HI
 Primary power is the tachometer or manifold pressure
 As the climb or descent is stabilized
 The primary pitch instrument switches from the AI to the airspeed indicator so as to
maintain the desired climb or descent speed
 Primary bank is the HI
 Primary power is the tachometer or manifold pressure

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Supporting Instruments
 The supporting flight instruments are those that tell the pilot the indirect information that he or
she needs for a given flight attitude – they backup the primary instrument
 In straight-and-level flight, at normal cruising speed, primary pitch is the altimeter and
supporting pitch is the vertical speed indicator and the airspeed indicator
 The altimeter shows a direct and immediate indication of pitch change
 The vertical speed and airspeed indicators give a less immediate indication of pitch
change
 These are the instruments that reaffirm the information that the primary flight instrument is
indicating to the pilot
Direct Indicating Instruments
 Attitude Indicator (AI)
 It shows the true and instantaneous reflection of aircraft pitch and bank attitude
Indirect Indicating Instruments
 Those instruments that show a reflection of aircraft pitch and bank attitude other than the attitude
indicator
Instrument Takeoff
 An instrument takeoff involves using the instruments rather than outside visual cues to maintain
runway heading and execute a safe takeoff
 Utilize a heading bug set to the takeoff heading (set after lining up on the takeoff runway)
and cross-check the turn coordinator to maintain directional control during an instrument
takeoff
 If a heading bug is not installed, set the heading indicator to the nearest 10° tick mark
once lined up on the takeoff runway prior to starting the takeoff roll; reset to the proper
heading after takeoff
 Cross-check and interpretation must be rapid, and control positive and smooth throughout the
takeoff
 During liftoff, gear and flap retraction, power reduction, and the changing control reactions
demand rapid cross-check, adjustment of control pressures, and accurate trim changes
 Note: When considering the prudence of an instrument takeoff, recall that takeoffs are optional,
landings are not

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LESSON 6 – MAGNETIC COMPASS

Magnetic Compass Construction
 Since the magnetic compass works
on the principle of magnetism, it is
independent of the aircraft’s other
systems
 The compass is comprised of two
steel magnetized needles fastened to
a float around which is mounted a
Figure 6-1. – Magnetic compass.
compass card
 The compass card has letters representing the cardinal headings. Each 30° interval is
represented by a number. Between these numbers the card is graduated in 5° increments
 The float assembly is housed in a bowl filled with acid-free white kerosene, to help dampen
the erratic swings of the compass card, lubricate the jewel bearings, and relieve some of the
card’s weight by buoying up the compass card
 A lubber line is mounted behind the glass and is used as a reference line
 The compass may be the best instrument to use to determine actual heading
 An unslaved heading indicator is prone to gyroscopic precession and must be adjusted to the
magnetic compass every 15 minutes during the flight
Principles of Magnetic Attraction
 The Earth has magnetic properties
 It is surrounded by a magnetic field
 The magnetic field is comprised of invisible lines of
flux
 Defined as invisible lines of magnetic force
passing between the poles of a magnet
 These lines of force leave the magnetic north pole
and reenter at the magnetic south pole
 Lines of magnetic flux have two important
characteristics Figure 6-2. – The Earth’s magnetic field.
 Any magnet that is free to rotate will align with them
 An electric current is induced into any conductor that cuts across them
 Most direction indicators make use of one of these
Magnetic Dip
 In the U.S., the magnetic lines of flux dip at a steeper angle toward the ground the farther north
one travels from the Equator
 They are parallel to the earth at the equator
 Dip errors are minimized when flying at lower latitudes
 At the magnetic poles the flux lines dive sharply into the earth – dip errors are at their
greatest at the poles
 This tendency to dip causes two compass errors – northerly turning error and acceleration
error
 Any time the compass is tilted, the north-seeking end of the magnet will try to swing toward
the ground to align itself with the earth’s magnetic field
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 Unless applying appropriate corrections, read the compass only when the aircraft is flying
straight-and-level and is at a constant airspeed
Magnetic Variation
 Variation error – The angular difference between True North and the direction indicated by the
magnetic compass, excluding deviation error
 The compass needle does not point to True
North but points to Magnetic North
 Magnetic north moves ever so slightly from
time to time
 Isogonic lines – equal angle – are drawn across
aeronautical charts connecting points having the
same magnetic variation
 The Agonic line – no angle – connects points
having no magnetic variation
 Aeronautical charts show the isogonic and Figure 6-3. – Isogonic lines are lines of equal variation.
agonic lines
 A rule of thumb for applying the correction for compass variation is, West is best (add) and East
is least (subtract)
Magnetic Deviation
 Deviation error is defined as the difference between the direction indicated by the magnetic
compass not installed in the aircraft compared to its reading installed in an aircraft
 Errors can be caused by
 The metal in the aircraft
 The electrical equipment operating in the
aircraft
 The direction that the aircraft is pointing also
causes a difference in the deviation error
 The deviation card gives this deviation on the Figure 6-4. – Compass correction card showing
the deviation correction for any heading.
key compass headings
 Application of compass corrections
 After the True Course (TC) is measured, and wind correction applied resulting in a True
Heading (TH), the following sequential formula can be used – TH ± V = MH ± D = CH
 If wind correction was not applied at first, then the formula would read – TC ± V = MC ± D
= CC
Northerly Turning Error
 Northerly turning error is a compass card dip error
 Not apparent on a heading of east or west
 If, on a northerly heading, the pilot turns the aircraft
toward east or west, the compass indication will lag
the turn, or show a turn in the opposite direction
 When turning toward a heading of north, begin
the rollout before the desired heading is reached
Figure 6-5. – Northerly turning error.

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 If a turn is made from south toward east or west, the compass will lead the turn
 Turning toward a heading of south, wait until the compass passes the desired heading before
beginning the rollout
 The mnemonic “N O S E” sums up these two conditions – North, Opposite / South, Exaggerate
Acceleration Error
 Acceleration error is a compass card dip error
 If the aircraft is accelerating or decelerating when on a heading of either east or west, the
compass will indicate either a turn toward north or south respectively
 “A N D S” – Accelerate, North / Decelerate, South
 There is no acceleration error on a heading of north or
south
Oscillation Error
 The compass floats freely on its pivot
 In rough air – or rough maneuvers – the compass card
will oscillate and become difficult to read Figure 6-6. – The effects of acceleration error.
 When setting the HI, average the indications of the compass swings
Turns to Magnetic Compass Headings
 Timing the turn is a good way to deal with compass error
 When making a standard-rate turn, the aircraft is turning three degrees per second
 It takes two minutes to turn 360 degrees
 To time a turn, compute the number of degrees between the present and desired heading, and
then divide by three
 When turns are made solely with the compass
 If, from a heading of east or west, the aircraft is turning to a heading of north, the compass
will begin to lag the turn and be at its largest difference on the heading of north
 The turn, as the aircraft approaches north, will lag by the number of degrees of latitude of
the locality where the turn is being made
 The compass reading to start the turn out includes the normal number of degrees to
anticipate the turn plus your number of degrees of latitude (e.g. 10° to anticipate +
40° of lag = 50°)
 Turning from north, the lag will become proportionately less as the aircraft approaches a
heading of east or west
 There is no turning error on a heading of east or west
 If, from a heading of east or west, the aircraft is turning to a heading of south, the compass
will begin to lead the turn and be at its largest difference on the heading of south
 The turn, as the aircraft approaches south, will lead by the number of degrees of latitude
of the locality where the turn is being made
 The compass reading to start the turn out includes the normal number of degrees to
anticipate the turn plus the number of degrees of latitude (e.g. 10° to anticipate + 40°
of lead = 50°)
 Turning from south, the lead will become proportionately less as the aircraft approaches a
heading of east or west
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Emergency Alternatives to Magnetic Compass Turns

 In an emergency situation, instruct your student to use all available resources to obtain a safe
outcome
 Magnetic compass turns should be covered in training but there are easier methods in most
modern airplanes of getting to the correct heading in an actual emergency that don’t require
remembering NOSE & ANDS or doing mental math in a high stress situation
 If ATC can be reached via installed or handheld radio, the controller may be able to help monitor
the track of the aircraft when in radar coverage
 If an installed GPS is operational, the current track value or compass rose on some models is
easy to use for getting the aircraft on an approximate heading to a destination
 The track is probably more valuable than a compass heading as it accounts for wind and
other factors to the destination
 If a total electrical failure has occurred, a portable GPS or tablet app with an external GPS can be
an excellent resource in an emergency
 One last option, before returning to the unpowered but reliable compass, is utilizing the internal
GPS on a phone or tablet with an appropriate navigation app
 Internal phone and tablet GPSs are less reliable but if a satellite connection is established it
can be a valuable resource
Calibrating Turn Coordinator
 Prior to performing timed turns, the turn coordinator should be calibrated to determine the
accuracy of its indications
 Establish a standard rate turn as indicated by the turn coordinator
 Check the heading on the heading indicator as the sweep-second hand of the clock passes a
cardinal point (12, 3, 6, 9) or simply start the timer if digital
 While holding the indicated rate of turn constant, note the indicated heading changes at 10
second intervals
 If the airplane turns more than or less than 30° in that interval, a respectively larger or
smaller deflection of the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is necessary to produce a
standard rate turn
 Calibrate the turn coordinator during turns in each direction, note the corrected deflections, if
any, and apply them during all timed turns
Timed Turns
 A timed turn is a turn in which the clock and the turn coordinator are used to change heading by
a specific number of degrees in a given time
 In a standard rate turn (3° per second), an airplane turns 90° in 30 seconds (2 minutes = 360°)
 In a half standard rate turn, the airplane turns 90° in 60 seconds (4 minutes = 360°)
 The same cross-check and control technique is used in making a timed turn that is used to
execute a normal turn to a heading, except the clock is substituted for the heading indicator
 The miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is primary for bank control, the altimeter is
primary for pitch control, and the ASI is primary for power control

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 Start the roll-in when the clock’s second hand passes a cardinal point or as a digital timer’s start
button is pressed
 Hold the turn at the calibrated standard rate indication (or half-standard rate for small
heading changes), and begin the roll-out when the computed number of seconds has elapsed
 If the rates of roll-in and roll-out are the same, the time taken during entry and recovery does
not need to be considered in the time computation
 Practice timed turns using the full panel and check the heading indicator for the accuracy of turns
 Use the magnetic compass at the completion of the turn to check turn accuracy under partial
panel conditions
Partial Panel Instrument Flight
 Partial panel instrument flight means flight means flight with one or more of the flight
instruments inoperative
 Typical grouping of “failures” for training may be based upon the instrument’s source of
operational power
 Vacuum powered instruments
 Electrically powered instruments
 Electrical failures may be grouped by electrical bus separations
 Pitot referenced instruments
 Static referenced instruments
 Mastery of partial panel operations with a failed attitude indicator, regardless of the power
source, can be most critical
 Recognition of any failures is essential to a successful outcome
 Some instruments have an internal flag to indicate the failure of its power source
 This flag should not be relied upon as the only indication of a failure
 Recognition of conflicting instrument indications and determining the instrument or
instruments giving erroneous information is imperative for successful partial panel flight
 Ensure that your student understands the operation of any backup or emergency systems that
may be installed in the training aircraft, including any limitations
 Alternate static source or other means of providing static pressure to the instruments
 Pitot heat
 Backup vacuum source
 Electric backup attitude indicator
 Essential electrical bus
 Utilize the appropriate indirect indicating instruments as substitutes for the attitude indicator
after a vacuum or gyro failure
 In the case of a vacuum failure, the heading indicator may also be inoperative in which case
an electric turn coordinator and compass may be the only bank instruments
 Utilize supporting instruments as necessary to replace failed primary instruments
Unusual Attitude Recoveries - Full Panel
 As noted in the Instrument Flying Handbook, any time an instrument rate of movement or
indication other than those associated with the basic instrument flight maneuvers is noted,
assume an unusual attitude and increase the speed of cross-check to confirm the attitude,
instrument error, or instrument malfunction

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 Discuss recovery from a nose high unusual attitude with the student using the figure below
 Increase power as necessary
 Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose and prevent a stall
 Correct the bank by applying coordinated aileron and rudder pressure

Figure 6-7. – Nose high unusual flight attitude.

 Discuss recovery from a nose low unusual attitude with the student using the figure below
 Reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of altitude
 Correct the bank attitude with coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to straight flight
 Raise the nose to level flight attitude by applying smooth back elevator pressure

Figure 6-8. – Nose low unusual flight attitude.

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Unusual Attitude Recoveries - Partial Panel

 Discuss the vacuum failure pictured below and how the previous unusual attitudes would
manifest differently

Figure 6-9. – Vacuum failure.

Aeromedical Factors for IFR Flight

 Spatial Disorientation is the “state of confusion due to misleading information being sent to the
brain from various sensory organs, resulting in a lack of awareness of the aircraft position in
relation to a specific reference point”
 Sensory Systems for Orientation
 Eyes are the most important sensory system for providing information to maintain safe flight
 Ears contain two systems for orientation
 Semicircular canals detect angular
acceleration of the body
 Otolith organs detect linear acceleration
and gravity
 Nerves in the skin, muscles, & joints send
signals regarding the body’s relation to
gravity
 Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation Figure 6-10. – Orientation organs of the inner ear.
 Vestibular Illusions
 The Leans - Can result when a banked attitude is entered too slowly to set the fluid in the
“roll” semicircular tubes in motion, this is followed by an abrupt correction of the attitude
which sets the fluid in motion, creating the illusion of a bank in the opposite direction
 Coriolis Illusion - Can occur when a pilot has been in a turn long enough for the fluid in
the ear canal to stabilize, a movement of the head in a different plane may set the fluid in
motion and create the illusion of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis

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 Graveyard Spiral - A pilot in a prolonged coordinated, constant rate turn, will have the
illusion of not turning; during the recovery to level flight, the pilot will experience the
sensation of turning in the opposite direction
 The disoriented pilot may return the aircraft to its original turn and allow the aircraft
to enter a descent under the illusion of a wings level descent; the pilot may pull back
on the controls in an attempt to stop the descent and tighten the spiral, increasing the
altitude loss
 Somatogravic Illusion - A rapid acceleration stimulates the otolith organs in the same
way as tilting the head backwards creating the illusion of being in a nose-up attitude,
especially in situations without good visual references
 A rapid deceleration can have the opposite effect
 Inversion Illusion - An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight can
stimulate the otolith organs enough to create the illusion of tumbling backwards, or
inversion illusion
 Elevator Illusion - An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in an updraft, can
stimulate the otolith organs to create the illusion of being in a climb
 An abrupt downward vertical acceleration has the opposite effect
 Visual Illusions
 False Horizon - A sloping cloud formation, an obscured horizon, an aurora borealis, a
dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground
lights can provide inaccurate visual information, or false horizon, for aligning the aircraft
correctly with the actual horizon
 Autokinesis - In the dark, a stationary light will appear to move about when stared at for
many seconds
 “Seat of the pants” sensations can lead to disorientation when not accompanied by correct visual
cues
 Coping with Spatial Disorientation
 Understand the causes of the illusions and remain alert for them
 Always obtain and understand preflight weather briefings
 Before flying in marginal visibility or where a visible horizon is not evident, obtain training
and maintain proficiency in airplane control by reference to instruments
 Do not continue flight into adverse weather conditions unless instrument proficient
 Ensure that when outside visual references are used, they are reliable, fixed points on the
Earth’s surface
 Avoid sudden head movement, especially during takeoffs, turns, & approaches to landing
 Be physically fit (healthy, proper rest, adequate diet, etc.) for flight into reduced visibility
 Become proficient in the use of flight instruments and rely upon them
 Optical Illusions
 Runway Width Illusion - A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion the aircraft is
at a higher altitude than it actually is causing the pilot to fly a lower approach
 A wider-than-usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of leveling out high
and landing hard, or overshooting the runway
 Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion - An upsloping runway or terrain can create an illusion
the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is causing the pilot to fly a lower approach
 Downsloping runways and downsloping approach terrain can have the opposite effect

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 Featureless Terrain Illusion (Black Hole

Approach) - An absence of features such
as an over-water approach, an approach
over darkened areas, or an approach
over snow covered terrain can create
an illusion the aircraft is higher than it
actually is causing the pilot to fly a lower
approach than is desired
 Water Refraction - Rain on the
windscreen can create an illusion of being
at a higher altitude due to the horizon
appearing lower than it is, causing the
pilot to fly a lower approach
 Haze - Atmospheric haze can create an
illusion of being at a greater distance
and height from the runway causing the
pilot to have a tendency to be low on the
approach
 Fog - Flying into fog can create an
illusion of pitching up
 Ground Lighting Illusions - Night time,
light related illusions
 Lights along a straight path can be
mistaken for runway and approach
lights
 Bright runway and approach lighting
systems may create the illusion of Figure 6-11. – Runway illusions.
less distance to the runway causing
the pilot to fly a higher approach
 Preventing Landing Errors Due To Optical Illusions
 Anticipate the possibility of visual illusions during approaches to unfamiliar airports,
particularly at night or in adverse weather conditions
 Consult airport diagrams and the chart supplement for info on runway slope, terrain, and
lighting
 Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially during all approaches, day and night
 If possible, conduct aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing
 Use VASI or PAPI systems for a visual reference, or an electronic glideslope, when available
 Utilize the VDP found on many nonprecision instrument approach procedure charts
 Recognize that the chances of being involved in an approach accident increase when some
emergency or other activity distracts from usual procedures
 Maintain optimum proficiency in landing procedures

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 Physiological and Psychological Factors

 Stress - the body’s response to pleasant or unpleasant
demands placed upon it
 Indicators of excessive stress often show as three types
of symptoms
 Emotional (over-compensation, denial, suspicion,
paranoia, agitation, restlessness, or defensiveness)
 Physical (acute fatigue)
 Behavioral (sensitivity to criticism, tendency to be
argumentative, arrogance, & hostility)
Figure 6-12. – Stress exposure time.
 The IMSAFE Checklist is one method of self-evaluation to
determine fitness for flight
 Illness
 Medication
 Stress
 Alcohol
 Fatigue
 Eating or Emotion (depending on FAA book
referenced) Figure 6-13. – Stress and task complexity.

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LESSON 10 – VOR FUNDAMENTALS

VOR Principles of Operation / Transmitter / Receiver / Min
Operational Network (MON)
 VOR is the common term for VHF Omni-directional Range
 A VOR is a ground based radio transmitter projecting straight line
courses (line-of-sight) in all directions from the station
 The distance that a radial is projected from the station depends
on the strength of the signal as well as the terrain surrounding the
station
 Being too low or too far from the station could result in either a
weak signal or none at all
 The VHF carrier signal transmits a Morse
code station identifier along with its
Figure 10-1. – VOR radials.
navigational components
 A voice identifier may also be available
 Check the Morse code or voice identifier every time a VOR is used,
if no identifier is heard, don’t use the station for navigation
 Many VORs also have a voice feature that can be used for
communications by Flight Service
 The FSS transmits on the VOR frequency, and pilots respond on
Figure 10-2. – VHF transmissions a designated communication frequency
follow a line-of-sight course.
 The VOR transmitter is housed in a ground station
 A small, low building topped with a flat white disc, upon which are located
 VOR antennas
 A fiberglass cone-shaped tower
 The station incorporates a monitoring system
 The monitor automatically turns off defective
equipment and turns on the standby transmitter
 The accuracy of the ground signal is within 1°
 It radiates 360 radials, one for each compass
degree
 All VOR radials are aligned to magnetic north
Figure 10-3. – VOR transmitter (ground station).
 The VOR ground station transmits two signals at the same
time
 One signal is constant in all directions as a reference phase
 Another signal, a variable-phase signal, rotates through 360 degrees, like the beam from a
lighthouse
 Both signals are in phase when the variable signal passes 360 degrees and they are 180
degrees out of phase when the rotating signal passes 180 degree
 The receiver calculates the difference between the two signals, and interprets the result as
a radial from the station to the aircraft

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 A VOR’s operating frequency range is between 108.0 and 117.95 MHz

 Frequencies from 108.0-111.8 MHz use 200 kHz spacing (108.2, 108.4, etc.)
 This eliminates ILS localizer frequency conflicts
 Frequencies from 112.0-117.9 MHz use 100 kHz spacing (112.1, 112.2, etc.)
 VOR receiving equipment is comprised of
 Omni-Bearing Selector (OBS)
 The OBS knob rotates a compass rose around the face of the VOR indicator
 The selected course is shown on the Course Index (see manufacturers manual for exact
operating instructions)
 TO-FROM indicator
 When the aircraft is properly positioned in relation to the VOR facility, the TO-FROM
indicator shows if the selected course would track TO or FROM the VOR
 If the VOR signal is too weak, the aircraft is directly over the VOR facility, or the
aircraft’s position is 90° to the selected course, it will indicate OFF
 It may also show an erratic behavior, when operating in this Zone of Confusion
 Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
 Sometimes called the Left-Right needle
 The CDI shows the relationship of the aircraft to the selected course
 VOR receiver
 The radio which picks of the signal and calculates the radial

Figure 10-4. – VOR indicator. Figure 10-5. – Horizontal situation indicator (HSI).

 The VOR Min Operational Network (MON) was established by the FAA in 2016 to define
criteria for retaining a minimum number of VORs which would allow an ILS or VOR approach
at suitable destinations within 100 NM of any location within the CONUS
 The plan includes the elimination of over 300 VORs by the end of Fiscal Year 2025 that
aren’t required for the MON
 Decommissioning of the eliminated VORs will occur in two phases
 Phase 1, from inception until FY2020, is anticipated to see the removal of 74 VORs
 Phase 2, from FY2020 to FY2025, will see an additional 234 VORs decommissioned
 As VORs are decommissioned, changes to the NAS and ATS routes may occur; these
changes will be covered by additional NPRMs

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Figure 10-6. – FAA VOR MON airports

VOR Receiver Accuracy Check

 The VOR receiver’s accuracy must be checked and found within limits within the preceding 30
days for IFR operations (91.171)
 A log of the check must be recorded, including date, location, bearing error, and signature of
the individual performing the check
 To check receiver accuracy, the pilot can use airborne check points, ground check points, or
VOTs as published in the Chart Supplement
 VOR test signal (VOT) – ± 4°
 VOR reference point while on the ground – ± 4°
 Dual VOR comparison check – ± 4°
 Certified airborne check points – ±6°
 The FAA VOR test facility (VOT) transmits a test signal which provides users a convenient
means to determine the operational status and accuracy of a VOR receiver while on the ground
where a VOT is located
 The airborne use of VOT is permitted; however, its use is strictly limited to those areas /
altitudes specifically authorized in the Chart Supplement
 Tune in the VOT frequency
 With the CDI centered, the OBS should read 0 degrees with a “FROM” indication
 Or the OBS should read 180 degrees with a “TO” indication
 Perform a receiver sensitivity check during the accuracy check
 With the VOR course needle centered, turn the omni-bearing selector knob (OBS) 10 degrees
to the right and 10 degrees to the left
 If the receiver is operating properly, the course needle should indicate a full-scale
displacement in both cases

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VOR Class Designations & Service Volumes

 Refer to the AIM, Section 1-1-8, for additional details
 The standard service volumes (SSVs) define the reception limits of unrestricted NAVAIDs
which are usable for random / unpublished route navigation
 Service volume restrictions are first published in NOTAMs and then in the Chart
Supplements
 Discuss the SSVs with your student using the diagrams provided

Figure 10-7. – Standard high Figure 10-8. – Standard low Figure 10-9. – Standard
altitude service volume. altitude service volume. terminal service volume.

Figure 10-10. – Service volume lower Figure 10-11. – Service volume

edge for standard high and low. lower edge for terminal.

Figure 10-12. – MON related service volumes.

VOR Errors & Irregularities

 VOR Operational Errors
 Failure to check receiver for accuracy and sensitivity
 Turning in the wrong direction during an orientation
 Failure to check TO/FROM indicator
 Misinterpretation of station passage
 Chasing the CDI with the OBS – resulting in homing rather than tracking
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VOR Tuning and Identifying

 Tuning and identifying the station is important for safe navigation using the VOR system
 Modern avionics may allow automated tuning and identification but it should be confirmed
 Review the appropriate procedures for the equipment installed in the training aircraft
VOR Orientation
 Use the figures to the right and below to discuss VOR
orientation with your student
VOR Intercepting
 Use figures below to review the following:
 Intercepting a particular course to the VOR
 Intercepting an outbound radial
VOR Tracking / Wind Correction Techniques
 Use figures below to review the following:
 Tracking inbound to the station Figure 10-13. – Eight faces of the VOR.
 Station passage
 Tracking an outbound radial

Figure 10-14. – VOR

course interception.

Figure 10-15. – Tracking a

radial in a crosswind.

VOR Station Passage

 VOR station passage is indicated by complete reversal of the TO/FROM indicator
 Fluctuations of the CDI and TO/FROM indicator will generally occur as the aircraft passes
through the cone of confusion over the VOR station

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LESSON 13 – GPS PRINCIPLES

GPS Principles of Operation
 The Global Positioning System (GPS), which relies on an array of military satellites, represents
the leading edge of navigation technology
 GPS relies on a receiver that measures the time differences between signals received from
satellite based transmitters
 It triangulates position based on this information
 GPS operates on 1575.42 Mhz and 1227.6 Mhz frequencies
 Limited to line-of-sight
 Virtually unaffected by weather
 Provides accurate three-dimensional position and altitude information if it is receiving signals
from at least four satellites
 Provides groundspeed, estimated time of arrival, and headings to emergency fields and alternate
airports along the route
 GPS components
 GPS consists of three distinct functional elements – space, control, and user
 Space elements
 More than 30 Navstar satellites
 Orbit in 6 planes – at least four in each plane – about 11,000 miles above Earth
 At least 5 satellites are in view at all times
 By knowing the precise location of each satellite, and matching timing with the
atomic clock on the satellite, the aircraft receiver / processor can accurately measure
the time each signal takes to arrive at the receiver
 Note: The original satellite constellation was 24 satellites and this still appears in
some FAA publications but appears to have been removed from the knowledge exam
 Control elements
 A network of ground based GPS monitoring and control stations ensure the accuracy of
satellite positions and their clocks
 5 monitoring stations
 Three ground antennas
 One Master control station
 User elements
 The antennas and receiver / processors provide position, velocity, and precise timing to
the user
 GPS equipment used while operating under IFR must
 Meet standards set forth in Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-129, C-145, or C-146
 Meet the airworthiness installation requirements
 Be approved for the type of IFR operation
 Be operated in accordance with the applicable AFM/POH or flight manual
supplement

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Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

 GPS receivers, approved for IFR, incorporate a feature that monitors the accuracy of the satellite
signals and alerts the pilot if the position information may be inaccurate
 The feature is called receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM)
 For the receiver to perform this function, at least one satellite, in addition to those needed
for navigation, must be in view
 Five satellites to verify, using RAIM, a three-dimensional position
 Four satellites to RAIM-verify a two-dimensional position
 If a RAIM warning is indicated, the GPS based instrument approach cannot be flown
 For receivers capable of doing so, RAIM needs 6 satellites in view (5 with baro-aiding) to isolate
the corrupt signal and remove it from the navigation solution
 Baro-aiding uses the current altimeter setting, entered into the GPS receiver, to aid RAIM
 There are two types of RAIM messages
 One indicates that there are not enough satellites available to provide RAIM
 Another type indicates that RAIM has detected a potential error and exceeds the limit for the
current phase of flight
 When using TSO C-129 approved GPS navigation equipment under IFR for domestic en route,
terminal operations, and certain IAPs, the aircraft must be equipped with an approved and
operational alternate means of navigation appropriate to the flight
 Active monitoring of alternative navigation equipment is not required if there are no RAIM
messages
 If RAIM is not available, another type of navigation and approach system must be used,
another destination selected, or the trip delayed until RAIM is predicted to be available on
arrival
GPS Errors & Irregularities
 The IFR approved GPS receiver must pass its self test and have none of the following messages
displayed
 “Do not use in flight”
 “RAIM”
 “Database out of date”
 Manufacturers display these warnings in different ways, but any such warning invalidates the
GPS receiver for instrument flight
 If the pilot uses GPS, he or she must also use “action and reaction” thinking
 When making an input, verify that the GPS accepted it and the computer displays it properly
 The GPS may not work properly
 Whenever there are less than 24 operational satellites
 In certain geographical locations
 In valleys surrounded by high terrain
 Any time the GPS antenna is shadowed by the aircraft’s structure
 Certain electronic devices can cause the GPS signal interference
 Transceivers
 Mobile radios
 Portable receivers

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 If some VHF transmissions cause harmonic interference, try

 Isolating the interference by moving nearby portable receivers
 Changing frequencies
 Turning off suspected causes
 Small position errors or temporary loss of GPS signal can be caused by
 Satellite atomic clock inaccuracies
 Receiver / processor problems
 Signals reflected from hard objects
 Ionospheric and tropospheric delays
 Satellite data transmission error
 Selective availability error
 Was a method by which the DOD (Department of Defense) could, in the interest of national
security, create a significant clock and ephemeris error in the satellites
 This error is not currently being used
 GPS derived altitude should not be relied on to determine aircraft altitude since the vertical error
can be quite large without augmentation
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
 WAAS is designed to
improve the accuracy,
integrity, and availability
of GPS signals through
the use of satellite based
augmentation (also
known as SBAS)
 WAAS allows GPS
to be used from
takeoff through
Category I like
approaches
 WAAS covers a more
extensive service area
because each station
in the network relays
the data to a wide-area
master station (WMS)
where the correction
information is computed
 The performance
improvement is
sufficient to enable
approach procedures Figure 13-1. – GPS and WAAS satellites.
with GPS/WAAS glide
paths (vertical guidance)
 A WAAS receiver has the ability to exclude a bad GPS signal and continue operating normally
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GPS Modes of Operation

 An IFR approved GPS must have the capability to readily switch between automatic and manual
waypoint sequencing modes
 The pilot must be able to select a desired course to or from a single waypoint
 Manufacturers may use different descriptions for these functions
 Normal GPS operation is in Leg or Auto Mode where automatic waypoint sequencing is enabled
 The GPS will plot course legs from one waypoint in the flight plan to the next and cycle
through the legs
 There are situations where the pilot might want to suspend auto sequencing or place the unit in
OBS mode
 For ATC radar vectors
 Procedure turns
 Holding patterns
 In OBS Mode, a specific course to or from a single waypoint can be followed by setting the
course value in the unit or an omni-bearing selector connected to the unit
 In this mode you will get To/From indications for the waypoint
 The CDI needle of a connected OBS or HSI will respond similar to a normal VOR
GPS Use Under IFR
 GPS navigation equipment used must be approved in accordance with the requirements specified
in Technical Standard Order (TSO)
 Hand-held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a
principal instrument flight reference
 During IFR operations, they may be considered only an aid to situational awareness
 Aircraft using non-WAAS GPS navigation equipment under IFR must be equipped with an
approved and operational alternate means of navigation appropriate to the flight
 Active monitoring of alternative navigation equipment is not required if the GPS receiver
uses RAIM for integrity monitoring
 Active monitoring of an alternate means of navigation is required when the RAIM capability
of the GPS equipment is lost
 IFR should not be attempted without thorough study of the operation of the particular navigator
and installation
 Prior to any GPS or GPS/WAAS IFR operation, the pilot must review appropriate NOTAMs and
aeronautical information
 Aircraft navigating by IFR−approved GPS are considered to be performance−based navigation
(PBN) aircraft and have special equipment suffixes
 Equipment and Database Requirements
 All approach procedures to be flown must be retrievable from the current airborne navigation
database

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 Database currency requirements

 En route and terminal operations require verification of data for correctness if database is
expired
 Instrument approaches require a current database or verification that the procedure has
not been amended since the expiration of the database
 Verify the validity of the database
 Determine the date of database issuance, and verify that the date/time of proposed use is
before the expiration date/time
 Determine that the waypoints and transition names coincide with names found on the
procedure chart
 Determine that the waypoints are generally logical in location – i.e. in the correct order
 GPS Approach Procedures
 All the approaches that can be used by GPS contain “GPS” in the title in one way or another
 During GPS overlay approaches, underlying ground-based NAVAIDs are not required to be
operational and associated aircraft avionics need not be installed, operational, turned on, or
monitored
 All approach procedures to be flown must be retrievable from the navigator’s current
database
 For flight planning purposes with a non-WAAS GPS navigator, the destination or the
alternate airport must have an approved instrument approach procedure, other than GPS
based, that is anticipated to be operational and available at the estimated time of arrival, and
which the aircraft is equipped to fly
 Pilots with WAAS receivers may flight plan to use any instrument approach procedure
authorized for use with their WAAS avionics as the planned approach at a required
alternate, with some restrictions
 WAAS receivers can fly LNAV/VNAV and LPV (localizer performance with vertical guidance)
procedures using a WAAS electronic glide path
 LPV procedures may have a decision height as low as 200 feet and a visibility as low as 1/2
mile
 When an approach procedure is selected and active, the receiver will notify the pilot of
the most accurate level of service supported by the combination of the WAAS signal, the
receiver, and the selected approach.
GPS CDI Scaling (En Route, Terminal, & Approach)
 The division dots on a GPS’s CDI are not spaced at two degree intervals but indicate distance off
track with the interval between dots being scalable
 Most GPS units can be scaled up or down manually depending on your preference regarding
CDI accuracy
 Most GPS units can also automatically scale down its CDI accuracy figure from en route, to
terminal, to approach segments – the sensitivity level of the CDI increases
 The reverse of this is also true – the sensitivity level of the CDI will automatically decrease
when going from terminal to en route mode
 In en route mode, full deflection is either two or five nautical miles, depending on the GPS’s
make and model
 In terminal mode, full scale deflection is one nautical mile

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 For approach mode – within the Final Approach Fix – the sensitivity becomes 0.3 miles for a
non-WAAS GPS
 WAAS navigators may scale to a tighter tolerance during the final approach segment to more
closely simulate a localizer type signal; this scaling is required for an LPV capable navigator
GPS Waypoints
 A GPS waypoint is a predetermined geographical position, used for route/instrument approach
definition and several other functions, that is defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates
 GPS navigators define a course segment by two waypoints
 A GPS course may also be defined relative to a single waypoint with a line passing through
at a specified angle
 GPS approaches make use of both fly-over and fly-by
waypoints
 Fly-by waypoints are used when an aircraft should begin
a turn to the next course prior to reaching the waypoint
separating the two route segments
 Fly-over waypoints are used when the aircraft must fly
over the point prior to starting a turn
 On overlay approaches, if no pronounceable five-character Figure 13-2. – Fly-by and
name is published for an approach waypoint or fix, it is given fly-over waypoints.
a database identifier consisting of letters and numbers
 They may not appear on the approach chart
 The runway threshold waypoint, which is normally the Missed Approach Waypoint (MAWP),
may have a five letter identifier or may be in the form RW## where ## is the runway number
 MAWPs not located at the threshold will have a five letter identifier
 The runway threshold waypoint is used as the center of the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) on
most GPS approaches that have an MSA circle
GPS Direct-To Operations
 The “Direct-To” function is often the first GPS function that many pilots learn
 The function is rather intuitive, press the Direct-To button, enter the waypoint, and activate
it; the navigator draws a course line from its present position to the waypoint
 While not the preferred method of primary operation under IFR, Direct-To can be very useful in
some situations
 Activating a waypoint in the flight plan that is not the current active waypoint
 Activating a missed approach waypoint with some navigators
 Entering and activating a waypoint not in the flight plan during a diversion due to weather,
due to an emergency, or to comply with an ATC instruction
GPS Flight Plan Operations
 The use of a GPS flight plan is the preferred method of operating a GPS in instrument flight
 Improves situational awareness
 Allows entry errors to be more easily detected
 Generally simplifies in-flight modifications including changes due to ATC instructions and
loading standard arrival routes and approaches

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 It is best to enter your flight plan on the ground before your flight
 Unless there is only one approach at the destination, it is a good idea to refrain from entering
the approach into the navigator until you know what approach you can expect or will be
flying
 GPS systems are not standardized, checkout your model’s way of entering a flight plan
 Find the flight plan page
 Enter your departure waypoint
 Enter each successive waypoint and your destination
 Check that all the waypoints are entered correctly
 Activate the flight plan
GPS Nearest Functions
 The Nearest function can be useful for finding the closest airport, VOR, NDB, intersection, user
waypoint, ARTCC frequency, FSS frequency, or airspace
 Not all functions are available on all GPS navigators
 Accessing the Nearest function will vary between navigator models
 Some navigators have a “nearest” button
 “Nearest” is a page group on some navigators and accessed via the knobs
 A key sequence combination such as MSG then ENT provides access to the functions on
some navigators
 The Nearest function is useful in a variety of normal and emergency situations
 Diversion to an alternate
 Resolving an incorrect ATC frequency
 Contacting Flight Service
 Locating NAVAIDs along the route for ease of tracking the flight progress on a chart
 Finding a suitable airport in the event of an emergency
 Some navigators allow the user to define criteria for the nearest airport through a settings
menu ensuring that only suitable airports will appear on the list (this would be done prior
to regular use of the navigator)
 Many other situations
 Activation of a destination waypoint found using the nearest function is generally completed
using the Direct-To function
Substitution of GPS for Other Navigation Radios Under IFR
 An IFR approved GPS or GPS WAAS navigator may be substituted for an ADF or DME for IFR
En Route, Terminal, and Approach operations provided that the unit has a current database or the
user has verified that the procedure has not been amended since the expiration of the database
 ADF and DME equipment need not be installed in the aircraft
 TSO-C129 approved GPS navigator’s are certified only for use as a “supplemental means of
navigation”
 These are generally IFR authorized units without WAAS
 Underlying NAVAIDs used to define the route must be operational
 Equipment, other than ADF and DME, required to navigate by the underlying NAVAIDs
must be installed and operational though active monitoring is not required

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 TSO-C146 approved GPS WAAS navigator’s are certified for use as a “stand-alone means of
navigation”
 Installation of WAAS avionics does not require the aircraft to have other equipment
appropriate to the route to be flown
 Underlying NAVAIDs used to define the route need not be operational though advising ATC
of aircraft’s capability to do this is recommended if a NAVAID is out of service
 An IFR approved GPS or WAAS navigator may used in the following ways:
 Determine aircraft position over or distance from a VOR, NDB, compass locator, DME fix,
or a named fix
 Navigate to or from a VOR, NDB, or compass locator
 Hold over a VOR, NDB, compass locator, or DME fix
 Fly an arc based upon DME
 These operations are allowable even when a facility is explicitly identified as required on a
procedure (e.g., “Note ADF required”)
 These allowances do not apply to procedures that are identified as not authorized (NA) by a
NOTAM
 These operations do not include navigation on localizer-based courses (including localizer
back-course guidance)
 Pilots may NOT substitute GPS or GPS WAAS for the NAVAID providing lateral guidance for
the final approach segment unless “or GPS” appears in the title of the approach procedure
 Use of a suitable RNAV system (such as an IFR approved GPS) as a means to navigate on
the final approach segment of an instrument approach procedure based on a VOR, TACAN
or NDB signal, is allowable if the underlying NAVAID is operational and monitored for final
segment course alignment
GPS Orientation, Position, and Waypoint Passage / Sequencing
 GPS allows you to always be visually oriented to the area and your route of flight
 The airplane symbol shows your position on the moving map
 System can display your entered flight plan or Direct-To leg on the map as a course line
 The navigator can provide headings to keep you on the desired track
 You can read the distance to the waypoint as the system counts down the miles to intercept
 The navigator will give you a visual indication to alert you to the upcoming waypoint
 You can see waypoint passage on the moving map and its passage is shown by the system
sequencing to the next scheduled waypoint
 Many units have turn anticipation; the system draws a line to indicate your path inside the
turn, making a smooth transition from one course line to the next
GPS Course Intercepting and Tracking Procedures / Wind Correction
Techniques
 Course interception and tracking with a GPS can be as simple as following a road in VFR
conditions, fly to the course line on the moving map and adjust your crab to stay on it
 This method may work but the moving map is not always in the normal scan pattern and map
scaling can affect the appearance of any deviations
 The use of a CDI is preferred and may be required under IFR depending on a number of
display related factors defined in AC 20-138

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 Course interception, tracking, and wind correction using the VOR head or an HSI, is much like
flying to a VOR station using these instruments
 Set the OBS or course needle to the course to be flown
 Determine the proper direction to turn and intercept the course
 Fly toward the course until the CDI centers
 Turn to the course heading
 If the CDI begins to deviate, turn toward the needle deviation and begin to bracket the
heading until a heading is found that will keep the CDI centered
 The unit may also show you the wind speed and direction, providing a clue as to the crab angle
required for tracking the course
 The moving map may include a trend vector which will provide a clear indication as to the
appropriateness of the crab angle established
Computer Based GPS Procedures Simulator (from Appropriate GPS
Manufacturer)
 Many GPS manufacturers provide the pilot with a computer or tablet based simulator of their
navigators
 This provides a simple and inexpensive way to familiarize yourself and your student with the
unit
 Ensure that your student obtains this software or app, if available, for self-study on the navigator
Installed GPS Specific Procedures
 Utilize the manufacturer supplied manuals to discuss the operational procedures for the installed
GPS navigator
 Discuss specific scenarios and demonstrate these with the simulation software or app, if able

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage I

LESSON 15 – AUTOPILOT PRINCIPLES

Autopilot Principles of Operation
 It is imperative to fully understand all the features of the specific autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Review and study the operating handbook
 Know its operating limitations
 An autopilot is a mechanical means to control an aircraft using electrical, hydraulic, or digital
systems
 It can help reduce the pilot’s workload
 Autopilots can be classified by the number of flight surfaces they control
 Single Axis – controls the ailerons, providing roll control
 Two Axis – controls the above and the
elevator and possibly the elevator trim,
providing pitch control
 Three Axis – controls all the above and
provides a yaw damper for the vertical axis
 The basic components of an autopilot are
 A mode controller and annunciator
 Sensors
 A computer / amplifier
 Servo actuators
 There are two basic types of systems for providing
turn information to the autopilot Figure 15-1. – Basic autopilot components.
 Rate-Based System – use a specially designed
turn coordinator to send roll and turn rate information to the autopilot
 Attitude or Position Based System – use a specially designed attitude indicator to send
attitude information to the autopilot
 Autopilot modes may include
 Roll or Wing Leveler mode  Pitch Hold mode
 Heading mode  Vertical Speed mode
 Navigation mode  Airspeed Hold mode
 Approach mode  Altitude Hold mode
 Back Course mode  Go Around mode
 Review the modes your autopilot has and the modes it will enter by default when activated
 Also review the autopilot’s behavior during transitions from one mode to another
 The pilot needs to know all of the ways to turn the autopilot off as discussed later in this lesson
 Accidents can occur if the pilot attempts to overpower the autopilot in certain situations
 This can be most hazardous when trying to change the pitch attitude as the trim servo may
start trimming the airplane in the opposite direction
 Don’t fight the autopilot; turn it off and control the aircraft manually

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Autopilot Errors & Irregularities

 The pilot must understand the operating procedures and limitations of the installed autopilot to
reduce the chance of operator induced errors and irregularities
 Appropriate power settings for the pitch mode must be entered manually by the pilot in most
general aviation piston aircraft autopilot installations
 Many autopilots can stall the aircraft if inappropriate pitch requirements are entered or
inadequate power is available
 The pilot may need to re-set the altitude periodically for the autopilot – it does not sense changes
in barometric pressure
 Some autopilots have a barometric pressure setting which should be updated whenever the
altimeter setting is updated for aid in level-offs
 It is important to know what sources the autopilot uses for its bank and pitch information
 A failure in the information source may lead to errors in the autopilot and the potential for
loss of control
 Additional potential for autopilot problems will depend on the model, installation, and servicing
Autopilot Disconnect Options
 The pilot needs to know all the features of the installed autopilot – especially how to turn it off
 Some options for disengaging or disabling the autopilot may include:
 Power switch on the autopilot unit
 Autopilot disengage button on the yoke
 Auto-off mechanism when the electric trim control is used
 Pulling the autopilot circuit breaker
 Turning off the avionics master switch
 Turning off the aircraft master switch
 Ensure that your student understands all of the ways to disengage the autopilot in your training
aircraft under normal and emergency conditions
Autopilot Limitations
 Utilize the operating handbook to discuss the limitations of the installed autopilot
 Limitations will vary but may include things such as:
 Minimum and maximum altitudes
 Minimum and maximum airspeeds
 Takeoff and landing limitations
 Specified aircraft configurations
Installed Autopilot Specific Procedures
 Utilize the manufacture supplied manuals to discuss the operational procedures for the installed
autopilot
 Discuss specific scenarios and demonstrate these, if able

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LESSON 17 - FAR / AIM & NTSB 830

14 CFR Part 1 – Definitions and Abbreviations
 14 CFR Part 1 covers important definitions and abbreviations that may be used in other parts of
the regulations
 Ensure that your student understands the key definitions applicable to an Instrument Rated Pilot
and where to find them
 Be sure to include a review of key V speed definitions
14 CFR Part 43 – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and
Alteration
 This part prescribes rules governing the maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and
alteration of any aircraft having a U.S. airworthiness certificate
 If avionics are TSO’d, the applicable TSO number is in the unit’s manual
14 CFR Part 61 – Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground
Instructors
 14 CFR Part 61 covers the rules for the certification of pilots and flight instructors when not
training under a 14 CFR Part 141 approved course of instruction
 During this lesson be sure to cover sections 1, 3, 4, 13, 35, 39, 51, 57, and 65
14 CFR Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
 14 CFR Part 91 covers the general operating and flight rules to which a pilot must adhere
 During this lesson, be sure and cover sections 103, 109, 121, 123, 135, 137, 139, 144, 167-193,
205, 207, 213, 215, and 411
14 CFR Part 97 – Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
 This part prescribes standard instrument approach procedures for instrument letdown to airports
in the United States and the weather minimums that apply to takeoffs and landings under IFR at
those airports
 Parts 97.3 and 97.5 should be covered
NTSB 830 – Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and
Overdue Aircraft, and Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo, and
Records
 This part contains rules pertaining to initial notification and later reporting of aircraft incidents
and accidents and certain other occurrences in the operation of aircraft, wherever they occur,
when they involve civil aircraft of the United States
 Make sure the student is familiar with all appropriate subparts of 49 CFR Part 830
General Description of AIM
 The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is designed to provide the aviation community
with basic flight information and ATC procedures for use in the National Airspace System
(NAS) of the United States – it standardizes procedures for all pilots

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 This manual contains the fundamentals required in order to fly in the United States NAS
 It also contains items of interest to pilots concerning health and medical facts, factors
affecting flight safety, a pilot / controller glossary of terms used in the ATC system, and
information on safety, accident, and hazard reporting
 The AIM is complemented by Notices to Airmen, the Chart Supplements, the Alaska
Supplement, and the Pacific Chart Supplement
AIM Chapter 1 – Air Navigation Radio Aids
 The FAA has the statutory authority to establish, operate, maintain air navigation facilities and to
prescribe standards for the operation of any of these aids which are used for instrument flight in
federally controlled airspace
 These aids are tabulated in the Chart Supplements
 Review chapter for details
AIM Chapter 2 – Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids
 An Approach Light System (ALS) provides the basic means to transition from instrument flight
to visual flight for landing
 An ALS is a configuration of signal lights starting at the landing threshold and extending into
the approach area
 Review this chapter for the various systems
AIM Chapter 3 – Airspace
 There are two categories of airspace or airspace areas
 Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace areas, restricted and prohibited areas)
 Nonregulatory (military operations areas [MOAs], warning areas, alert areas, and controlled
firing areas)
 It is important that pilots be familiar with the operational requirements for each of the various
types or classes of airspace
 Review the chapter for the particulars
AIM Chapter 4 – Air Traffic Control
 Chapter 4 discusses information pertaining to Air Route Traffic Control Centers, Control
Towers, and Flight Service Stations (FSS)
AIM Chapter 5 – Air Traffic Procedures
 An excellent chapter for the instrument pilot to review material for all aspects of an instrument
flight
 Review AIM 5−1−9. International Flight Plan (FAA Form 7233−4)−IFR Flights (For
Domestic or International Flights) for more information on the flight plan form which must be
used when filing a flight plan with any Flight Service Station
 There are several equipment related tables found within this section of the AIM
 Mandatory use of this form with Flight Service Stations became effective in August, 2019
AIM Chapter 6 – Emergency Procedures
 This chapter details the various assistance available to the general aviation pilot in an emergency

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AIM Chapter 7 – Safety of Flight

 This chapter includes topics like weather briefing materials, en route advisories, bird strikes, and
mountain flying

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Instrument
Rating TCO – Stage II What You Should Know

LESSON 20 – HOLDING & IFR CLEARANCES

Holding
 Holding is a predetermined maneuver which keeps aircraft within
a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance from air
traffic control
 Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes are depicted
(charted) on U.S. Government or commercially produced
(meeting FAA requirements) Low or High Altitude En Route,
Area, and STAR Charts
 Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern depicted unless
specifically advised otherwise by ATC
Purpose of Holding
 Holding patterns are used to:
 Control separation between IFR aircraft
 Absorb delays for whatever reason
 Control the flow of traffic
Holding Airspace Figure 20-1. – Holding patterns.
 Holding airspace is designed to provide appropriate protection to aircraft in a holding pattern as
long as the aircraft does not exceed the maximum holding airspeed for the altitude
 Protected airspace is calculated for a wind speed up to 50 knots at 4,000’ MSL and increasing
at a rate of 3 knots for each additional 2,000’ of altitude to a maximum of 120 knots
 The FAA uses a number of standard templates for determining the protected airspace for a
holding pattern

Figure 20-2. – Typical holding pattern template.

Legs of a Holding Pattern

 Review the terminology noted in the figure below with the student

Figure 20-3. – Holding pattern with descriptive terms.

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Standard vs. Nonstandard Holding Patterns

 Standard Pattern – Right turns
 Nonstandard Pattern – Left turns
Maximum Holding Speeds
 Maximum holding speeds are as indicated in Figure 20-4
ALTITUDE (MSL) AIRSPEED (KIAS)
MHA-6,000’ 200
6,000’-14,000’ 230
14,000’ and above 265
Figure 20-4. – Holding speeds.

Holding Entry Procedures

 The following entries, as shown in Figure 20-5, are recommended by the FAA but not required
 Parallel Procedure – When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel
entry procedure would be
 Turn to a heading to parallel the holding course
outbound on the nonholding side for one minute
 Turn in the direction of the holding pattern through
more than 180 degrees
 Return to the holding fix or intercept the holding
course inbound
 Teardrop Procedure – When approaching the holding
fix from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop entry
procedure would be
Figure 20-5. – Holding pattern entry procedures.
 Fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30
degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute
 Turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course
 Direct Entry Procedure – When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the
direct entry procedure would be
 Fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern
Holding Wind Correction Techniques
 A typical timed holding pattern at or below 14,000 feet, with no wind, has legs and turns of one
minute each creating a four minute pattern
 Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs.
 Consider wind corrections for both proper timing of the pattern and for tracking.
 Try to have a 1 minute inbound leg at or below 14,000 ft. or 1½ minutes above 14,000 ft.
 On your initial circuit, time outbound for one minute and then time inbound to the fix
 If the inbound leg is shorter than a minute, then add the difference to the next outbound
leg
 If it’s longer, then subtract the difference from the outbound leg
 Determine the necessary crab angle to maintain the course on the inbound leg
 If wind correction is needed inbound, then either double or triple the crab angle on the
outbound leg
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Rating TCO – Stage II What You Should Know

Holding Clearances
 The controller will specify
 Direction from holding fix
 Holding fix name
 Radial, course, bearing, track etc. on which the aircraft is to hold
 Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV
 They possibly will give the leg length in minutes
 Direction of holding pattern if nonstandard left turns are used
 Expected time to leave holding pattern
 Phraseology
 Hold (direction) of (fix / waypoint) on specified radial, course, bearing etc.
 May issue holding speeds if necessary
Fix Crossing Check (5 T’s)
 Five “T’s” are used to develop proficiency in organizing and prioritizing the tasks necessary
upon crossing a
 Holding fix
 Initial approach fix
 Final approach fix
 Change in course
 When crossing a fix or change of course
 Time – note the time crossing
 Turn – verify that the appropriate heading change has been initiated
 Throttle – verify that the power has been set as appropriate
 Twist – verify that the appropriate course has been selected
 Talk – verify that the proper frequency has been selected
 The fix crossing check is designed to plan and prioritize the sub tasks before reaching the fix as
well as checking that they have been completed after passing the fix
Timing
 Inbound Leg
 At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute
 Above 14,000 feet MSL: 1½ minutes
 Outbound leg
 Timing begins over / abeam the fix, whichever occurs later
 The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or 1½ minutes (appropriate to
altitude)
 Timing for subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as necessary, to achieve proper
inbound leg time
 Pilots may use any navigational means available; i.e. DME, RNAV, etc., to ensure the
appropriate inbound leg times
 If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed
Use of DME while Holding
 DME holding is subject to the same entry and holding procedures except that distances (nautical
miles) are used instead of time values
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 The length of the outbound leg will be specified by the controller

 The end of the outbound leg is determined by the DME (or GPS ATD) reading
 When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID and the fix distance is 10 NM, and the
leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME reads
15 NM

Figure 20-6. – Inbound leg toward NAVAID. Figure 20-7. – Inbound leg away from NAVAID.

 Inbound leg away from NAVAID

 When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the
leg length is 8 NM, then the end of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME reads
20 NM
Use of GPS while Holding
 Many newer GPS navigators reduce much of the for mental visualization and calculations
required for holding
 The pilot should still confirm the navigator’s recommendations
 Utilize the GPS when possible to help improve situational awareness while holding
 Ensure that the GPS is in the correct mode when planning to hold at a waypoint
 If there are waypoints in the flight plan after the holding waypoint, sequencing to the next
waypoint may need to be suspended
 When using GPS for specified distance legs of a holding pattern, the “DME” reading is known as
the Along Track Distance or ATD as shown in Figures 20-6 & 20-7
 While it will have minimal effect when holding, VOR based DME and GPS ATD distances
may appear slightly different if both receivers are installed and used due to the slant range
error of the DME which will be more pronounced when closer to the VOR
 If using a GPS as a substitute for DME while doing DME holding, ensure that the waypoint is set
to the appropriate NAVAID and the GPS is in the correct mode
Intersection Holding
 Same as normal holding procedure
 Explain the use of two VORs in this procedure
Communication Requirements
 The following reports should be made at all times without ATC request
 Time and altitude on reaching a holding fix / point
 Leaving an assigned holding fix / point
 The following reports should be made when not in radar contact
 Leaving final approach fix inbound on final approach
 When holding, advise ATC immediately what increased airspeed is necessary due to turbulence,
icing, or an inability to accomplish any part of the holding procedure

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Pilot Responsibilities
 If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should
ask ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix
 This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding pattern other
than that desired by ATC
 If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to frequency congestion,
stuck microphone, etc.)
 Enter a standard pattern on the course on which the aircraft approached the fix
 Request further clearance as soon as possible
 In this event, the altitude / flight level of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be
protected so that separation will be provided as required
 When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has
not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the
fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed
 Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude / flight level at which the aircraft reaches the
clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit
 When holding at a VOR station, pilots should begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of
the first complete reversal of the TO/FROM indicator
 Make all turns during entry, and while holding, using the least bank of the following
 3 degrees per second
 30 degree bank angle
 25 degree bank provided a flight director system is used
 Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs
 When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments
– twice the drift correction can also work
 If correcting left by 8 degrees inbound, correct right by 24 degrees outbound
 Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix
 ±5 degrees in heading is considered to be within allowable good operating limits for
determining entry
 Advise ATC immediately what increased airspeed is necessary due to turbulence, icing, etc., or if
unable to accomplish any part of the holding procedures
 When such higher speeds become no longer necessary, operate according to the appropriate
published holding speed and notify ATC
 When holding at a fix and instructions are received specifying the time of departure from the
fix, adjust the aircraft’s flight path within the limits of the established holding pattern in order to
leave the fix at the exact time specified
 After departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be resumed with respect to other
governing speed requirements, such as terminal area speed limits, specific ATC requests, etc.
 Where the fix is associated with an instrument approach and timed approaches are in effect, a
procedure turn shall not be executed unless the pilot advises ATC, since holding aircraft are
expected to proceed inbound on final approach directly from the holding pattern when approach
clearance is received

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 If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the

published minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may
descend to the published minimum holding altitude
 The holding pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is published on the instrument
procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn
 For those holding patterns where there are no published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot,
upon receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the last assigned altitude until leaving the
holding pattern and established on the inbound course
 Thereafter, the published minimum altitude of the route segment being flown will apply
ATC Responsibilities
 Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected,
it is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue complete holding instructions (unless the
pattern is charted), an Expect Further Clearance (EFC) time, and best estimate of any additional
en route / terminal delay
 When the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding instructions except the charted
holding direction and the statement AS PUBLISHED; e.g., HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED
 Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them
 When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance
limit
Elements of an IFR Clearance
 ATC IFR clearances will contain all or part of the following:
 Aircraft Identification
 Clearance Limit
 Departure Procedure or SID
 Route of Flight
 Altitude Data
 Departure Frequency
 Transponder Code
 The clearance might also include:
 Departure, En Route, Approach, Holding Instructions
 Special Instructions or Information
 Traffic Information
 Clearance Void and/or Release Times at non-tower airports
Practical Methods for Copying an IFR Clearance
 Learning to copy an IFR clearance can be a challenge for some students; controllers speak
quickly and the student may be thinking about what he or she is writing, thus writing slowly
 One recommendation is to not try to understand the clearance while being copied, just write
it down then understand it afterward
 The FAA includes a recommended shorthand in Apdx. A of the Instrument Flying Handbook
 Encourage your student to ask the controller to clarify any missed or uncertain items before
readback

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 With the exception of the transponder code, a pilot generally knows most of the items that will
be in the clearance before engine start so these can be written down or printed out (if using
planning software) ahead of time and verified or modified to save time
 Listening to clearance delivery prior to asking for one’s own clearance can give a pilot an
idea of the departure procedures that are being assigned for the direction of flight
 As the controller reads the clearance, check it against what is already written down; if there is
a change, draw a line through that item and write in the changed item
 One technique for clearance copying is writing C-R-A-F-T as a reminder of the elements of a
clearance and then filling them in as received (anticipated items can be pre-filled and verified)
 C – Clearance limit (usually the destination airport)
 R – Route of flight (including DPs), may be “Cleared as Filed” (CAF)
 A – Initial Altitude (may include an altitude to expect)
 F – Departure Frequency
 T – Transponder squawk code
Data Link IFR Clearances
 Technology that is currently being used by some airlines and larger corporate type operators
allows the clearance process to be initiated through data link communications
 ATC transmits the clearance digitally to the flight deck where it can then be transferred to
onboard navigation equipment, often without retyping
 Eliminates the need to copy the clearance at airports and in flight decks where this is
available
 Helps to save time and reduce errors associated with a verbal clearance
 Plans for en route data communications are a part of the NextGen Air Transportation System
and will be implemented in the coming years
 Technology with similar functions is being proposed for smaller general aviation aircraft
 One option may utilize mobile technology to transmit the clearance via an app which can
transfer the clearance to other apps or potentially to installed equipment with Bluetooth or
Wi-Fi capability
 The general aviation technology is not yet available
IFR Clearance Compliance, Limits, and Void Times
 When given a clearance by ATC and it is accepted, it must be followed completely unless
amended
 If, for some reason, it cannot be accepted, ATC must be notified
 A clearance limit is a fix, destination, or some other position to which the aircraft is cleared
 A pilot may receive a clearance, when operating from an airport without a control tower, which
contains a provision for the clearance to be void if not airborne by a specific time
 A pilot who does not depart prior to the clearance void time must advise ATC as soon as
possible of their intentions
 ATC will normally advise the pilot of the time allotted to notify ATC that the aircraft did not
depart prior to the clearance void time (30 minutes or less)
 Failure of an aircraft to contact ATC within 30 minutes after the clearance void time will
result in the aircraft being considered overdue and search and rescue procedures initiated
 No other aircraft will be permitted to takeoff or land at the airport under IFR until ATC is
contacted or the 30 minutes after the clearance void time
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LESSON 22 – TERMINAL PROCEDURES

Note to Instructor
 Ensure that your student has a current volume of US TPPs or an electronic equivalent available
for this discussion
 If your student uses an EFB product, he or she must understand its operation and limitations
Terminal Procedures Publications
 U.S. Terminal Procedures – commonly called approach plates
 The US Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) enables pilots to guide their aircraft into airports
 Terminal routes feed aircraft to a point where IAPs can be flown to a minimum altitude for
landing
 Whether departing or arriving, these procedures exist to make the controller’s and pilot’s job
safer and more efficient
 Available in booklets by region (published by the FAA)
 The TPP includes
 Approach procedures
 Arrival and Departure Procedures (DPs)
 Airport diagrams
Aircraft Approach Categories
 Minimums are specified for various aircraft approach categories based upon a value 1.3 times
the stalling speed of the aircraft in the landing configuration at maximum certified gross landing
weight
 Categories are listed as follows (97.3)
 Category A: Speed less than 91 knots
 Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but less than 121 knots
 Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but less than 141 knots
 Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but less than 166 knots
 Category E: Speed 166 knots or more
 An aircraft fits in only one category
 If it is necessary to maneuver at speeds in excess of the upper limit of a speed range for a
category, the minimums for the next higher category should be used
 If it is necessary, while circling-to-land, to maneuver at speeds in excess of the upper limit of
the speed range for each category, due to the possibility of extending the circling maneuver
beyond the area for which obstruction clearance is provided, the circling minimum for the
higher speed’s approach category should be used
Inoperative Components or Visual Aids Table
 Certain procedures can be flown with inoperative components but landing minimums may
change as described by the Inoperative Components or Visual Aids Table
 Found in Section “A” of the TPP
 If more than one component is inoperative, each minimum is raised to the highest minimum
required by any single component that is inoperative
 Discuss application of these adjustments using the TPP
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Airport Surface Hot Spots

 A hot spot is defined as a location on an airport movement area
with a history of potential risk of collision or runway incursion,
and where heightened attention by pilots and drivers is necessary
 Airport surface hot spots may be found on airport diagram pages
in the Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) and in the Chart
Supplements
 Appears on the diagram with an HS and identifying number
 Basic descriptions appear in the TPP
 Additional descriptions of and information about the hot Figure 22-1. – Hot spots on airport
spots are found in the Chart Supplements diagram

Figure 22-2. – Hot spot TPP descriptions Figure 22-3. – Hot spot chart supplements descriptions

 Installed multifunction displays, installed and portable GPS units, and a number of tablet and
phone apps may also provide information on hot spots or other taxi guidance
IFR Take-Off Minimums
 Non-Standard “IFR Take-Off Minimums” can be found in Section “L” of the FAA TPPs
 Listed in alphabetical order by city and state, they give information based upon runways
 Visibility and ceiling requirements may vary based upon the climb gradient of the aircraft
 In the absence of listed take-off minima, civil aviation users should follow standard minima:
 With two engines or less - a minimum of one statute mile
 With more than two engines - a minimum of one-half statute mile
 Take-off minimums only apply to operations under Parts 121, 125, 129, and 135
 While regulatory take-off minimums do not apply to Part 91 operations, it is a good idea to
develop personal minimums considering your ability to return to the departure airport or a
nearby alternate in case of an emergency
Declared Distance Information
 Airports publish the declared distances in the A/FD section of the Chart Supplements
 These include takeoff runway available (TORA), takeoff distance available (TODA),
accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA), and landing distance available (LDA)
 Distances are calculated by adding to the full length of paved runway any applicable
clearway or stop-way and subtracting from that sum the sections of the runway unsuitable for
satisfying the required takeoff run, takeoff, accelerate/stop, or landing distance

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Figure 22-4. – Declared distance information

Published Departure Procedures

 Instrument departure procedures (DPs) are planned instrument procedures providing obstruction
clearance from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure
 There are two types of DPs
 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs)
 Printed either textually or graphically
 Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs)
 Always printed graphically
 ODPs provide obstruction clearance via the least hazardous route from the terminal area to the
appropriate en route structure
 ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance and may be flown without ATC clearance
 SIDs are ATC procedures, in graphic form, to provide obstruction clearance and a transition
from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure
 SIDs are designed for system enhancement and to reduce pilot / controller workload
 ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID
 SIDs are found in the FAA TPPs along with the approach charts for an airport
 Pilots are strongly encouraged to file and fly a DP
 At night
 During marginal VMC
 During IMC

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 Pilots of IFR aircraft operating from locations where SIDs are effective may expect an ATC
clearance containing a SID
 If the pilot does not possess at least the textual description of the SID or for any other reason
does not wish to use a SID, he or she is expected to advise ATC
 Notification may be accomplished by filing “NO SID” in the remarks section of the filed
flight plan or by advising ATC
 If the pilot accepts a SID in the clearance, he or she must comply with it
 ODPs can be found in Section “L” of the FAA TPPs, along with “IFR Take-Off Minimums”
 Listed in alphabetical order by city and state, they give information regarding the applicable
runways, turn directions, and, altitude
Climb Via SID Clearance
 A clearance for a SID which contains
published altitude restrictions may be issued
using the phraseology “climb via”
 Climb via is an abbreviated clearance
that requires compliance with the
procedure lateral path, associated speed
and altitude restrictions along the
cleared route or procedure
 In some cases the controller may expect
the pilot refer to the SID for information
such as the departure frequency or other
clearance details
 Clearance to “climb via” authorizes the pilot
to:
 Join the procedure after departure or to
resume the procedure
 When vertical navigation is interrupted
and an altitude is assigned to maintain
which is not contained on the
published procedure, to climb from that
previously-assigned altitude at pilot’s
discretion to the altitude depicted for the
next waypoint.
 Once established on the depicted
departure, to navigate laterally and
climb to meet all published or assigned Figure 22-5. – SID with published altitude restrictions.
altitude and speed restrictions
 SIDs will have a “top altitude;” the “top altitude” is the charted “maintain” altitude contained in
the procedure description or assigned by ATC
 ATC may occasionally issue a climb via clearance and include an exception from the published
procedure
 Exceptions may be related to an altitude or speed noted on the chart

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ATC Communication and Compliance with Departure Instructions

 You are expected to follow ATC’s departure instructions
 Think before you do your read-back
 If you read back something, you must do what you read back
 After departure, follow ATC instructions
 You are ultimately responsible for the safety of the flight and you should question any ATC
instructions that appears to put that safety in jeopardy
Situational Awareness during Departure
 When using a SID, try to have its graphic depiction with you
 If you don’t have the graphic depiction, make sure you thoroughly understand the textural
description before departure
 When you are not using a SID, it’s important to have a visual, as well as a mental picture of your
departure from an airport
 A GPS system can help
 While a portable GPS may not be used for navigation under IFR, it can be used to
improve situational awareness
 Some GPSs have obstacle and terrain avoidance features that can improve situational
awareness
 Without GPS, it is helpful to draw a quick sketch of your departure direction and route
 Review and follow any ODP available to improve situational awareness
 ATC may be able to provide some assistance during departure but should not be used as a crutch
 Regardless of the method used, understand and determine a method to avoid any obstacles and
local concerns
 Utilize an approach chart or the Chart Supplement for the airport to determine the location of
potential obstacles when a SID or ODP is not available
 You are directly responsible for obstacle avoidance before entering controlled airspace and
ultimately responsible even after entering controlled airspace
Climb & Descent Tables
 Check the Performance section of the AFM/POH for the aircraft being flown to determine
aircraft climb and descent performance
 See TPP, inside back cover, for combined Climb/Descent Table
IFR Alternate Minimums
 When an alternate airport is required for filing an IFR flight plan, standard IFR alternate
minimums apply to its selection unless otherwise indicated
 Precision approach procedures require a 600-foot ceiling and 2 statute miles visibility
 Nonprecision and APV approaches require an 800-foot ceiling and 2 statute miles visibility
 When a black triangle with a white “A” appears in the Notes section of the approach chart, it
indicates nonstandard IFR alternate minimums exist for the airport
 If an “NA” appears after the “A,” the airport or approach is not authorized for use as the basis
for a filed alternate
 Alternate minimums are found in Section “M” of the TPP

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Radar Instrument Approach Minimums

 With a radar approach, the pilot is “talked down” while a controller monitors the progress of the
flight with radar
 This is an option if the pilot experiences an emergency or distress situation
 These approaches require an approved radar facility and controller along with a functioning
airborne radio
 Initial radar contact for either a surveillance or precision approach radar (PAR) is made with
approach control
 Pilots must comply promptly with all instructions when conducting either type of procedure
 Surveillance and precision radar minimums are listed alphabetically by airport on pages with the
heading, “Radar Instrument Approach Minimums,” in Section “N” of each TPP
 Review several current radar approaches with your student
Pilot Briefing Information Section
 The pilot briefing information section provides the essential information that is needed to get set
up for an approach
 The section includes, where applicable:
 Primary NAVAID identifier and  Airport elevation
frequency when the basis for the approach  Notes regarding the approach
 Final approach course  Approach lighting type
 Length of the landing runway when  Textual missed approach instructions
straight-in minimums are published  Important frequencies
 Touch down zone elevation
 Review the pilot briefing information section for several approaches with your student
Plan View
 The plan view provides a graphical overhead view of the procedure
 It depicts the routes that guide the pilot from the en route segments to the initial approach fix
(IAF)
 The legend for the symbols used within the plan view are contained in Section “E” of the TPP
 Review the plan view for several approaches with your student
Profile View
 The profile view is a drawing of the side view of the procedure and illustrates the vertical
approach path altitudes, headings, distances, and fixes
 The view includes
 Minimum altitude and maximum distance  Distances between fixes
for the procedure turn  Missed approach procedure
 Altitudes over prescribed fixes
 The legend for the symbols used within the profile view are contained in Section “F” of the TPP
 Review the profile view for several approaches with your student

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Minimums Section
 The minimums section sets forth the lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the approach
 Whether precision or nonprecision
 Straight-in or circling
 Radar vectored
 When a fix is incorporated in a nonprecision final segment, two sets of minimums may be
published, depending upon whether or not the fix can be identified
 Two sets of minimums may also be published when a second altimeter source is used in the
procedure
 The minimums ensure that final approach obstacle clearance is provided from the start of the
final segment to the runway or MAP, whichever occurs last
 The same minimums apply to both day and night operations unless different minimums are
specified in the Notes Section
 Published circling minimums provide obstacle clearance when pilots remain within the
appropriate area of protection
 Minimums are specified for various aircraft approach categories
 The minimums for straight-in and circling appear directly under each aircraft category
 When there is no solid division line between minimums for each category on the rows for
straight-in or circling, the minimums apply to the two or more undivided categories
 Review TPP Section “B” and the minimums section for several approaches with your student
Airport Sketch & Airport Diagram
 The airport sketch, located near the bottom of the chart, includes many helpful features
 Some airports devote an entire separate page to a large scale airport diagram
 Review TPP Sections “H” and “I” as well as several sketches and diagrams with your student
Missed Approach Section
 A complete description of the missed approach procedure appears in the second line of the
briefing strip on the top of the approach chart
 An abbreviated and symbolized form of the missed approach procedure appears on top of the
approach’s profile view
Minimum Safe Altitude
 The minimum safe altitude (MSA) circle appears in the plan view of most approaches
 The MSA is provided for emergency purposes only and guarantees 1,000
feet obstruction clearance in the sector indicated with reference to the
bearing in the circle
 For conventional navigation systems, the MSA is normally based on the
primary omnidirectional facility on which the IAP is predicated
 The MSA depiction on the approach chart contains the facility identifier
of the NAVAID used to determine the MSA altitudes
Figure 22-6. – Minimum
safe altitude (MSA) circle.

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 For RNAV approaches, except terminal arrival area (TAA)

approaches, the MSA is based on
 The runway waypoint for straight-in approaches
 The airport waypoint for circling approaches
 For GPS approaches, the MSA center will be the missed approach
waypoint
 The MSL altitudes appear in boxes within the circle, which has a
radius as specified on the chart
 The MSA circle refers to the identifier of the NAVAID or waypoint Figure 22-7. – Standard
that describes the center of the circle terminal arrival areas (TAA).
 MSA circles are not depicted on terminal
arrival area (TAA) approach charts
 TAA charts provide this information
utilizing different symbology in relation
to waypoints on the “T” or “Y” shaped
arrival depicted on this type of chart
 Multiple altitudes at various distances may
be specified as required
 Review the MSA symbols in Section “E”
of the TPP and several examples with your
student Figure 22-8. – TAA with “T” approach.
Standard vs Expanded Circling Radii
 Standard protected areas developed prior to late 2012 used fixed radius distances, dependent on
aircraft approach category
 Newer expanded protected areas use the approach category and the altitude of the MDA
 Expanded areas may be identified by an inverted “C” on the IAP chart

Figure 22-9. – Standard and expanded circling approach protected area radii.

Cold Temperature Restricted Airports / Altitude Corrections

 Due to altimetry errors which occur in very cold temperatures, the FAA has determined that
altitude adjustments are required on certain approaches when the temperature is below an
indicated value
 Pilots are responsible to compensate for these errors when operating into an airport with any
published cold temperature restriction and a reported airport temperature at or below the
published temperature restriction
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 Pilots may use the “All Segments Method” or the “Individual Segment(s) Method” to
compensate
 The All Segments Method is simpler in that the altitude adjustments are made on all
segments of the approach
 The Individual Segment(s) Method requires the pilot to refer to the FAA’s Domestic Notices
website and determine the segments of the approach on which to apply altitude adjustments
 Affected airports may be determined by a snowflake symbol and restriction temperature on the
approach plate
 The cold temperature error table can be found in Section “B” of the TPP

Figure 22-10. – Cold restricted airport adjustments

Descent Planning
 For an efficient descent and approach, know the power settings and configurations that will give
you the performance you need
 Limit your descent rate to no more than 500 to 700 feet per minute with passengers
 Pressurized aircraft will often descend faster with a slower cabin descent rate
 Many GPS units have a descent profile planning feature
 Usually called vertical navigation, or VNAV
 Set the level-off altitude/position and the rate of descent you want into the unit and the GPS
will indicate when it’s time to descend
 Without GPS or when using a GPS without VNAV, multiply the altitude to lose in thousands by
2 – that’s how many minutes it will take to descend at 500 fpm
 EXAMPLE: Cruising at 9,000 feet and you want to descend to 3,000 begin your descent
when 12 minutes out – (9 minus 3 = 6 times 2 = 12)
 This technique will work for any groundspeed
 To convert the minutes out to a distance, multiply this time by your approximate groundspeed in
miles per minute
 This distance is for planning purposes and does not have to be precise
 Use the following approximations for easier math calculations:
 60 knots = 1 nm per minute  180 knots = 3 nm per minute
 90 knots = 1.5 nm per minute  210 knots = 3.5 nm per minute
 120 knots = 2 nm per minute  240 knots = 4 nm per minute
 150 knots = 2.5 nm per minute
 EXAMPLE: 12 minute descent with a groundspeed of 150 knots begin your descent 30
nautical miles out (12 times 2.5 = 30) or (24 {2 times 12} + 6 {0.5 times 12} = 30)
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 Another popular method, which works in any airplane, utilizes a 3 to 1 rule to define a descent
profile of about 3°
 If 1 mile from the desired point you should be 300’ above the desired altitude, 3 miles =
900’, 10 miles = 3,000’, 30 miles = 9000’ etc
 Your descent rate to remain on profile varies with groundspeed
 Consider the effects of drastically changing winds and moderate or greater turbulence on your
descent profile
 Avoid a rapid descent if you have passengers
 A rapid descent will increase inner ear pressure and can cause pain or injury
 To keep the engine running efficiently throughout the descent:
 Reduce rpm to begin the descent
 Enrich the mixture progressively during the descent
 Maintain some power to reduce the likelihood of shock cooling the engine
Standard Terminal Arrival Procedures
 A Standard Terminal Arrival procedure (STAR) is an ATC coded IFR arrival route used to
standardize IFR aircraft arrivals destined for certain airports
 The purpose is to simplify clearance delivery procedures and facilitate transition between en
route and instrument approach procedures
 STARs serve to move traffic through a
particular area, freeing up other space for
departures and other operations
 A typical STAR consists of a set of
transitions, and a description of routes
 These will lead you to your destination
airport, allowing you to either join the
instrument approach or be vectored to
final approach
 Most large airports have STARs
 Some airports with many obstructions (for
example, mountains) have STARs for the
VFR pilot
 If you accept a STAR you must fly it exactly
 You can refuse to accept a STAR
 You can add “No STARs” to the Remarks
section of an IFR flight plan to prevent
assignment
Descend Via STAR Clearance
 Like the climb via SID clearance, the descend
via STAR clearance is an abbreviated
clearance that requires compliance with the
procedure’s lateral path and associated speed
and altitude restrictions Figure 22-11. – STAR with altitude and speed restrictions.

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 Clearance to “descend via” authorizes pilots to:

 Descend at pilot’s discretion to meet published restrictions and laterally navigate on a STAR
 When cleared to a waypoint depicted on a STAR, to descend from a previously assigned
altitude at pilot’s discretion to the altitude depicted at that waypoint
 Once established on the depicted arrival, to descend and to meet all published or assigned
altitude and/or speed restrictions
 ATC may occasionally issue a descend via clearance and include an exception from the
published procedure
 Exceptions may be related to an altitude or speed noted on the chart

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LESSON 23 – INSTRUMENT APPROACHES

Lesson Introduction
 Compliance with the approach procedures shown on the approach charts provides
 Necessary navigation guidance information for alignment with the final approach courses
 Obstruction clearance
 Under certain conditions, a course reversal maneuver or procedure turn may be necessary
 However, this procedure is not authorized when
 The symbol “No PT” appears on the approach course on the plan view of the approach
chart
 Radar vectoring is provided to the final approach course
 A holding pattern is published in lieu of a procedure turn
 Executing a timed approach from a holding fix
 Otherwise directed by ATC
 Instrument Approaches to Civil Airports
 Unless otherwise authorized, when an instrument letdown to an airport is necessary, pilots
should use a standard IAP prescribed for that airport
 ATC approach procedures depend upon
 The facilities available at the terminal area
 The type of instrument approach executed
 The existing weather conditions
 The ATC facilities, navigation aids (NAVAIDs), and associated frequencies appropriate to
each standard instrument approach, are given on the approach chart
 An IAP can be flown in one of two ways
 As a full approach
 With the assistance of radar vectors
 When the IAP is flown as a full approach, pilots conduct their own navigation using the routes
and altitudes depicted on the instrument approach chart
 A full approach allows the pilot to transition from the en route phase, to the instrument
approach, and then to a landing with minimal assistance from ATC
 This type of procedure may be requested by the pilot but is most often used in areas without
radar coverage
 A full approach provides the pilot with a means of completing an instrument approach in the
event of a communications failure
Nonprecision Instrument Approaches
 A standard instrument approach procedure in which only horizontal guidance is provided
 This approach contains the word “nonprecision” – fly it with absolute precision
 Develop a well-defined procedure for each type of aircraft flown
 Focus on leveling off at the minimum descent altitude before beginning brief scans for the
runway environment
 Place an altitude bug on the altimeter as a reminder of the MDA
 Pilots should not descend below MDA unless a visual landing can be accomplished at a
normal rate of descent

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Approach Briefing
 The approach brief helps the pilot develop proficiency in the organization, planning, and
preparation necessary to conduct a specific instrument approach procedure
 Two acronyms that may be used as memory aids (many other methods may also be suitable)
 ASAP – ATIS, Stack, Altitude, and Pre-landing
 ICE ATM – Identify, Course, Entry, Altitude, Time, and Missed
 The approach brief is used to set up the minimum amount of equipment and information required
for an instrument approach
 The verbal briefing is used to visually verify each minimum item required for the approach and
to inform the non-flying pilot of the important information required to execute the approach
 The process is
 Listen to ATIS information or ASOS / AWOS, this will help determine what approach to
expect and the appropriate altimeter setting
 Set the appropriate frequencies in the radio stack, such as approach control, tower, etc
 Get out the appropriate approach chart, and review altitudes, specifically the Minimum Safe
Altitude
 Complete the pre-landing check
 Tune and identify the NAVAID(s) that are required for the approach
 Set the inbound or outbound course, as appropriate
 Determine the type of entry
 Note all altitudes
 Note and adjust the time required for the approach, as appropriate
 Identify the missed approach point and the missed approach procedure, as appropriate
 Verify and brief the non-flying pilot by using the ICE ATM acronym
Missed Approach Procedures
 A missed approach procedure is formulated for each published instrument approach and allows
the pilot to return to the airway structure while remaining clear of obstacles
 The procedure is shown on the approach chart in text and graphic form
 The procedure should be studied and mastered before beginning the approach
 When a Missed Approach Procedure (MAP) is initiated
 A climb pitch attitude should be established while setting climb power
 Configure the aircraft for climb
 Turn to the appropriate heading
 Advise ATC of the missed approach procedure
 Request further clearances
 If the missed approach is initiated prior to reaching the MAP, unless otherwise cleared by ATC,
continue to fly the IAP as specified on the approach plate to the MAP at or above the MDA or
DA / DH before beginning a turn
 If visual reference is lost while circling-to-land from an instrument approach, execute the
appropriate missed approach procedure (MAP)
 Make the initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and then maneuver to intercept and
fly the missed approach course

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 Pilots should immediately execute the missed approach procedure

 Whenever the requirements for operating below DA / DH or MDA are not met and the
aircraft is below that altitude
 Upon arrival at the MAP and at any time after that until touchdown if an identifiable part of
the airport is not visible
 Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not visible to the pilot during a circling
maneuver
 When so directed by ATC
 Caution: Acceleration forces and poor visual cues can cause sensory illusions during the
execution of a missed approach
 A well-developed instrument cross-check is necessary to safely carry out the procedure
 The missed approach procedures may be related to the location of the FAF
 When an identifiable FAF is not located on the field, the missed approach procedure will
specify the distance from the location to the MAP
 When using time to identify the MAP, the pilot must determine his or her groundspeed and
use the appropriate time required at that groundspeed to cover the distance to the MAP
 When expected time has expired, the pilot reports and executes a missed approach if he or
she does not have applicable minimums
 Missed approach instructions will be provided prior to starting the final approach of either an
ASR or PAR approach
Visibility Minimums
 Visibility figures are provided in statute miles or runway visual range (RVR), which is reported
in hundreds of feet
 RVR represents the horizontal distance measured at points along the runway
 RVR is used in lieu of prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular runway
 RVR is measured by a transmissometer or by newer forward scatter technology
 Visibility figures are depicted after the DA / DH or MDA in the minimums section
 If visibility in statute miles is indicated, an altitude number, hyphen, and a whole or
fractional number appear, for example, 530-1, which indicates “530 feet MSL” and 1 statute
mile visibility
 The RVR value is separated from the minimum altitude with a slash, such as “1065 / 24,”
which indicates 1,065 feet MSL and an RVR of 2,400 feet
 If RVR were prescribed for the procedure, but not available, a conversion table would be
used to provide the equivalent visibility in miles
 The conversion table is available in the Section “B” of the FAA TPP

Figure 23-1. – RVR conversion from TPPs.

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Timed Approaches
 Timed approaches from a holding fix are conducted when many aircraft are waiting for an
approach clearance
 Although the controller will not specifically state “timed approaches are in progress,” the
assigning of a time to depart the FAF inbound (nonprecision approach), or the outer marker or
fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach), indicates that timed approach
procedures are being utilized
 Instead of holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the final approach course to establish
a distance between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time sequence between the FAF and
outer marker or fix used in place of the outer marker and the airport
 Each pilot in the approach sequence will be given advance notice as to the time they should leave
the holding point on approach to the airport
 When a time to leave the holding point is received, the pilot should adjust the flightpath in
order to leave the fix as closely as possible to the designated time
Radar Approaches
 With a radar approach, the pilot is “talked down” while a controller monitors the progress of the
flight with radar
 Radar approach minimums can be found in Section “N” of the TPPs
 There are two types of radar approaches
 Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
 An instrument approach in which ATC issues azimuth and elevation instructions (rare in
the U.S.)
 Airport Surveillance Radar Approach (ASR)
 An instrument approach in which ATC issues azimuth instructions only
 A PAR serves the same purpose as an ILS, except that guidance information is presented to the
pilot through aural rather than visual means
 If a PAR is available, it is normally aligned with an ILS
 The precision approach begins when the aircraft is within range of the precision radar and
contact has been established with the final controller
 Normally this occurs approximately 8 miles from touchdown at a point to which the pilot is
vectored by surveillance radar or is positioned by a nonradar approach procedure
 On a PAR approach, the pilot is given headings to fly to keep the aircraft aligned with the
extended centerline of the landing runway
 Advisory course and glidepath information is furnished by the controller until the aircraft
passes over the runway threshold, at which point the pilot is advised of any deviation from
the runway centerline
 Radar service is automatically terminated at the completion of the approach

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 On an ASR, the controller will vector the aircraft to a point where a descent can begin to the
airport or to a specific runway
 During the initial part of the approach, the pilot will be given specific communication failure
/ missed approach instructions
 Before the descent, the pilot will be given the published straight-in MDA
 The pilot will be advised of the location of the missed approach point and his or her position
each mile from the runway
 Navigational guidance is provided until the pilot reaches the missed approach point
 At the missed approach point, the controller terminates guidance and instructs the pilot to
either land, if the runway is in sight, or to execute the missed approach
Visual Approaches
 ATC may initiate a visual approach when the landing can be accomplished in VFR weather
 It’s the pilot’s responsibility to advise ATC as soon as possible if a visual approach is not
desired
 Pilots can request a visual approach in VMC
 Pilot acceptance of a visual approach will indicate to ATC that the pilot can comply with basic
VFR weather minimums
 If the pilot files IFR to an airport without a published instrument approach, he or she will
probably need to file direct routing off airways to a VOR intersection over the destination airport
or VOR radial and distance to it
 This “fix” will be the “clearance limit”
 From this point, the pilot must be able to descend in the applicable VFR weather
minimums
 With the airport in sight, and after canceling IFR, the pilot may descend to a normal landing
 If the weather information received is incorrect, the pilot will need to hold in a standard right-
hand holding pattern at the clearance limit and inform ATC that he or she is “unable VFR
flight”
 If the visual approach is successful, but the pilot is unable to close the IFR flight plan in the air,
he or she should do it on the ground
Contact Approaches
 A contact approach is one wherein an aircraft on an IFR flight plan may deviate from the
instrument approach and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface
 Visibility is a determining factor in all standard instrument approaches
 This includes contact and visual approaches flown under instrument flight rules

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 Contact approaches can only be requested at airports with a published standard or special
instrument approach
 Before a pilot can request a contact approach
 The airport must be reporting 1 statute mile ground visibility
 Pilot must be flying clear of clouds and have 1 mile visibility
 Pilot must also reasonably expect to continue to the airport in these conditions
 While a contact approach may be used by a pilot (with prior authorization from ATC) in
place of conducting a standard or special instrument approach procedure, it is not intended
for use by a pilot on an IFR flight clearance to operate to an airport not having an authorized
IAP
 Nor is it intended for an aircraft to conduct an instrument approach to one airport and
then, when in the clear, to discontinue that approach and proceed to another airport
 In the execution of a contact approach, the pilot assumes the responsibility for obstruction
clearance
 If radar service is being received, it will automatically terminate when the pilot is told to contact
the tower
 Contact approaches must be requested by pilots – ATC cannot initiate them
Charted Visual Flight Procedures
 A CVFP is an approach conducted while operating on an IFR flight plan which authorizes the
pilot to proceed visually, and clear of clouds, to the airport via visual landmarks depicted on the
chart
 Charted in the TPP and designated as VISUAL
 PARKWAY VISUAL RWY 13L/R – located at JFK airport
 An aircraft can be cleared for a CVFP only when the following conditions are met
 There is an operating control tower
 The published name of the CVFP and the landing runway are specified in the approach
clearance
 The reported ceiling at the airport of intended landing is at least 500 feet above the MVA
/ MIA
 The visibility is 3 miles or more, unless higher minimums are published for the particular
CVFP
 When using parallel or intersecting / converging runways, the criteria specified in paragraph
7-4-4, Approaches to Multiple Runways – taken from Air Traffic Control handbook – are
applied
 An aircraft not following another aircraft on the approach reports
 Sighting a charted visual landmark or
 Reports sighting a preceding aircraft landing on the same runway and has been instructed
to follow that aircraft

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Visual Descent Point

 A defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach procedure
from which normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be commenced,
provided at least one of the following are clearly visible to the pilot
 Approach threshold of that runway
 Approach lights
 Other markings identifiable with the approach end of the runway
Circling Approaches
 Landing minimums are listed on the approach chart under “CIRCLING”
 Circling minimums apply when
 It is necessary to circle the airport or maneuver for landing
 No straight-in minimums are specified on the approach
chart
 The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart
provide a minimum of 300 feet of obstacle clearance in the circling
area
 Refer to the Standard vs Expanded Circling Radii discussion
in Lesson 22 for more information on the distances Figure 23-2. – Circling
approach area radii.
 During a circling approach, the pilot should
 Maintain visual contact with the runway of intended landing
 Fly no lower than the circling minimums until in position to
make a final descent for a landing
 If the ceiling allows it, fly at an altitude that more nearly
approximates the VFR traffic pattern altitude
 The pilot must exercise sound judgment and knowledge of his
or her capabilities and the performance of his or her aircraft to
determine the pattern to be flown in each instance
 The following factors must be considered
 Airport design
 Ceiling and visibility
 Wind direction and velocity
 Final approach course alignment
 Distance from the final approach fix to the runway
 ATC instructions Figure 23-3. – Potential circling
approach patterns.
Vectored Approaches
 When an approach is flown with the assistance of radar vectors, ATC provides guidance in the
form of headings and altitudes which position the aircraft to intercept the final approach
 From this point
 The pilot resumes navigation
 Intercepts the final approach course
 Completes the approach using the IAP chart
 This is often a more expedient method of flying the approach, as opposed to the full approach,
and allows ATC to sequence arriving traffic

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 A pilot operating in radar contact can generally expect the assistance of radar vectors to the final
approach course
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) Approaches
 A Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) approach procedure provides a transition method for arriving
aircraft with GPS/RNAV equipment
 TAAs eliminate or reduce the need for:
 Feeder routes
 Departure extensions
 Procedure turns
 Course reversals
 The standard TAA has three areas:
 Straight-in
 Left base
 Right base
 The three areas of the TAA allow a transition
from the en route portion direct to the nearest
Figure 23-4. – Terminal arrival area approach.
IAF
 The pilot is expected to proceed direct to the appropriate IAF for the approach area being
flown
 A pilot has the option in all areas of proceeding directly to the holding pattern
 The TAA typically has a “T” or a “Y” structure that provides a NoPT entry option
 The “T” or “Y” structure normally aligns the procedure with the runway centerline, the
missed approach point, and the FAF
Lighting Systems
 For certain approaches to be legal they must be properly certified
 There must be certain approach lights
 The runway has to be wide enough and long enough
 The runway must have lights and / or painted markers to help the pilot identify
 Runway threshold
 Runway centerline
 Touchdown zone
 Touchdown zone aiming point in night or low-visibility situations
 Approach lights associated with an ILS usually include
 An array of flashing lead-in lights aligned with the extended runway centerline
 Called the “rabbit” because the flashes are rapid and sequential, and they travel toward
the runway in a rabbit-like fashion
 Roll-alignment bars
 Threshold lights
 VASI or PAPI installation
 Runway edge and centerline lights
 Review the approach lighting systems described in AIM, 2-1, with your student

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LESSON 25 – ATC SYSTEM

Clearance Delivery
 Most busy airports, usually Class B or C, have a Clearance Delivery frequency
 Before calling ground control, monitor ATIS, and then contact the Clearance Delivery controller
to request and receive a departure route, altitude, and clearance
 Use the 4 W’s
 The controller’s clearance will most likely include instructions on heading and altitude to fly, as
well as a squawk code
 Write this information down and read back the clearance information
Ground Control
 Ground Control exists at an airport with a control tower
 The ground controller is responsible for the movement of aircraft on the surface
 Most ground control frequencies begin with the numerals 121
 If the tower instructs the pilot to, “contact ground point niner,” he or she means 121.9 MHz
 The ground control frequency appears on the back of the chart with the airport listings and in the
Chart Supplements
 After speaking with clearance delivery, contact ground control
 Use the 4W’s
 The ground controller will give a taxi clearance, possibly including hold short information
 Read it back
Tower Control (Local Control)
 A control tower issues takeoff and landing clearances and coordinates traffic flow for all aircraft
movements on the airport
 When ready for takeoff, switch to the tower frequency
 Monitor ground while performing before-takeoff checks unless otherwise advised
 When ready for takeoff, use the 4W’s format for initial call-up to the tower
 Because of traffic complications, the controller may not be ready to clear your aircraft for takeoff
 Always repeat the clearance back to the controller, to ensure it is correct
 Ultimately, the controller will clear your aircraft for takeoff
 Respond with a read-back
 Visually clear final approach before taxiing onto the runway
Terminal Approach Control Facilities
 A TRACON is usually located within the vicinity of an airport
 Typically, the TRACON controls aircraft approaching and departing between 5 and 50 miles
of the airport
 A TRACON is a part of the bigger picture and works under the jurisdiction of an Air Route
Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)

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Approach Control
 Approach Control is responsible for directing traffic into airport terminal areas
 Frequencies are noted on VFR and IFR charts
 Review the AIM, Chapter 3, Airspace and Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control
Departure Control
 Departure Control is responsible for directing traffic out of airport terminal areas
 The proper frequency is noted on VFR and IFR charts
 After takeoff from a Class C or B airport, the tower will tell the pilot when to contact departure
control
 Read back the instruction
 Tune the frequency and listen to make sure it is clear before transmitting
 The departure controller will make traffic advisories and issue heading or altitude changes as
necessary
 On exiting the departure controller’s airspace, the controller will release the pilot
 Review the AIM, Chapter 3, Airspace and Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control
Final Controller
 This is the controller providing information and final approach guidance during PAR and ASR
approaches utilizing radar equipment.
 After radio contact is established with the approaching aircraft, the radar controller gives the
pilot his or her initial instructions along with information on weather conditions, other air traffic,
etc.
 When the aircraft comes within range of the search radar, the controller directs the pilot to the
area covered by the appropriate radar system
 Communication with the pilot then is transferred to the Ground Controlled Approach (GCA)
final controller
 GCA is a radar approach system operated from the ground by air traffic control personnel
transmitting instructions to the pilot by radio
 The approach may be conducted with surveillance radar (ASR) only, or with both
surveillance and precision approach radar (PAR)
 Pilots should specifically request a “PAR” approach when a precision radar approach is
desired and available or request an “ASR” or “surveillance” approach when a nonprecision
radar approach is desired
 By watching azimuth (ASR & PAR) and elevation (PAR only) indicators, which show the
position of the aircraft with respect to the desired course (ASR & PAR) and glide path (PAR
only), the final controller can tell the pilot what corrections are needed to hold the proper course
(ASR & PAR) and glide path (PAR only) as the aircraft descends toward the MDA or DA / DH
 When the aircraft reaches the appropriate altitude and / or the MAP, the pilot should be able to
see well enough to land visually
 If not, he or she must abandon the approach and try again, or proceed to an alternate airfield
where there is better weather

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Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)

 Centers are established primarily to provide air traffic service to aircraft operating on IFR flight
plans within controlled airspace, and principally during the en route phase of flight
 ARTCCs have direct communications with IFR air traffic
 They use Remote Center Air / Ground (RCAG) sites for better coverage
 These sites are comprised of both VHF and UHF transmitters and receivers
 They are remoted by telephone lines or microwave links
 Pilots should use these frequencies for communication only regarding IFR flight
 Request all other information through FSS, such as
 Flight plan filing
 En route weather
 Weather forecasts and similar data
 An ARTCC is divided into sectors
 Each ARTCC subdivides its assigned area into smaller volumes of airspace called sectors.
 Sectors may be divided both geographically and by altitude
 A sector can be from 50 to 200 miles wide
 Each sector is handled by one or a team of controllers
 Each sector has its own frequency
 As a flight progresses from one sector to another, the pilot is requested to change to the
appropriate frequency
 If ARTCC has a radio failure, there is usually a back-up radio receiver and transmitter
 If this happens, ARTCC will usually request a nearby aircraft to switch to the affected
frequency to broadcast instructions
 Wait at least 1 minute before deciding that the ARTCC has actually experienced a radio
frequency failure
 When an outage happens, the pilot should listen on the affected frequency while
attempting to comply with the recommended communications procedures
 If two-way communications cannot be established, the pilot should call on the last
ARTCC frequency used
 If failure occurs after two-way communications have been established, attempt to
reestablish contact with any other known ARTCC frequency
 If communications cannot be reestablished the pilot must request communications
instructions from the appropriate FSS
 Weather help from ARTCC
 ARTCC radar displays can show weather information via WARP
 WARP (Weather and Radar Processor) is an FAA computer network that puts NEXRAD
radar weather data on the controllers’ displays in ARTCC
 The controllers will describe the weather in 3 levels of precipitation
 “Moderate” (30 to 40 dBZ), “Heavy” (> 40 to 50 dBZ), and “Extreme” (> 50 dBZ)
 This data is not as detailed as airborne weather radar and may be delayed by some minutes
 “Light” precipitation (< 30 dBZ) is not displayed on WARP
 ARTCC WARP provided weather radar has much greater range than airborne weather radar
and can provide information beyond what an airborne set might show
 The information provided by this system can be useful to the pilot in the event of an airborne
weather radar failure or when otherwise not radar equipped

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Tower En Route Control (TEC)

 TEC is an ATC program for aircraft proceeding to and from certain metropolitan areas
 It links designated approach control areas
 The purpose of the program is to provide an overflow resource in the low altitude system
which would enhance ATC services
 Routes may be found in Chart Supplements that have these routes in their coverage area
 The expanded TEC program is primarily for non-turbojet aircraft operating at and below 10,000
feet
 It exists entirely within approach control airspace
 It is primarily for relatively short flights
 Use TEC for flights of two hours duration or less
 Longer flights may result in unexpected delays
 Requesting TEC does not shorten delays in the ATC system
 En route delays depend on a facilities workload
 If the major airport is experiencing delays, it may be better not to utilize TEC
 There are no special requirements for the pilot to use the TEC program
 Use the normal flight plan filing process
 Include the acronym “TEC” in the remarks section of the flight plan
Federal Airways
 The term “ATS (Air Traffic Service) route” is a generic term that includes “VOR Federal
airways,” “colored Federal airways,” “alternate airways,” “jet routes,” “Military Training
Routes,” “named routes,” and “RNAV routes”
 “ATS route” does not replace these more familiar route names, but serves only as an overall
title when listing the types of routes that comprise the United States route structure
 Three fixed route systems are established for air navigation purposes
 Federal airway or low altitude VOR and L/MF (low / medium frequency) system
 High altitude jet route system
 RNAV route system
 These route systems are aligned, to the extent possible, in an overlying manner to ease transition
between them
 The VOR and L/MF Airway System consists of
 Airways designated from 1,200 feet above the surface up to but not including 18,000 feet
MSL
 The altitude limits of a Victor airway should not be exceeded except to effect transition
within or between them
 These airways are depicted on en route low altitude charts
 VOR airways are depicted in black
 L/MF airways are depicted in brown
 Reporting points are designated for VOR Airway Systems
 If using a Victor airway, the pilot reports over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC

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 The L/MF airways are predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids

 Found only in Alaska and coastal North Carolina
 Routes are color coded
 Green and Red airways are plotted east and west
 Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and south
 The jet route system consists of jet routes
 Established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL450 inclusive
 These routes are depicted on en route high altitude charts
 Jet routes are depicted in black on aeronautical charts and are identified by a “J” (Jet)
followed by the airway number (e.g., J12)
 Jet routes, as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation
facilities (except in Alaska)
 Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF navigation aids and are charted
in brown color instead of black on en route charts
 Reporting points are designated for jet route systems
 Flights using jet routes will report over these points unless otherwise advised by ATC
 RNAV routes
 Published RNAV routes, including Q-routes and T-routes, can be flight planned for use by
aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any limitations or requirements noted on en route
charts, in applicable ACs, or by NOTAM
 RNAV route data (route line, identification boxes, mileages, waypoints, etc.) are printed on
the chart in blue
 Magnetic reference bearings are shown originating from a waypoint, fix / reporting point,
or NAVAID
 Q-routes are available between 18,000 feet MSL and FL450 inclusive
 Q-routes are depicted on En Route High Altitude Charts
 ICAO has assigned the letter prefix “Q” for use by the United States and Canada to
identify domestic high altitude RNAV routes
 The numbers 1-499 have been allotted for Q routes that originate in the United States
 Routes originating in Canada will be assigned a number from 500 to 999
 T-routes are available from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in some instances higher) up to
but not including 18,000 feet MSL
 T-routes are depicted on En Route Low Altitude Charts
 These routes are typically used to transition around or through an area of busy airspace
such as Class B airspace
 Pilots may file unpublished “direct” RNAV routes if properly equipped
 RADAR monitoring is required on all unpublished RNAV routes
Uncontrolled Airspace
 ATC services are not provided
 Comply with IFR altitudes and flight levels as appropriate
 Must remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 ft. in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest
obstacle from the course to be flown
 See AIM 3-3-3 and 14 CFR 91.173 and 177

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IFR Flight Planning and Filing Procedures

 If weather conditions are below VFR minimums, the pilot must file a flight plan and receive a
clearance before a departure within controlled airspace or prior to entering controlled airspace
 Instrument flight plans may be filed with FSS or ATC (or via 3rd party service providers)
 In person (very rare)
 By phone
 Via a computer or other electronic interface
 By radio if no other means are available
 ATC may be too busy to accept a flight plan filed by radio; contact FSS in this case
 File the IFR flight plan at least 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure
 Doing this will help avoid possible delay in receiving a departure clearance
 Indicate the installed equipment using the appropriate equipment suffixes
 In the “Route” box, describe the intended flight accurately and completely
 File via a preferred route when available
 Indicate the radio fixes along the way if the flight will not be flown on established airways
 Select fixes that define the route so aircraft position can be accurately established
 These fixes become compulsory reporting points, unless advised otherwise by ATC
 Always fly a direct route between radio fixes
 When flying direct routes outside controlled airspace, the pilot is responsible to adhere to
obstruction clearance requirements
 The MEAs on the IFR en route charts may not meet obstruction clearance criteria when
operating off those routes
 Long, direct RNAV routes may be filed but will only be approved in a radar environment when
acceptable to ATC
 File airport-to-airport
 Aircraft must have the appropriate RNAV capability and be filed as such
 Plan the random portion to begin/end over appropriate arrival/departure fixes or NAVAIDs
 Define the random route by waypoints including waypoint for each turnpoint in the route
 File a minimum of one route description waypoint for each ARTCC area transitioned
 Within 200 NM of the preceding center’s boundary
 Avoid prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 NM unless entry permission has been obtained
 There are several ways to obtain an IFR clearances at non-tower and outlying airports
 Ask the nearest FSS for the best means to obtain an IFR clearance
Closing an IFR Flight Plan
 When operating in VFR conditions, outside Class A airspace, you may cancel your IFR flight
plan any time
 After canceling, change to the appropriate frequency, transponder code, and VFR altitude
 If you are on an IFR flight plan to a towered airport, your flight plan is canceled automatically
upon landing
 If you are on an IFR flight plan to a non-towered airport, you must cancel your flight plan
 Do this by telephone after landing or with ATC via radio if in VFR conditions

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LESSON 27 – PILOT / CONTROLLER RESPONSIBILITIES

Lesson Introduction
 Much of this lesson is adapted from AIM, Chapter 5, Section 5, Pilot / Controller Roles and
Responsibilities (PCR)
 The PCRs can be found in various documents
 Pilot responsibility in FARs and AIM
 Controller responsibility in the FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, and supplemental
FAA directives
 Pilot responsibilities – As stated in the FARs, the pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly
responsible for, and is the final authority as to the safe operation of that aircraft
 In an emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot-in-command may deviate from any
flight rule in accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.3
 ATC responsibilities – The air traffic controller is responsible to give first priority to the
separation of aircraft and to the issuance of radar safety alerts
 Second priority to other services that are required, but do not involve separation of aircraft,
and third priority to additional services to the extent possible
 In order to maintain a safe and efficient air traffic system, it is necessary that each party fulfill
their responsibilities to the fullest
 The responsibilities of the pilot and the controller intentionally overlap in many areas
providing a degree of redundancy
 Should one or the other fail in any manner, this overlapping responsibility is expected to
compensate, in many cases, for failures that may affect safety
Air Traffic Clearance
 Pilot
 Acknowledges receipt and understanding of an ATC clearance
 Reads back any hold short instructions issued by ATC
 Requests clarification or amendment, as appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully
understood or considered unacceptable from a safety standpoint
 Promptly complies with an air traffic clearance upon receipt except as necessary to cope with
an emergency
 Advises ATC as soon as possible and obtains an amended clearance, if deviation is
necessary
 A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on the landing runway will be ensured
 A landing clearance does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any previously
issued altitude crossing restriction
 Controller
 Issues appropriate clearances for the operation to be conducted, or being conducted, in
accordance with established criteria
 Assigns altitudes in IFR clearances that are at or above the minimum IFR altitudes in
controlled airspace
 Ensures acknowledgement by the pilot for issued information, clearances, or instructions
 Ensures that readbacks by the pilot of altitude, heading, or other items are correct
 If incorrect, distorted, or incomplete, make corrections as appropriate

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Contact Approach
 Pilot
 Must request a contact approach and make it in lieu of a standard or special instrument
approach
 By requesting the contact approach
 Indicates that the flight is operating clear of clouds
 Has at least one mile flight visibility
 And reasonably expects to continue to the destination airport in those conditions
 Assumes responsibility for obstruction clearance while conducting a contact approach
 Advises ATC immediately if unable to continue the contact approach or if encounters less
than 1 mile flight visibility
 Is aware that if radar service is being received, it may be automatically terminated when told
to contact the tower
 Controller
 Issues clearance for a contact approach only when requested by the pilot
 Does not solicit the use of this procedure
 Before issuing the clearance, ascertains that reported ground visibility at destination airport is
at least 1 mile
 Provides approved separation between the aircraft cleared for a contact approach and other
IFR or special VFR aircraft
 When using vertical separation, does not assign a fixed altitude, but clears the aircraft
at or below an altitude which is at least 1,000 feet below any IFR traffic but not below
Minimum Safe Altitudes prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.119
 Issues alternative instructions if, in his or her judgment, weather conditions may make
completion of the approach impracticable
Visual Approach
 Pilot
 If a visual approach is not desired, advises ATC
 Complies with controller’s instructions for vectors
 Must have either the airport or the preceding aircraft in sight
 After being cleared for a visual approach, proceeds to the airport
 If the pilot accepts a visual to follow another aircraft, establishes a safe landing interval
 Pilot is responsible for wake turbulence separation
 If the pilot cannot comply, advises ATC immediately
 Radar service is automatically terminated, when instructed to change to advisory frequency
 Controller
 Will not clear an aircraft for a visual unless reported weather is VFR
 Issues visual approach clearance when the pilot reports sighting either the airport or a
preceding aircraft
 Provides separation except when visual separation is being applied by the pilot
 Continues flight following and traffic information until the aircraft has landed or has been
instructed to change to advisory frequency
 Informs the pilot when the preceding aircraft is a heavy

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Instrument Approach
 Pilot
 Be aware that the controller issues clearance for approach based only on known traffic
 Follows the procedure as shown on the IAP, including all restrictive notations, such as
 Procedure not authorized at night
 Approach not authorized when local area altimeter not available
 Procedure not authorized when control tower not in operation
 Procedure not authorized when glideslope not used
 Circling minimums not authorized at night
 Radar required
 The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart provide adequate
obstruction clearance and pilots should not descend below the circling altitude until the
aircraft is in a position to make final descent for landing
 Sound judgment and knowledge of the pilot’s and the aircraft’s capabilities are the
criteria for determining the exact maneuver in each instance since airport design and
the aircraft position, altitude and airspeed must all be considered
 Upon receipt of an approach clearance while on an unpublished route or being radar vectored
 Complies with the minimum altitude for IFR
 Maintains the last assigned altitude until established on a segment of a published route or
IAP, at which time published altitudes apply
 Controller
 Issues an approach clearance based on known traffic
 Issues an IFR approach clearance only after the aircraft is established on a segment of
published route or IAP or assigns an appropriate altitude for the aircraft to maintain until so
established
Missed Approach
 Pilot
 Executes a missed approach when one of the following conditions exist
 Arrival at the Missed Approach Point (MAP) or the Decision Altitude (DA) / Decision
Height (DH) and visual reference to the runway environment is insufficient to complete
the landing
 Determined that a safe landing is not possible
 Instructed to do so by ATC
 Advises ATC that a missed approach will be made
 Include the reason for the missed approach unless the missed approach is initiated by
ATC
 Complies with the missed approach instructions for the IAP being executed unless other
missed approach instructions are specified by ATC
 If executing a missed approach prior to reaching the MAP or DA / DH , flies the instrument
procedure to the MAP at an altitude at or above the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or
DA / DH before executing a turning maneuver
 Radar vectors issued by ATC, when informed that a missed approach is being executed,
supersedes the previous missed approach procedure
 If making a missed approach from a radar approach, executes the missed approach procedure
previously given or climbs to the altitude and flies the heading specified by the controller

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 Following a missed approach, requests clearance for specific action

 Another approach
 Hold for improved conditions
 Proceed to an alternate airport, etc.
 Controller
 Issues an approved alternate missed approach procedure if it is desired that the pilot execute
a procedure other than as depicted on the instrument approach chart
 May vector a radar identified aircraft executing a missed approach when operationally
advantageous to the pilot or the controller
 In response to the pilot’s stated intentions
 Issues a clearance to an alternate airport
 To a holding fix
 For reentry into the approach sequence, as traffic conditions permit
Radar Vectors
 Pilot
 Promptly complies with headings and altitudes assigned by the controller
 Questions any assigned heading or altitude believed to be incorrect
 Controller
 Vectors aircraft for separation, noise abatement, and to obtain an operational advantage for
the pilot or controller
 Vectors aircraft when requested by the pilot
 Vectors IFR aircraft at or above minimum vectoring altitudes
Safety Alerts
 Pilot
 Initiates appropriate action if a safety alert is received from ATC
 Is aware that this service is not always available
 Controller
 Issues a safety alert if aware an aircraft is at an altitude which places the aircraft in unsafe
proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another aircraft
 Two types of safety alerts are, terrain or obstruction alert, and aircraft conflict alert
Speed Adjustments
 Pilot
 Advises ATC any time cruising airspeed varies ± 5 percent or 10 knots, whichever is greater,
from that given in the flight plan
 Complies with speed adjustments from ATC unless
 The minimum or maximum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater or less
than the requested airspeed
 Operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on an ATC assigned SPEED ADJUSTMENT of
more than 250 knots IAS and subsequent clearance is received for descent below 10,000
feet MSL

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 Controller
 Assigns speed adjustments to aircraft when necessary
 Avoids speed adjustments requiring alternate decreases and increases
 Advises pilots to resume normal speed when speed adjustments are no longer required
Visual Separation
 Pilot
 If the pilot accepts instructions to provide visual separation, he or she is responsible to
maintain that separation
 Promptly notifies the controller if sight of that aircraft is lost
 The pilot accepts responsibility for wake turbulence separation
 Controller
 If the controller has both aircraft in sight he or she may instruct the pilot to maintain visual
separation
Instrument Departures
 Pilot
 Prior to departure considers the type of terrain and other obstructions on or in the vicinity of
the departure airport
 Determines if obstruction avoidance can be maintained visually or that the departure
procedure should be followed
 Determines whether a departure procedure is available for obstruction avoidance
 At airports where IAPs have not been published, hence no published departure procedure,
determines what action will be necessary and takes such action that will assure a safe
departure
 Controller
 At locations with airport traffic control service, when necessary, specifies direction of
takeoff, turn, or initial heading to be flown after takeoff
 At locations without airport traffic control service but within Class E surface area when
necessary to specify direction of takeoff, turn, or initial heading to be flown, obtains pilot’s
concurrence that the procedure will allow the pilot to comply with local traffic patterns,
terrain, and obstruction avoidance
 Includes established departure procedures as part of the ATC clearance when pilot
compliance is necessary to ensure separation
Wake Turbulence Separations
 Pilot
 Must exercise extreme caution
 Ensures safe takeoff and landing intervals and accepts the responsibility for providing wake
turbulence separation
 Pilots of heavy aircraft should always use the word “heavy” in radio communications
 Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake vortices should make every attempt to fly on
the established glidepath or, if glidepath guidance is not available, to fly as closely as
possible to a “3-1” glidepath
 May request additional separation if deemed necessary

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 Controller
 Issues traffic information and may issue instructions to follow a “heavy”
 For operations conducted behind heavy aircraft, ATC will specify the word “heavy”
 Required to apply no less than specified minimum separation for aircraft operating behind a
heavy jet and, in certain instances, behind large non-heavy aircraft
 Provides appropriate time or distance intervals to departing aircraft
Compulsory Reporting Points
 Pilot
 Position report is required, regardless of altitude, along the route being flown
 Pilots discontinue position reports when in radar contact
 Pilot reports identification, position, time, altitude, type of flight plan, ETA next reporting
point, name of succeeding reporting point, and pertinent remarks
 Controller
 ATC makes accurate estimates of the progress of every aircraft operating on an IFR flight
plan
 Controller will advise if in radar contact or not
 May ask for additional position reports if necessary
Loss of Communications
 Pilot
 If two-way communications cannot be established with ATC after a change of frequency,
attempt to recontact the previous controller
 Because of ATC equipment change over delay, wait one minute before deciding to
change frequencies
 If ATC is lost after communications are established, attempt to reconnect on any other known
ATC frequency and ask for instructions
 If communications with ATC cannot be established, request instructions from the appropriate
FSS
 Controller
 If ATC has a frequency outage, the controller will utilize a back-up receiver and transmitter
 The controller may ask a nearby aircraft to switch to the affected frequency to broadcast
communication instructions
Land and Hold Short Operations
 These operations include landing and holding short of
 An intersecting runway
 An intersecting taxiway
 Or some other designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway or taxiway
 LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that requires pilot participation to balance the needs
for increased airport capacity and system efficiency, consistent with safety
 This procedure can be done safely provided pilots and controllers are knowledgeable and
understand their responsibilities

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 At controlled airports, air traffic control may clear a pilot to land and hold short
 Pilots may accept such a clearance provided that the pilot-in-command determines that the
aircraft can safely land and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD)
 ALD data are published in
 The special notices section of the Chart Supplements
 In the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications
 Controllers will also provide ALD data upon request
 The pilot-in-command has the final authority to accept or decline any land and hold short
clearance
 Student pilots or pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not participate in the program
 To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become familiar with all available information concerning
LAHSO at their destination airport
 A LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance
unless an amended clearance is obtained or an emergency occurs
 A LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing
 If a rejected landing becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO clearance, promptly
notify the controller
 Controllers need a full read back of all LAHSO clearances
 Pilots should read back their LAHSO clearance and include the words, “HOLD SHORT
OF (RUNWAY, TAXIWAY, OR POINT)” in their acknowledgment of all LAHSO
clearances
 Situational awareness is vital to the success of LAHSO
 Pilots should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet
and 3 statute miles visibility
 Pilots should consider the effects of prevailing inflight visibility (such as landing into the
sun) and how it may affect overall situational awareness
 Surface vehicles and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel may also be participating in
LAHSO, especially in those operations that involve crossing an active runway
Practice Instrument Approaches
 Pilot
 Can request
 Same as in Instrument Approach section but may be required to maintain VFR conditions
 Controller
 Can comply if time and circumstances permit
 Same as in Instrument Approach section
IFR Separation Standards
 Pilot
 Always responsible to see and avoid other aircraft when conditions permit
 No specific actions required unless VFR-on-top
 Must fly at the appropriate VFR altitude
 Comply with VFR visibilities and distances from clouds

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 Controller
 ATC provides vertical separation by assigning different altitudes
 Longitudinal separation by providing an interval expressed in time or distance between
aircraft
 Separation is provided for all IFR flights except when VFR-on-top
See and Avoid
 Pilot
 When meteorological conditions permit, the pilot is responsible to see and avoid other traffic,
terrain, or obstacles
 Controller
 Provides radar traffic information to radar identified aircraft operating outside positive
control airspace on a workload permitting basis
 Issues safety alerts if the aircraft is at an altitude believed to place it in unsafe proximity to
terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft
Traffic Advisories
 Pilot
 Acknowledges receipt of traffic advisories
 Informs controller if traffic in sight
 Advises ATC if a vector to avoid traffic is desired
 Does not expect to receive radar traffic advisories on all traffic
 Advises controller if service is not desired
 Controller
 Issues radar traffic to the maximum extent consistent with higher priority duties except in
Class A airspace
 Provides vectors to assist aircraft to avoid observed traffic when requested by the pilot
 Issues traffic information to aircraft in the Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas for
sequencing purposes
VFR-On-Top
 Pilot
 Clearance must be requested by the pilot on an IFR flight plan
 The pilot assumes the responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft
 Must fly at the appropriate VFR altitude
 Comply with VFR visibilities and distances from clouds
 Comply with instrument flight rules that are applicable to the flight
 Advise ATC prior to any altitude change
 Controller
 May clear an aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top if the IFR pilot requests the clearance
 Informs the pilot of the reported height of the tops
 Once the aircraft reports reaching VFR-on-top, reclears the aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top

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Minimum Fuel Advisory

 Pilot
 Advises ATC of minimum fuel status if he or she cannot accept any undue delay
 On initial contact the term “minimum fuel” should be used after stating call sign
 A minimum fuel advisory does not imply a need for traffic priority
 This is not an emergency situation, but an advisory that indicates no undue delay should
occur
 If the situation turns into an emergency, declare such due to low fuel and report fuel
remaining in minutes
 Controller
 Relays this information to the facility to whom control jurisdiction is transferred
 Is alert for any occurrence which might delay the aircraft

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LESSON 28 – INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

Lesson Introduction
 An ILS is comprised of the following ground
components
 A localizer for azimuth (course) guidance
 A glideslope for descent guidance
 An Outer Marker (OM) beacon (middle
marker no longer required)
 Approach or runway lights for visual cues
 The airborne components
 Audio Panel
 Localizer and glideslope receivers
(typically part of the VOR Receiver)
 Indicator instruments
 Marker Beacons
 ADF / DME / suitable RNAV (GPS) for fix
identification or OM substitution
Localizer Principles of Operation Figure 28-1. – Instrument landing system.
 Localizer systems use frequencies from 108.00
to 111.95 MHz
 There are 40 possible channels in this frequency range
 The localizer ground antenna array is located on the extended centerline of the instrument
runway
 It is far enough from the opposite end of
the runway so as not to be a landing hazard
 It radiates a field pattern down the center
line of the instrument runway – front
course
 It also radiates a similar pattern in the
opposite direction – back course
 The localizer provides left / right course
guidance out to about 18 nautical miles from Figure 28-2. – Localizer coverage limits.
the runway and to an altitude of 4,500 feet
above the elevation of the antenna site  The localizer facility is identified by a
three-letter designator preceded by an
“I” – two dots
 The localizer course is narrow – 5
degrees
 A full scale deflection occurs when
the aircraft is 2.5 degrees to either
side of centerline
 With no more than one-quarter scale
deflection maintained, the aircraft
Figure 28-3. – Localizer receiver indications and aircraft displacement. will be aligned with the runway
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Rating TCO – Stage II What You Should Know

Glideslope Principles of Operation

 Glideslope (GS) is the part of the ILS that projects a radio beam upward at an angle of
approximately 3 degrees from the approach end of an instrument runway to provide vertical
guidance for final approach
 Glideslope equipment is housed in a building located approximately 750 to 1,250 feet down
the runway from the approach end of the runway, between 400 and 600 feet to one side of the
centerline
 The glideslope projection angle is normally adjusted to 2.5 to 3.5 degrees above horizontal
 It intersects the MM, when installed, at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above
the runway elevation on a standard approach
 At locations where standard minimum
obstruction clearance cannot be obtained, the
glideslope angle may be increased to 4 degrees
 The glideslope only radiates a signal on the front
course
 The glidepath is normally 1.4 degrees thick
 At 10 NM from the point of touchdown, this
represents a vertical distance of approximately
1,500 feet, narrowing to a few feet at touchdown
Figure 28-4. – Glideslope receiver
 The glideslope is a UHF frequency that is paired indications and aircraft displacement.
with the localizer’s VHF frequency
Marker Beacons
 A marker beacon is a low-powered transmitter that directs its signal upward in a small, fan-
shaped pattern
 Used along the flight path when approaching an airport for landing,
marker beacons emit a signal when directly over the facility
 ILS systems may have an associated outer marker (OM) beacon
 An inner marker (IM) may be used for a certified Category II ILS
 Middle marker (MM) beacons were once standard and may be present
 A marker beacon may also be installed to indicate the FAF on a Figure 28-5. – Marker beacon
localizer back course transmitter antennae.
 The OM is located on the localizer front course 4 to 7 miles from the airport
 It normally indicates a position where the aircraft will intersect the glidepath
 A MM would be located approximately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold on the center line
of the localizer front course at a position where the glideslope centerline is about 200 feet above
the touchdown zone elevation
 It normally indicates the point where decision altitude is reached when on the glidepath
 An IM would be located on the front course between the MM and the landing threshold
 Compass Locator is a low-powered NDB
 It is collocated with either the OM or the MM
 It is identified with the first two letters of the three-letter identifier for the associated LOC
when at an OM or the last two letters when at an MM
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 Marker Beacon Aircraft Receiver

 To fly an ILS, an aircraft will have another navigation radio that receives “marker beacon”
signals to provide position information on ILS approaches
 A marker beacon emits a signal upward and the aircraft will receive it when directly over
the transmitter
 This enables the pilot to identify a specific location along the approach path
 When activated by the marker beacon, the receiver emits audible tones, similar to Morse
code dots and dashes, and triggers three colored flashing lights
 Outer marker – blue – dash, dash
 Middle marker – amber – dot, dash
 Inner marker – white – continuous dot, dot
 Back course marker – white – dot, dot with pause between
 There are normally two switches to control the marker beacon receiver
 One switch will usually have several positions: off, high sensitivity, low sensitivity, and
test
 Use “HI” sensitivity initially
 This allows the pilot to hear the outer marker beacon one mile out
 Select the “LO” sensitivity to give a more accurate location of the markers
 The momentary down switch position is marker test, labeled “T/M” or “Test” and
illuminates all three lamps simultaneously to assure the lamps (internal and external)
are in working order
 A second switch will normally control the volume of the audible signal and / or the
intensity of the indicator lights
ILS Receiving Equipment
 Airborne equipment for the ILS system includes receivers for:
 Localizer
 Glideslope
 Marker beacons
 ILS may also use:
 ADF
 DME
ILS Categories
 ILS approaches are categorized into three different types of approaches based on the equipment
at the airport and in the aircraft, and the experience level of the pilot
 For Category I approaches, the pilot must be instrument rated and the aircraft must be
equipped with the appropriate airborne equipment
 Category II and III approaches require special certification for the pilot, ground equipment,
and airborne equipment
 Category I approaches provide for approach heights above the touchdown of not less than 200
feet
 Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet (with touchdown zone and centerline lighting, RVR
1,800 feet)
 Category II approaches provide a height above touchdown of not less than 100 feet with not less
than a 1,200 feet RVR

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 Category III approaches provide lower minimums for approaches without a decision altitude /
decision height minimum
 Category IIIa – no DA / DH or DA / DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet
 Category IIIb – no DA / DH or DA / DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not
less than 150 feet
 Category IIIc – no DA / DH and no RVR limitation
ILS Errors & Irregularities
 Localizer and glideslope signals are subject to the same type of bounce from hard objects as
space waves
 Reflection error – surface vehicles and even other aircraft flying below 5,000 feet AGL may
disturb the signal for aircraft on the approach
 False course error – glide scope facilities produce additional courses at higher vertical angles
 The angle of the lowest of these false courses will occur at approximately 9-12 degrees
 If the approach is conducted at the specified altitudes, these false courses will not be
encountered
 Problems can occur with the marker beacon receiver and are usually caused by not turning on the
receiver or by incorrect sensitivity
Localizer and Glideslope Critical Areas
 Disturbances to the ILS localizer and glideslope courses may occur when surface vehicles or
aircraft are operated near the localizer or glideslope antenna
 The localizer critical area extends from the localizer antenna 2,000’ toward the approach end
of the runway and 150’ on each side of the runway centerline. It includes a 50’ extension
behind the localizer antenna
 The glideslope critical area is a fan-shaped area, which extends from the glideslope antenna
1,300’ toward the approach end of the runway (or the end of the runway, whichever is
greater). It covers an area 40° each side of a line drawn through the glideslope antenna and
parallel to the runway centerline
Simplified Directional Facility
 The SDF provides a final approach course similar to that of the ILS localizer
 It does not provide glideslope information
 The SDF transmits signals within the range of 108.10 to 111.95 MHz
 The approach techniques and procedures used in an SDF instrument approach are essentially the
same as those employed in executing a standard localizer approach
 Except the SDF course may not be aligned with the runway
 The course may be wider, resulting in less precision
 Usable off-course indications are limited to 35 degrees either side of the course centerline
 Instrument indications received beyond 35 degrees should be disregarded
 The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway centerline
 Because of this, the angle of convergence between the final approach course and the runway
bearing should be determined by reference to the instrument approach procedure chart
 This angle is generally not more than 3 degrees
 An approach which is continued beyond the runway threshold will lead the aircraft to the
SDF offset position rather than along the runway centerline
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 The SDF signal is fixed at either 6 degrees or 12 degrees as necessary to provide maximum
flyability and optimum course quality
 Identification consists of a three-letter identifier transmitted in Morse code on the SDF frequency
 The appropriate instrument approach chart will indicate the identifier used at a particular
airport
 As of mid-2020, 2 SDF approaches exist on the FAA’s Instrument Flight Procedures (IFP)
Inventory Summary
Localizer-Type Directional Aid
 The LDA is of comparable use and accuracy to a localizer but is not part of a complete ILS
 The LDA course usually provides a more precise approach course than SDF
 The LDA is not aligned with the runway
 Straight-in minimums may be published where alignment does not exceed 30 degrees
between the course and runway
 Circling only minimums are published where this alignment exceeds 30 degrees
 A very limited number of LDA approaches also incorporate a glideslope
 These are annotated in the plan view of the instrument approach chart with a note, “LDA /
Glideslope”
 These procedures are considered APV approaches
 Because the final approach course is not aligned with the runway centerline, additional
maneuvering will be required compared to an ILS approach
 As of mid-2020, 33 LDA approaches exist on the FAA’s Instrument Flight Procedures (IFP)
Inventory Summary
Precision Instrument Approaches
 Precision approaches are those with horizontal and vertical guidance that meet ICAO Annex 10
requirements. In the U.S., they include
 Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 Precision Approach Radar (PAR) approach procedures
 PARs involve controllers essentially talking pilots down to minimums
 PARs usually serve military bases
 On a PAR approach, controllers constantly issue lateral and vertical commands to keep
the pilot on the proper approach path
 Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS)
 The U.S. version of GBAS has traditionally been referred to as LAAS (Local Area
Augmentation System)
 Based on Global Navigation Satellite System with local ground based augmentation
 Besides accurate lateral and vertical guidance, precision approaches may give information on
 Range from the runway
 Target altitudes along the approach path
 Alignment with the landing runway’s extended centerline
 Category I precision approaches permit descents to altitudes as low as 200 feet agl in visibilities
as low as one-half mile

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 The ILS, is comprised of two electronic signals

 A localizer, for lateral guidance
 A glideslope, for vertical guidance
 There are intermediate fixes along the ILS approach path
 Often, marker beacons are used in sequence
 The outer marker, if installed, is usually 3.5 to seven miles from the ILS’s runway threshold
 It illuminates a purple light on the aircraft’s marker beacon display
 It gives an audible three-dash Morse code identifier
 The middle marker, if installed, is usually about 3,500 feet from the threshold
 It illuminates an amber beacon on the marker beacon display
 It has a dot-and-dash identifier
 Frequently, activation of the middle marker nearly coincides with the decision altitude /
decision height and published minimums for the runway
 Other fixes along the approach path can include
 Locator marker beacon
 Markers that also give out NDB signals that the pilot can select on the aircraft’s ADF
receiver
 Intersections from nearby VOR radials or NDB bearings
 Distance information from localizers that have DME capability
 Fixes indicated in the approach procedure and identifiable with a suitable RNAV system
 ATC radar identified fixes
 Inner markers (white light, continuous dots) may be found with ILS approaches that can be
flown to lower minimums, such as Category II or III ILSs
Back Course Approaches
 A back course (BC) is the reciprocal of the localizer course for an ILS
 When flying a back-course approach, an aircraft approaches the instrument runway from the
opposite end
 When flying the back course with the typical VOR head, fly away from the needle to center it
 Using an HSI, set the arrow of the CDI to the front course and fly the needle indications
conventionally on final
 The back course doesn’t have glideslope sensing
 Back course sensing is more sensitive near the runway than on the front course due to the
antennae location
APV Instrument Approaches
 An APV approach is an approach with vertical guidance but does not meet ICAO Annex 10
precision approach standards
 APVs provide lateral and vertical guidance and include:
 Lateral Navigation / Vertical Navigation (LNAV/VNAV)
 Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV)
 LDA with glideslope

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LESSON 31 – AUTOPILOT APPROACHES & DME

Autopilot Approach Operations & Limitations
 Review and study the operating handbook to fully understand all the operations and limitations
of the specific autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Determine the maximum and minimum airspeed limitations
 Determine the maximum and minimum altitude limitations
 Note that the limitations may change during approach and en route operations
 Ensure understanding of all preflight tests
 Ensure understanding of all normal en route and approach operations
 Ensure understanding of all emergency operations including the various ways to disengage
 Most GA autopilots may not to be used during takeoff or landing
Nonprecision Approaches with an Autopilot
 Review and study the operating handbook to fully understand all the features of the specific
autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Determine the mode, heading bug, OBS course selection, and/or HSI course selection
settings required during the various phases of the approach
 Know its operating limitations
 Like any nonprecision approach, the pilot must determine the descent rates that will be required
during any altitude changes
 These should be calculated prior to the approach
 Most altitude capture features on GA autopilots will capture an altitude to the nearest hundred
feet
 During descents, capture the altitude to the nearest hundred feet above the required altitude if
the altitude is not a hundred foot increment
 Monitor the altitude capture closely to prevent it from violating an altitude restriction during
the capture process
 Once the nearest hundred feet above is captured, many autopilots will allow the pilot to
increment the altitude down by 20 feet at a time to get closer to the desired altitude—plan the
descent so that there is time to do this
 The pilot will likely be required to adjust the power for the descent and level-off
 A nonprecision approach should be flown in Approach mode (or Back Course, as required) while
on the final approach course to the airport
 Other modes may be required during procedure turns and legs of the approach prior to final
approach course interception
 Absence of an approach mode does not preclude the use of an autopilot for approaches if
they are approved by the manufacturer and for the installation
 The autopilot should be disengaged prior to descending below the Minimum Descent Altitude
(MDA) for landing
 Other limitations related to the unit or installation may preclude continuing the operation of
the autopilot all the way down to MDA

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 Autopilots without a pitch function can be used to help reduce the workload during a
nonprecision approach
 Track the course using the autopilot
 Manually control the pitch, power, and trim to descend or level-off as required
 Use caution when approaching the station or antennae while an autopilot is tracking a VOR,
Localizer, or Localizer Back Course in Approach or Back Course mode
 Heading mode may be required as the station or antennae is approached to prevent the
autopilot from chasing the CDI during passage
APV Approaches with an Autopilot
 Review and study the operating handbook to fully understand all the features of the specific
autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Determine the mode, heading bug, OBS course selection, and/or HSI course selection
settings required during the various phases of the approach
 Know its operating limitations
 Many autopilots with a pitch function can capture and track the glideslope on an APV approach
 The pilot will typically control the power and any other configuration changes associated
with the descent
 On a typical GA autopilot, the following conditions must be met in order to capture the
glideslope (installations may vary):
 Autopilot engaged in Approach mode with Altitude Hold on
 Tracking an APV signal with the needle centered for a required period of time before
reaching the glideslope (20 seconds is not unusual)
 Glideslope capture armed (this may be automatic when glideslope is sensed)
 Approaching the glideslope from below
 The pilot must monitor the function of the autopilot and its progress down the glideslope closely
 The autopilot must be disengaged at the Decision Altitude (DA) in order to land the airplane
 Other limitations related to the unit or installation may preclude continuing the operation of
the autopilot all the way to DA
 Autopilots without a pitch function can be used to help reduce the workload during an APV
approach
 Track the lateral signal (LNAV, LPV, or LDA) using the autopilot
 Manually control the pitch, power, and trim to track the glideslope
Precision Approaches with an Autopilot
 It is important to fully understand all the features of the specific autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Review and study the operating handbook section regarding precision approaches
 Determine the mode, heading bug, OBS course selection, and/or HSI course selection
settings required during the various phases of the approach
 Know its operating limitations
 Many autopilots with a pitch function can capture and track the glideslope on an ILS
 The pilot will typically control the power and any other configuration changes associated
with the descent

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 On a typical GA autopilot, the following conditions must be met in order to capture the
glideslope (installations may vary):
 Autopilot engaged in Approach mode with Altitude Hold on
 Tracking a localizer signal with the needle centered for a required period of time before the
glideslope (20 seconds is not unusual)
 Glideslope capture armed (this may be automatic when localizer is sensed)
 Approaching the glideslope from below
 The pilot must monitor the function of the autopilot and its progress down the glideslope closely
 The autopilot must be disengaged at the Decision Altitude (DA) in order to land the airplane
 The reliability of the signals the autopilot is tracking cannot be guaranteed below this altitude
 Other limitations related to the unit or installation may preclude continuing the operation of
the autopilot all the way to DA
 Autopilots without a pitch function can be used to help reduce the workload during a precision
approach
 Track the localizer using the autopilot
 Manually control the pitch, power, and trim to track the glideslope
Back Course Approaches with an Autopilot
 Review and study the operating handbook to fully understand all the features of the specific
autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Determine the mode, heading bug, OBS course selection, and/or HSI course selection
settings required during the various phases of the approach
 Know its operating limitations
 Like any nonprecision approach, the pilot must determine the descent rates that will be required
during any altitude changes
 These should be calculated prior to the approach
 Most altitude capture features on GA autopilots will capture an altitude to the nearest hundred
feet
 During descents, capture the altitude to the nearest hundred feet above the required altitude if
the altitude is not a hundred foot increment
 Monitor the altitude capture closely to prevent it from violating an altitude restriction during
the capture process
 Once the nearest hundred feet above is captured, many autopilots will allow the pilot to
increment the altitude down by 20 feet at a time to get closer to the desired altitude—plan the
descent so that there is time to do this
 The pilot will likely be required to adjust the power for the descent and level-off
 A Back Course approach should be flown in Back Course or Reverse mode while on the final
approach course to the airport
 Other modes may be required during procedure turns and legs of the approach prior to final
approach course interception
 The autopilot should be disengaged prior to descending below the Minimum Descent Altitude
(MDA) for landing
 Other limitations related to the unit or installation may preclude continuing the operation of
the autopilot all the way down to MDA

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 Autopilots without a pitch function can be used to help reduce the workload during a Back
Course approach
 Track the course using the autopilot
 Manually control the pitch, power, and trim to descend or level-off as required
 Use caution when approaching the antennae while an autopilot is tracking a Localizer Back
Course in Back Course mode
 Heading mode may be required as the antennae is approached to prevent the autopilot from
chasing the CDI during passage
 You will cross the localizer antennae prior to reaching the runway on a Back Course
approach
Missed Approach Procedures with an Autopilot
 It is imperative to fully understand all the features of the specific autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Review and study the operating handbook
 Know its operating limitations with regard to missed approach procedures
 Missed approach procedures are very dependent on the autopilot and its installation. The
following are common autopilot setups and pilot actions
 Disengage the autopilot and hand fly the missed approach procedure until a suitable higher
altitude has been reached
 Allow the autopilot to continue to control the roll for the airplane while the pilot applies the
pitch and power changes
 Press a go-around button on the throttle causing the autopilot to pitch up to a climb attitude
while the pilot applies climb power
 Press a go-around button on or near the throttle to disengage the autopilot and cause the flight
director to provide a climb attitude indication while the pilot hand flies the missed approach
procedure until a suitable higher altitude has been reached
 Regardless of the setup, the pilot must be involved in the process either through throttle
application and monitoring or through hand flying the missed approach procedure
 When the autopilot is flying the missed approach, the mode may need to be adjusted ensure a
stable heading through the process
 An autopilot may chase the needle in approach mode as it approaches a localizer antennae or
VOR station during a missed approach
 Heading mode may be most appropriate during the missed approach procedure until the CDI
stabilizes
Holding Procedures with an Autopilot
 It is imperative to fully understand all the features of the specific autopilot installed in the aircraft
 Review and study the operating handbook
 Know its operating limitations with regard to holding procedures
 Holding procedures are very dependent on the autopilot and its installation
 Some autopilots will fully fly a holding procedure in navigation mode based upon steering
commands from the GPS and your altitude inputs
 The pilot must activate the hold in the GPS and set the power for an appropriate holding
speed
 The GPS may calculate and send steering commands for the holding entry as well
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 Without GPS steering, use heading mode on the autopilot and the set the heading bug to the
headings you would use to hand fly the holding procedure
DME Principles of Operation
 When used in conjunction with a VOR system, DME makes it possible to determine an accurate
geographic position of the aircraft including the bearing and distance TO or FROM the station
 The aircraft DME transmits interrogating radio frequency (RF) pulses
 These are received by the DME antenna at the ground facility
 The signal triggers ground receiver equipment to respond back to the interrogating
aircraft
 The airborne DME equipment measures the elapsed time between the interrogation signal
sent by the aircraft and reception of the reply pulses from the ground station
 This time measurement is converted into a nautical-mile-distance from the station
 DME facilities are usually co-located with VOR, VORTAC, ILS, or LOC (Localizer)
transmitters using a frequency pairing plan where one frequency tunes both facilities
 The DME identifier is a high-pitched tone normally transmitted after three or four of the low-
pitch NAVAID identifiers
 If the NAVAID is out of service, only the DME identifier is heard at 30 second intervals
 If the DME is out of service, there is a pause after three or four of the NAVAID identifiers
 If an instrument approach specifies ILS / DME, LOC / DME, VOR / DME, or ADF / DME, that
approach cannot be flown unless DME equipment or an approved substitute is used
 Approved DME fixes are depicted by a large “D” with the specific mileage inside it on FAA
plates
 DME provides slant-range distance information from the aircraft to the station
 Many calculate groundspeed and time to station but these are only accurate when proceeding
directly to or from the DME station
 DME receivers operate on UHF between 962 and 1213 MHz
 While the system is accurate – better than .5 NM or 3 percent of the distance, whichever is
greater – remember that DME measures slant-range distance
 The accuracy diminishes as the aircraft approaches the station
 DME is sometimes installed as an independent unit, and the pilot must select the frequency to be
used
 The DME is usually connected to one or more VOR receivers
 In this case, the DME switch is set to the “remote” mode, which couples it to the VOR being
tuned
 If the DME is connected to both VOR receivers, there will be a separate switch that selects
which VOR receiver the DME will use
 The airborne equipment includes an antenna and a receiver
 The equipment controlled by the pilot include
 Channel Selector
 On / Off / Volume Switch
 Mode Switch
 Altitude control – some DMEs correct for slant-range error

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DME Errors & Irregularities

 Sometimes the DME counter will move too slowly
 Two methods to check DME accuracy
 Install dual DME receivers and always tune them to the same station so that both outputs can
be compared
 Install one DME receiver and verify its accuracy with an ADF or VOR cross-bearing just
prior to using the DME
 DME is a single data source. Its output must be verified each time the device is used for
navigation
 DME gives slant range mileage, the line-of-sight mileage between the aircraft and the DME
transmitter
 Flying at 6,000’ AGL and passing directly over a DME transmitter, the DME receiver will
indicate 1 NM
DME Arc Interception
 To intercept a DME arc, lead the turn by 0.5 miles
DME Arc Tracking
 To track the arc and compensate for wind, use 10, 20, or 30 degree
heading changes
 For small, 7-15 NM arcs, start with a 20 degree heading change
and adjust as DME mileage dictates
 Required heading changes will vary with aircraft speed, wind,
and arc size Figure 31-1. – DME arc intercept.
 To remain oriented as the arc is flown, use the OBS
 After turning onto the arc, center the VOR needle with a FROM indication
 Advance the OBS approximately 10 degrees so that it’s set to one of the numbers printed
on the OBS card – 230, 240, etc.
 When the VOR needle centers, advance the OBS another 10 degrees, and continue to do
this as the arc is flown
 When the VOR needle centers, the OBS gives the pilot a direct readout of the radial
crossing
 Overview of flying the DME arc using
Figure 31-2
 The aircraft tracks inbound toward the
VOR on a course of 133 degrees – the
aircraft is flying inbound on the 313
degree radial
 Intercepts and turns left to track the
arc from the IAF
 Use the circled IAF in our
example
 Intercepts and tracks the 226° ILS
course inbound to the runway

Figure 31-2. – Typical DME arc.

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 Detailed explanation of flying the DME arc using Figure 31-2

 The aircraft is tracking inbound to the VOR on the 313° radial
 The VOR’s OBS is set to 133° with a TO indication
 Assume a 90 knot groundspeed
 Turn to intercept the arc at 15.5 DME miles from the VOR – 15 plus 0.5
 Make a 90° left turn to a heading of 043°
 As the aircraft approaches the new heading, about 30 seconds on the clock with a standard
rate turn, check the DME mileage
 If undershooting or overshooting, roll out 20° early or late to compensate
 If on target, the DME indicates 15.0 miles in our example
 Center the OBS with a FROM indication – the OBS might now read 310° after the left turn to
intercept
 The OBS is advanced 10° forward to 320°
 With the OBS now set, as the aircraft crosses the 320° radial, the needle will center and
then move to the left side of the instrument, pointing away from the VOR
 When passing the 320° radial, if the DME indicates 15.3 miles, turn right 20° to get back to
the 15.0 mile point
 Once there and on the 320° radial, reset the OBS to 330°
 Add some crab angle to compensate for the wind
 This process continues so that the aircraft is kept, as close as possible, on the 15.0 NM arc
 Lead radials may be marked on the approach plate – LR 038, in our example
 As a rule of thumb when lead radials are not available, lead the intercept by 10° of
bearing change
 10° is not exact because that factor depends on groundspeed and distance from the
VOR
 However, the pilot will find that leading inbound turns by about 10° of bearing
change will place the aircraft close to the inbound course
 Afterwards, a 20° intercept angle will easily correct undershoots or overshoots if the
crosswind component is not too strong
 Upon crossing the lead radial or 10° prior to the inbound course, start a 90° right turn
inbound
 Use the 038° radial from the VOR in our example
 Set the inbound course as required and determine if frequency change is required
 226° and a change to the localizer frequency in our example
Use of GPS as Substitute for DME
 Pilots may substitute an IFR-certified GPS for DME provided that the database is current or the
user has verified that the procedure has not been amended since the database expired
 The GPS must be measuring distance to the same fix as the DME
 Minor differences in the distance may be seen as the fix is approached
 DME measures slant-range distance
 GPS measures horizontal distance
 Higher altitude will create a larger difference

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Instrument Approaches with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators

(Partial Panel)
 In analog instrument airplanes partial panel usually means a vacuum pump failure has occurred
 This will typically result in the loss of the attitude indicator and heading indicator
 Partial panel can mean the loss of any primary flight instrument – airspeed indicator for example
when the Pitot tube ices over
 The first step after ensuring control of the aircraft in pitot or static instrument failure should
be an attempt to resolve the failure
 Pitot heat
 Alternate static source
 If the failure cannot be resolved, an approach with the loss of these primary flight instrument
indicators will be required
 Try to cover the lost instruments so that they don’t distract you – a folded dollar bill will often
suffice
 When flying an approach without attitude and heading indicators:
 The magnetic compass or another emergency alternative becomes your heading indicator
 Attitude indication is reflected on the turn coordinator, altimeter, airspeed, and vertical speed
indicators
 When flying an approach without an airspeed indicator, utilize pitch and power settings known
to provide predictable airspeed and climb/descent performance
 Flying an approach without an altimeter can be difficult due an inability to determine altitudes
for level-offs or missed approach points (step-down fixes, MDAs, DAs, etc)
 Depending upon whether the failure is in the static source or in the instrument, other sources
of altitude may be available in the flight deck for emergency use (not as accurate but may be
helpful)
 Installed and portable GPS/WAAS navigators may provide some altitude information
 A portable unit won’t be affected by a static system failure
 GPS derived altitude without WAAS enhancement or baro-aiding may be subject to
errors of up to 512 feet
 WAAS enhanced altitude may be subject to errors of up to 23 feet
 Your transponder may still provide accurate altitude information (within 100 feet) to
ATC; some will also provide a digital pressure altitude readout in the flight deck
 An approach with a glideslope may be helpful
 Primary flight instrument indicator failures in a glass equipped airplane may occur in number of
ways:
 Failure of a flight display
 Failure of a unit supplying information to a display or another processing unit
 Blockage of the pitot or static system
 Unresolved electrical failure and subsequent draining of any backup electrical system
 An approach after the failure of a primary flight instrument indicator in a glass equipped airplane
may require the use of:
 Another display in a reversionary mode
 The backup instruments
 Other alternatives unique to the installation
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LESSON 34 – ICING
Lesson Introduction
 Aircraft icing is one of the major weather hazards to aviation
 Icing is a cumulative hazard
 It reduces aircraft efficiency by
 Increasing weight
 Reducing lift
 Decreasing thrust
 Increasing drag
 Each effect tends to either slow the aircraft or force it downward
 Icing also seriously impairs aircraft engine performance
 Other icing effects include
 False indications on flight instruments
 Loss of radio communications
 Loss of operation of control surfaces, brakes, and landing gear
 In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5
minutes
Required Conditions for Ice Formation
 Two conditions are necessary for structural icing in flight
 The aircraft must be flying through visible moisture such as rain or cloud droplets
 The temperature at the point where the moisture strikes the aircraft must be 0° C or colder
 Beware of outside temperatures between +02° and -10° C
 Aerodynamic cooling can lower temperature of an airfoil to 0° C even though the
ambient temperature is a few degrees warmer
 Supercooled water increases the rate of icing and is essential to rapid accretion
 Supercooled water is in an unstable liquid state
 When an aircraft strikes a supercooled drop, part of the drop freezes instantaneously
 The latent heat of fusion released by the freezing portion raises
the temperature of the remaining portion to the melting point
 Aerodynamic effects may cause the remaining portion to freeze
 The way in which the remaining portion freezes determines
the type of icing
 The types of structural icing are
 Clear – smooth sheet of solid ice
 Rime – milky appearance
 Mixed or conglomerate – builds a rough accumulation
Formation of Frost Figure 34-1. – Clear, rime, and
mixed icing on airfoils.
 Frost is a hazard to flying
 Remove all frost from airfoils prior to takeoff
 Frost forms near the surface primarily in clear, stable air and with light wind conditions through
deposition of moisture on a subfreezing surface
 Thin metal airfoils are especially vulnerable surfaces on which frost will form

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 Frost does not change the basic aerodynamic shape of the wing
 The roughness of its surface spoils the smooth flow of air causing a slowing of the airflow
 This slowing of the air causes
 Early airflow separation over the affected airfoil resulting in a loss of lift
 A heavy coat of hard frost will cause a 5 to 10 percent increase in stall speed
 Even a small amount of frost on airfoils may prevent an aircraft from becoming
airborne at normal takeoff speed
 Once airborne, an aircraft could have an insufficient margin of airspeed above stall so
that moderate gusts or turning flight could produce incipient or complete stalling
 Wind tunnel and flight tests have shown that frost, snow, and ice accumulations (on
the leading edge or upper surface of the wing) no thicker or rougher than a piece of
coarse sandpaper can reduce wing lift by as much as 30% and increase drag by 40%.
Formation of Clear Ice
 Clear ice forms when, after initial impact, the remaining liquid portion of the drop flows out over
the aircraft surface gradually freezing as a smooth sheet of solid ice
 This type forms when drops are large
 In rain
 In cumuliform clouds
 Clear ice is hard, heavy, and tenacious
 Its removal by deicing equipment is especially difficult
Formation of Rime Ice
 Rime ice forms when drops are small
 In stratified clouds
 In light drizzle
 The liquid portion remaining after initial impact freezes rapidly before the drop has time to
spread over the aircraft’s surface
 The small frozen droplets trap air between them giving the ice a white, granular appearance
 Rime ice is lighter in weight than clear ice
 Its irregular shape and rough surface make it very effective in decreasing the aerodynamic
efficiency of the airfoil
 It reduces lift and increases drag
 Rime ice is brittle and more easily removed than clear ice
Formation of Mixed Ice
 Mixed ice forms when drops vary in size or when liquid drops are intermingled with snow or ice
particles
 It can form rapidly
 Ice particles become imbedded in clear ice
 They build a very rough accumulation sometimes in a mushroom shape on leading edges

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Icing Intensities
 The following describes icing intensities
Intensity Airframe Ice Accumulation
Trace Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater than rate of sublimation. A
representative accretion rate for reference purposes is less than ¼ inch per hour on the
outer wing. The pilot should consider exiting the icing conditions before they become worse.
Light The rate of ice accumulation requires occasional cycling of manual deicing systems to
minimize ice accretions on the airframe. A representative accretion rate for reference
purposes is ¼ inch to 1 inch per hour on the unprotected part of the outer wing. The pilot
should consider exiting the icing condition.
Moderate The rate of ice accumulation requires frequent cycling of manual deicing systems to
minimize ice accretions on the airframe. A representative accretion rate for reference
purposes is 1 to 3 inches per hour on the unprotected part of the outer wing. The pilot
should consider exiting the icing condition as soon as possible.
Severe The rate of ice accumulation is such that ice protection systems fail to remove the
accumulation of ice and ice accumulates in locations not normally prone to icing, such
as areas aft of protected surfaces and any other areas identified by the manufacturer. A
representative accretion rate for reference purposes is more than 3 inches per hour on the
unprotected part of the outer wing. By regulation, immediate exit is required.
Figure 34-2. – Ice intensities and how they affect the aircraft.

 Severe icing is aircraft dependent, as are the other categories of icing intensity
 Severe icing may occur at any ice accumulation rate when the icing rate or ice accumulations
exceed the tolerance of the aircraft
PIREPs Specific to Icing
 Proper preflight action includes obtaining information on the freezing level and the above
freezing levels in precipitation areas
 Report icing to ATC
 If operating IFR, request a new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard
 Give the type of aircraft to ATC when reporting icing
 Refer to the icing intensities table for a description of how to report the rate of ice accumulation
 Example of a PIREP: give aircraft identification, location, time (UTC), intensity of type, altitude
/ FL, aircraft type, indicated air speed (IAS), and outside air temperature (OAT)
 UUA /OV DAY/TM 1235/FL 120/TP C210/TB MOD/IC MOD RIME
 If the temperature is not included in the PIREP, AFSS/FSS or ATC may be able to provide an
estimated temperature from the winds & temperatures aloft
 It is important to be a contributor to the PIREP system so that other pilots are aware of the actual
conditions experienced in flight related to icing, cloud bases & tops, and temperatures
AIRMETs Specific to Icing
 An AIRMET is issued to advise pilots of hazardous weather, but describes conditions at
moderate intensities
 There are three types of AIRMETs
 Zulu describes moderate icing and provides freezing level heights
 AIRMETs, including Zulu, are issued every 6 hours with intermediate updates issued as needed

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SIGMETs Specific to Icing

 A SIGMET is issued to advise pilots of severe weather considered hazardous to ALL categories
of aircraft
 It is valid for 4 hours for all events such as icing
 Icing SIGMETs are issued for forecasts of severe icing not associated with thunderstorms
 A convective SIGMET implies severe icing
Winds / Temps Aloft Forecast
 The winds and temperatures aloft forecast is for specific locations in the contiguous United
States
 Forecasts are made twice daily based on 00Z and 12Z data for use during specified time intervals
 The levels through 12,000 feet are based on true altitude
 The levels at 18,000 feet and above are based on pressure altitude
 The temperature information can be useful in determining icing potential at particular altitudes
 It can also be used to determine potential areas of altitudes that the pilot may use to escape an
inadvertent icing encounter

Figure 34-3. – Winds and temperatures aloft forecast.

Deicing and Anti-Icing Equipment

 Deicing equipment is installed to remove ice that has
already formed on protected surfaces of the aircraft
 Deicing equipment is generally limited to pneumatic
boots on wing and tail leading edges
 Upon pilot actuation, the boots inflate with air from the
pneumatic pumps to break off accumulated ice
 After a few seconds of inflation, they are deflated back
to their normal position with the assistance of a vacuum
 The pilot monitors the buildup of ice and cycles the
boots as directed in the AFM/POH
 Anti-icing equipment is provided to prevent ice from
forming on certain protected surfaces of the aircraft
 Anti-icing equipment includes weeping or heated
wings and tail leading edges, heated pitot tubes, heated
or non-icing static ports and fuel vents, propeller
blades with electrothermal boots or alcohol slingers,
Figure 34-4. – Pneumatic deicing boots.
windshields with alcohol spray or electrical resistance
heating, windshield defoggers, and heated stall warning lift detectors
 In the absence of AFM/POH guidance to the contrary, anti-icing equipment should be
actuated prior to flight into known or suspected icing conditions
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 Deicing/anti-icing equipment only eliminates ice from the protected surfaces but significant
ice accumulations may form on unprotected areas, even with proper use of deice and anti-ice
systems
 All aircraft are required to have ice protection for their propulsion systems in case of an
inadvertent icing encounter
 Most IFR certified aircraft have pitot heat and an alternate source of static air for inadvertent
encounters
 An aircraft which is certificated for flight in known icing conditions (FIKI) goes through
an extensive procedure to ensure that it can safely operate throughout the icing conditions
encompassed by the icing envelopes specified in 14 CFR part 25, appendix C
 Its objective is not only to verify that the aircraft has functioning ice protection, but also to
verify that the aircraft will have acceptable performance and handling qualities in all the
environmental conditions covered by the icing envelopes
 The FIKI certification process typically includes:
 extensive computer model analysis
 tunnel testing
 dry-air testing
 testing behind an icing tanker
 flight in natural icing conditions
 The icing envelopes used for FIKI certification are mainly based on various types of stratus and
cumulus supercooled clouds
 They specify maximum amounts of liquid water and drop sizes expected at certain
temperatures and altitude ranges
 It has been estimated that these envelopes encompass 99.9 percent of all conditions
encountered in research programs in stratus and cumulus clouds
 Certification for flight in icing conditions does not cover
 Up to 0.1 percent of possible conditions
 Supercooled large droplets (SLD)
 Freezing rain or freezing drizzle that may be encountered beneath the clouds
 Ice crystals that may be encountered in high concentrations at higher altitudes in the area of
convective weather systems
 Some GA aircraft, that are not certificated for FIKI, may have ice protection systems on their
wings and tailplane
 These provide an additional safety margin for an inadvertent icing encounter
 For emergency use only
 Only need to show that its installation is “not a hazard”
 The differences between “not a hazard” systems and fully certified systems are significant
 Airplane performance is unknown
 Stall warning in icing conditions may not activate prior to stall
 Controls may jam due to ice accretion
 System features required for known icing may not be present
 The AFM/POH, placards, and the manufacturer should be consulted for specific determination of
approvals and limitations

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Icing Avoidance Strategies

 First and foremost, avoid conditions conducive to icing as discussed in Required Conditions for
Ice Formation earlier in this lesson
 Utilize all of the available report and forecast tools to determine if icing conditions should be
expected then determine an altitude, route, or time period which will minimize exposure
 Beyond the tools like PIREPs, Winds/Temps Aloft, AIRMETs, and SIGMETs which were
discussed earlier in this lesson, there are other more modern tools on http://aviationweather.gov/
which can provide detailed insights into the potential for icing conditions
 WPC Surface Prog
 Current Icing Product (CIP)
 Forecast Icing Product (FIP)
 Current Freezing Level Forecast
 Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)
 The WPC Surface Prog provides an indication about precipitation forecast at the surface
 Utilize this along with temperatures aloft to determine an altitude where the precipitation
may be frozen
 The CIP & FIP are combined on a single display map but vary based on timing of the product
 Adjust the time, altitude, and type of plot to get the best picture of icing potential for your
planned flight
 Plots include Probability of icing along with several Severity related graphics

Figure 34-5. – CIP/FIP probability of icing at 7000 ft.

 The Current Freezing Level Forecast provides a quick, color-coded indication of where the
freezing level might be at the forecast time

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 The GFA has a number of plots useful for determining icing potential
 The Ice button on the Forecast tab provides a combined look at the FIP severity plot and the
graphical AIRMET for ice
 Adjust the time and altitude for a more detailed picture of the icing potential
 The Clouds button on the Forecast tab provides a forecast of the cloud coverage, the MSL
altitude of the cloud bases, and the MSL altitude for the cloud tops
 Adjust the time or look at color coded altitudes for a clearer indication of the clouds
 Zoom in for more detailed information
 Click on a station to get additional specifics
 The PCPN/WX button on the Forecast tab provides a forecast of surface precipitation to
expect
 Adjust the time to see how this will change
 The PIREP button on the Obs/Warn tab provides a look at current PIREPs along with radar
and satellite imagery
 Adjust the time to see history of these plots
 The CIG/VIS button on the Obs/Warn tab allows the selection of the current ceilings,
visibility, and flight categories along with radar and satellite imagery
 Adjust the time to see history of these plots
 The METAR button on the Obs/Warn tab and the TAF button on the Forecast tab provide a
graphical indication of their information for the selected time period
 Adjust the time as required
 Zoom in for additional stations
 Click on a station to get additional specifics
 If conditions are not as forecast, consider altitude or route changes that will keep your airplane
out of the potential icing conditions or consider a diversion to another airport
 If you find yourself on top of a cloud layer that could contain ice, negotiate with ATC for your
descent to help ensure minimal exposure to ice during the descent
Inadvertent Icing Encounter Strategies
 Regardless of anti-ice or deice protection offered by the aircraft, a pilot’s first course of action
should be to leave the area of visible moisture when icing is encountered
 Descend to an altitude below the cloud bases
 Climb to an altitude that is above the cloud tops
 Turn to a different course
 If this is not possible, then move to an altitude where the temperature is above freezing
 Disengage the autopilot and hand fly the airplane out of the icing conditions
 Hand flying helps the pilot notice changes in performance due to ice accumulation
 Exit icing conditions as quickly as possible if the airplane has no deice equipment or if the
system is not certified
 Do not hesitate to ask for ATC assistance in exiting the conditions immediately
 If ATC is slow to provide a suitable clearance or assistance, declare an emergency before the
icing encounter becomes critical
 Controller may not understand urgency of a request so make it clear with “emergency”
 A FIKI certified system will provide additional exit options but avoid lingering in the icing
conditions even with a certified system

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 Consider the type of cloud when determining an exit strategy

 Icing in middle and low-level stratiform clouds is confined, on the average, to a layer
3-4,000’ thick
 Changing altitude only a few thousand feet may take the aircraft out of icing conditions,
even if it remains in clouds
 Icing intensity generally ranges from a trace to light, with the maximum values occurring
in the cloud’s upper portions
 Main hazard lies in the great horizontal extent of stratiform clouds layers
 An icing layer in cumuliform clouds is smaller horizontally, but greater vertically than in
stratiform clouds
 More variable in cumuliform clouds because many of the factors conducive to icing
depend on the particular cloud’s stage of development
 Intensities may range from a trace in small cumulus to severe in large towering cumulus
or cumulonimbus
 Can occur at all levels above the freezing level
 Most intense in the upper portion of the cloud where the updraft is concentrated and
SLDs are plentiful
 Icing can extend to great heights in towering cumulus and cumulonimbus where strong
updrafts allow SLDs to exist at temperatures as cold as -40°C
 Roll upsets
 Caused by ice accumulations forward of the ailerons during a severe icing encounter,
particularly in supercooled large droplet (SLD) conditions
 Control anomalies worse at slow speeds (approach and landing)
 Guidelines for remedy:
 Reduce the AOA by increasing airspeed or extending wing flaps to the first setting
 If in a turn, the wings should be rolled level
 Set appropriate power, and monitor the airspeed and AOA
 If the flaps are extended, do not retract them unless it can be determined that the upper
surface of the airfoil is clear of ice; retracting flaps will increase AOA at a given airspeed
 Visually verify that any wing ice protection is functioning normally and symmetrically
 Tailplane icing
 Tailplane icing can cause tailplane stall; addition of flaps and power may increase the
tailplane AOA to its stalling point due to increased downwash
 Tailplane stalls have subtle differences in indications from a wing stall but very different
recovery techniques
 Tailplane stall indications
 Initially, lightening of elevator controls
 Difficulty in trimming for horizontal flight
 Buffeting in the elevator control
 Pilot induced oscillations
 Strong force pulling the yoke full forward (up to 400 lbs.) when it occurs
 Tailplane stall recovery
 Pull the yoke aft
 Reduce flaps
 Reduce power (on some aircraft)

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 Freezing rain and freezing drizzle

 Generally forms when rain becomes supercooled by falling through a subfreezing layer of air
(SLD)
 Freezing rain requires a temperature inversion which can occur when a warmer air mass
overlies a colder air mass such as along a warm front
 When flying in freezing rain, normally there is warmer air (above 0 °C (32 °F)) above
 Might be a consideration for an exit strategy
 Freezing drizzle may have formed by collision-coalescence and may not have warmer air
above
Flight in Known Icing Conditions
 Certified equipment and FIKI approval doesn’t mean that a pilot should go seek icing conditions
and stay in them
 The equipment should be used to safely exit the icing conditions but it may allow fewer
cancellations due to the potential for ice
 Unless otherwise recommended in the AFM/POH, the autopilot should not be used in icing
conditions
 Continuous use of the autopilot masks trim and handling changes that occur with ice
accumulation
 Without this control feedback, the pilot may not be aware of ice accumulation building to
hazardous levels
 The autopilot may suddenly disconnect when it reaches design limits, and the pilot may find
the airplane has assumed unsatisfactory handling characteristics.
 Anti-icing equipment should be turned on prior to entering known or suspected icing conditions
unless there is AFM/POH guidance to the contrary
 Deicing boots should be cycled as directed in the AFM/POH
 Don’t forget that by definition, severe icing is a rate of accumulation that will overwhelm the
deicing/anti-icing equipment and requires immediate deviation
 Can lead to roll upset
 Refer to the AFM/POH for limitations, additional operating instructions, and emergency
procedures associated with the installed FIKI equipment

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LESSON 35 – THUNDERSTORMS
Lesson Introduction
 In some tropical regions, thunderstorms occur year-round
 In the midlatitudes, they develop most frequently in spring, summer, and fall
 The number of days on which thunderstorms occur varies widely from season to season
 How Big?
 Individual thunderstorms measure from less than 5 miles to more than 30 miles in diameter
 Cloud bases range from a few hundred feet in very moist climates to 10,000 feet or higher in
drier regions
 Tops generally range from 25,000 to 45,000 feet but occasionally extend above 65,000 feet

Figure 35-1. – Cross section of a thunderstorm.

Conditions Required for Thunderstorms

 For a thunderstorm to form, the air must have
 Sufficient water vapor
 An unstable lapse rate
 An initial upward boost (lifting) to start the storm process in motion
 The following can provide the lift
 Surface heating
 Converging winds
 Sloping terrain
 A frontal surface
 Any combination of the above

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Thunderstorm Lifecycle
 The upward motion creates an initial updraft
 Cooling in the updraft results in condensation and the beginning of a cumulus cloud
 Condensation releases latent heat which partially offsets cooling in the saturated updraft and
increases buoyancy within the cloud
 This increased buoyancy drives the updraft still faster, drawing more water vapor into the
cloud
 For awhile, the updraft becomes self-sustaining
 All thunderstorms progress through a life cycle from their initial development through maturity
and into degeneration
 A thunderstorm cell, during its life cycle, progresses through three stages
 The cumulus
 The mature
 The dissipating
 It is virtually impossible to visually detect the transition from one stage to another
 A thunderstorm may be a cluster of cells in different stages of the life cycle

Figure 35-2. – Stages of a thunderstorm.

 The Cumulus Stage

 The key feature of the cumulus stage is an updraft
 The updraft varies in strength and extends from very near the surface to the cloud top
 Growth rate of the cloud may exceed 3,000 feet per minute
 It is inadvisable to attempt to climb over rapidly building cumulus clouds
 Early, during the cumulus stage, water droplets are quite small but grow to raindrop size as
the cloud grows
 The upwelling air carries the liquid water above the freezing level creating an icing
hazard
 As the raindrops grow still heavier, they fall
 The cold rain drags air with it creating a cold downdraft coexisting with the updraft
 At this point, the cell has reached the mature stage

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 The Mature Stage

 Precipitation, beginning to fall from the
cloud base, is the signal that a downdraft has
developed and a cell has entered the mature
stage
 Cold rain in the downdraft retards compressional
heating, and the downdraft remains cooler than
surrounding air
 Therefore, its downward speed is accelerated
and may exceed 2,500 feet per minute Figure 35-3. – Mature stage of a steady state
 The down rushing air spreads outward at the thunderstorm.
surface producing
 Strong, gusty surface winds
 A sharp temperature drop
 A rapid rise in pressure
 The surface wind surge is a “plow wind” and its leading edge is the “first gust”
 Meanwhile, updrafts reach a maximum with speeds possibly exceeding 6,000 feet per minute
 Updrafts and downdrafts in close proximity, create strong vertical shear and a very turbulent
environment
 All thunderstorm hazards reach their greatest intensity during the mature stage
 The Dissipating Stage
 Downdrafts characterize the dissipating stage of the thunderstorm cell
 At this stage, the storm dies rapidly
 The dissipating stage is complete when
 The rain has ended
 The downdrafts have abated
 When all cells of the thunderstorm have completed this stage, only harmless cloud remnants
remain
Air Mass Thunderstorms
 Air mass thunderstorms most often result from surface heating
 When the storm reaches the mature stage, rain falls
 Falling precipitation induces
 Frictional drag
 Retards the updraft
 Reverses it to a downdraft
 The storm is self-destructive
 The downdraft and cool precipitation cool the lower portion of the storm and the underlying
surface
 It cuts off the inflow of water vapor and the storm runs out of energy and dies
 A self-destructive cell usually has a life cycle of 20 minutes to 1½ hours
 Since air mass thunderstorms generally result from surface heating, they reach maximum
intensity and frequency over land during middle and late afternoon
 Off shore, they reach a maximum during late hours of darkness when land temperature is
coolest and cool air flows off the land over the relatively warm water

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Steady State Thunderstorms

 Steady state thunderstorms usually are associated with weather systems
 The upward motion spawning these storms often come from
 Fronts
 Converging winds
 Troughs aloft
 This type of storm often forms into squall lines
 Afternoon heating intensifies them
 In a steady state storm, precipitation falls outside the updraft allowing the updraft to continue
unabated
 Thus, the mature stage updrafts become stronger and last much longer than in air mass
storms-hence, the name, “steady state”
 A steady state cell may persist for several hours
Squall Line Thunderstorms
 A squall line is a non-frontal, narrow band of active thunderstorms
 Often it develops ahead of a cold front in moist, unstable air, but it may develop in unstable air
far removed from any front
 The line may be too long to easily detour
 Too wide and severe to penetrate
 It often contains severe steady-state thunderstorms
 It presents the single most intense weather hazard to aircraft
 It usually forms rapidly, generally reaching maximum intensity during the late afternoon and the
first few hours of darkness
Embedded Thunderstorms
 When the warm air overriding a shallow front is moist and unstable, the usual widespread cloud
mass forms but embedded thunderstorms can form in it
 These embedded storms are more common with warm and stationary fronts but may occur
with a slow moving, shallow cold front

Figure 35-4. – Warm front with Figure 35-5. – Warm front with
warm, moist, STABLE air. warm, moist, UNSTABLE air.

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Radar Summary Chart

 A radar summary chart is a computer-generated graphical display of a collection of automated
radar weather reports or data
 This chart displays areas of precipitation as well as information about
 Intensity
 Coverage
 Echo top
 Cell movement

Figure 35-6. – Radar summary chart.

 Intensity
 The intensity is obtained from the amount of energy returned to the radar from the target and
is indicated on the chart by colors
 NWS Aviation Weather Center color version uses 7 colors to show intensity
 Coverage is simply the area covered by echoes
 Echo Tops
 Echo tops are obtained from both radar and, on occasion, satellite data and displayed for
precipitation tops
 Echo tops are the maximum heights of the precipitation in hundreds of feet MSL
 They should be considered only as approximations because of radar wave propagation
limitations
 It is assumed that all precipitation displayed on the chart is reaching the surface
 Echo Movement
 Individual cell movement is indicated by flags and pennants to show direction and speed

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 Using the Chart

 The radar summary chart aids in preflight planning by identifying general areas and
movement of precipitation and / or thunderstorms
 This chart displays drops or ice particles of precipitation size only; it does not display
clouds and fog
 Therefore, the absence of echoes does not guarantee clear weather
 Cloud tops will most likely be higher than the tops of the precipitation echoes
detected by radar
 The chart must be used in conjunction with other charts, reports, and forecasts
Frontal Thunderstorms
 In fronts, flying weather varies from
 Virtually clear skies
 To extreme hazards including
 Hail
 Turbulence
 Icing
 Low clouds
 Poor visibility
 Weather occurring with a front depends on
 The amount of moisture available
 The degree of stability of the air that is forced upward
 The slope of the front
 The speed of frontal movement
 The upper wind flow
 Sufficient moisture must be available for clouds to form
 As an inactive front comes into an area of moisture, clouds and precipitation may develop
rapidly
 A good example of this is a cold front
moving eastward from the dry slopes of the
Rocky Mountains into a tongue of moist
air from the Gulf of Mexico over the Plains
States
 Thunderstorms may build rapidly and
catch a pilot unaware
Figure 35-7. – Cold front under
 The degree of stability of the lifted air
running warm, moist, stable air.
determines whether cloudiness will be
predominately stratiform or cumuliform
 If the warm air overriding the front is stable, stratiform clouds develop
 Precipitation from stratiform clouds is usually steady
 There is little or no turbulence
 If the warm air is unstable, cumuliform clouds develop and may further develop into a frontal
thunderstorm
 Precipitation from cumuliform clouds is of a shower type
 The clouds are turbulent

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Hazards Associated with Thunderstorms

 Hazards from thunderstorms may include
 Tornadoes
 Squall lines
 Turbulence
 Icing
 Hail
 Low ceilings and visibility
 Adverse winds
 Downbursts / microbursts
 Pressure changes on the altimeter indication
 Lightning and precipitation static
 Duration of the mature stage is closely related to severity of the thunderstorm
 Some storms occur at random in unstable air
 Last for only an hour or two
 Produce only moderate gusts and rainfall
 “Air mass” type, but even they are dangerously rough to fly through
 Other thunderstorms form in lines
 Last for several hours
 Dump heavy rain
 Possible hail
 Produce strong, gusty winds
 Possible tornadoes
 “Steady state” type
 Usually rougher than air mass storms, and virtually defy flight through them
Forecasts Associated with Thunderstorms
 Good flight planning involves considering all available weather information, including weather
forecasts
 Some forecasts to consider are
 Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
 Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)
 Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories
 Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FB)
 Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU) Advisories
 Traffic Flow Management (TFM) Convective Forecast (TCF)
 Extended Convective Forecast Plot (ECFP)
 National Convective Weather Forecast (NCWF)
 Also the following general forecasts that may aid in flight planning
 Hurricane Advisory (WH)
 Convective Outlook (AC)
 Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WW)
 Alert Messages (AWW)

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Convective SIGMETs
 A convective SIGMET implies
 Severe or greater turbulence
 Low-level wind shear
 Other severe hazards to flight
 A convective SIGMET may be issued for any situation which the forecaster feels is hazardous to
all categories of aircraft
 Convective SIGMETs are in part based on
 Severe thunderstorms due to
 Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots
 Hail at the surface greater than or equal to three-fourths inches in diameter
 Tornadoes
 Embedded thunderstorms
 A line of thunderstorms
 Thunderstorms producing precipitation greater than or equal to heavy precipitation affecting
40% or more of an area at least 3,000 square miles
Thunderstorm Avoidance Strategies
 Avoiding thunderstorms takes preflight planning and preparation
 Time of day can affect the number of storms that you will see
 Review the previously mentioned forecasts and radar data
 The TCF & ECFP are good for showing areas to avoid and the expected timing

Figure 35-8. – TFM convective forecast (TCF).

 A good rule of thumb is to circumnavigate thunderstorms identified as severe or giving an

extreme radar echo by at least 20 NM since hail may fall for miles outside of the clouds
 If flying around a thunderstorm is not an option, stay on the ground until it passes
 A good option to allow you to proceed with your trip with some delay and possibly some ground
related fees (hangar or tie down) is to flight plan to proceed toward an oncoming thunderstorm
but land at an intermediate point, wait until the storm passes, then proceed on your trip
 Some type of strategic weather avoidance equipment is helpful for this
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 Consider the visibility when thunderstorms are expected along the route
 It’s easier to go around an airmass thunderstorm when visibility is greater than 10 miles,
compared with a hazy, humid day
 Get above the haze layer when navigating visually and you’ll typically have a smoother ride
 Don’t just focus on the radar image, but avoid all the towering cumulus
 Don’t be shy about asking ATC for deviations
 Even with strategies to proceed, things may not work out and you may find yourself better off
using ground based transportation
 Divert earlier in the flight rather than when the storm is upon you
 The FAA provides the following Dos and Don’ts of Thunderstorm Avoidance in AC 00-24
entitled Thunderstorms
 Never regard any thunderstorm lightly, even when radar observers report the echoes are of
light intensity
 Don’t land or takeoff in the face of an approaching thunderstorm
 A sudden gust front of low-level turbulence could cause loss of control
 Don’t attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even if you can see through to the other side
 Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be hazardous
 Don’t attempt to fly under the anvil of a thunderstorm
 There is a potential for severe and extreme clear air turbulence
 Don’t fly without airborne radar into a cloud mass containing scattered embedded
thunderstorms
 Scattered thunderstorms that are not embedded usually can be visually circumnavigated
 Don’t trust the visual appearance to be a reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a
thunderstorm
 Don’t assume that ATC will offer radar navigation guidance or deviations around
thunderstorms
 Don’t use data-linked NEXRAD mosaic imagery as the sole means for negotiating a path
through a thunderstorm area (tactical maneuvering)
 Do remember that the data-linked NEXRAD mosaic imagery shows where the weather was,
not where the weather is
 The weather conditions may be 15 to 20 minutes older than the age indicated on the
display
 Do listen to chatter on the ATC frequency for Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP) and other
aircraft requesting to deviate or divert
 Do ask ATC for radar navigation guidance or to approve deviations around thunderstorms, if
needed
 Do use data-linked weather NEXRAD mosaic imagery (e.g. FIS-B) for route selection to
avoid thunderstorms entirely (strategic maneuvering)
 Do advise ATC, when switched to another controller, that you are deviating for
thunderstorms before accepting to rejoin the original route
 Do ensure that after an authorized weather deviation, before accepting to rejoin the original
route, that the route of flight is clear of thunderstorms
 Do avoid by at least 20 miles any thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense radar
echo
 This is especially true under the anvil of a large cumulonimbus

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 Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area has 6/10 thunderstorm coverage
 Do remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the probability of a severe
thunderstorm
 Do regard as extremely hazardous any thunderstorm with tops 35,000 feet or higher whether
the top is visually sighted or determined by radar
 Do give a PIREP for the flight conditions
 Do divert and wait out the thunderstorms on the ground if unable to navigate around an area
of thunderstorms
Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter Strategies
 Avoidance is the key but if you should find yourself inside a thunderstorm there are several
recommendations to increase survival chances
 If time permits, do the following before entering the storm:
 Tighten the safety belt, put on the shoulder harness (if installed), and secure all loose objects
 Plan and hold the course to take the aircraft through the storm in a minimum time
 To avoid the most critical icing, establish a penetration altitude below the freezing level or
above the level of -15ºC
 Verify that pitot heat is on and turn on carburetor heat or jet engine anti-ice
 Icing can be rapid at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous power failure and/or
loss of airspeed indication
 Establish power settings for severe to extreme turbulence penetration airspeed recommended
in the aircraft manual
 Use design maneuvering speed if no manufacturer recommendations
 Turn up flight deck lights to highest intensity to lessen temporary blindness from lightning
 If using automatic pilot, disengage Altitude Hold Mode and Speed Hold Mode
 If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna up and down occasionally to detect thunderstorm
activity at altitudes other than the one being flown
 Upon entering the thunderstorm, remember the following:
 Keep your eyes on the flight instruments because looking outside the flight deck can increase
danger of temporary blindness from lightning
 Don’t change power settings; maintain settings for the recommended turbulence penetration
airspeed
 Maintain a constant attitude, allowing altitude and airspeed to fluctuate
 Don’t turn back once in the thunderstorm
 A straight course through the storm will likely get the aircraft out of the hazards most
quickly
 Turning maneuvers increase stress on the aircraft
 Be alert for wind shear and the potential for downbursts / microbursts in and near thunderstorms,
especially when on an approach
 If encountered near the ground, recovery may be difficult
 Microburst activity may be indicated by an intense rain shaft at the surface but virga at cloud
base and a ring of blowing dust may be the only visible clue

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LESSON 37 – FORECASTS & REPORTS

Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)
 The Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) are a set of web-based displays that provide
observations and forecasts of weather phenomena critical for aviation safety
 It replaced the text based Area Forecast (FA) product for the continental United States
(CONUS)
 The GFA covers the CONUS from the surface up to FL480

Figure 37-1. – Graphical forecasts for aviation (GFA).

 Wind, icing and turbulence forecasts are available in 3,000 ft. increments from the surface up to
FL180 and in 6,000 ft. increments from FL180 to FL480.
 Turbulence forecasts are also broken into LO (below FL180) and HI (FL180 and above)
graphics
 A maximum icing graphic and maximum wind velocity graphic (regardless of altitude) are
also available
 Multiple fields of interest are combined in categories that the user is able to select from the top of
the display
 Data is time synchronized and available hourly from the previous 14 hours to present time on
the Observations/Warnings tab, and from 1 to 18 hours in the future (+1 to +18 hours) in the
Forecasts category
 Additional information is available in text format when mouse-clicking on the map or using the
hover function
 The NWS has a short tutorial on the GFA at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kLe6Eu3fwS0
and additional info via the Products and Tutorial buttons at https://aviationweather.gov/gfa/help
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Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)

 An Terminal Aerodrome Forecast is a concise statement of the expected meteorological
conditions within a 5 statute mile radius from the center of an airport runway complex during a
24 or 30-hour time period
 The TAFs use the same weather code found in METAR weather reports
 The National Weather Service (NWS) requires an airport to have two consecutive
METAR observations, not less than 30 minutes apart nor more than 1 hour apart, before a
TAF will be issued
 After the TAF has been issued, the forecaster will use all available weather data sources to
maintain the TAF
 If during this time a METAR is missing or part of the METAR is missing, the forecaster can
use other weather sources to obtain the necessary data to maintain the TAF
 However, if the forecaster feels that the other weather sources cannot provide the
necessary information, the forecaster will discontinue the TAF
KSHV 191722Z 1918/2018 11006KT P6SM SCT040 BKN070 OVC250
FM192100 10005KT P6SM VCTS SCT025CB BKN060 OVC250
TEMPO 1921/1924 VRB15G20KT 5SM -TSRA SCT025CB BKN060
FM200000 12005KT P6SM SCT040 SCT250
PROB30 2012/2018 5SM TSRA BKN020CB=
Figure 37-2. – Example of terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF).

METARs
 The aviation routine weather report contains various weather elements in a coded form
 A METAR contains timely information, wind, visibility, sky conditions, temperature and
dew point, and altimeter setting
 Weather conditions gathered by an observer or automated system at a given site and time
METAR KBNA 1250Z 33018KT 290V360 1/2SM R31/2700FT+SN BLSN
FG VV008 00/M03 A2991 RMK RAE42SNB42
Figure 37-3. – Example of a METAR.

Winds / Temperatures Aloft (FB)

 The winds and temperatures aloft forecast is for specific locations in the contiguous United
States
 These forecasts are also prepared for a network of locations in Alaska and Hawaii
 Forecasts are made twice daily based on 00Z and 12Z data for use during specified time
intervals
 At some of the lower levels the wind and temperature information is omitted
 The reason for the omission is that winds aloft are not forecast for levels within 1,500
feet of the station elevation
 No temperatures are forecast for the 3,000-foot level or for a level within 2,500 feet of the
station elevation
 If the windspeed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 199 knots,
i.e., “7799” is decoded 270 degrees at 199 knots or GREATER
 When the forecast speed is less than 5 knots, the coded group is “9900” which means “light
and variable”

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Figure 37-4. – Winds and temperatures aloft forecast.

 Winds and temperatures aloft are forecast for 3,000’, 6,000’, 9,000’, 12,000’, 18,000’, 24,000’,
30,000’, 34,000’, 39,000’, 45,000’ and 53,000’
 Forecast winds and temperatures aloft are also indicated on interactive charts for various levels
and using various displays of the information
 Arrows with pennants and barbs show wind direction and speed on some products
 One pennant is 50 knots
 Each long line represents 10 knots
 A half line represents 5 knots
Pilot Reports
 The pilot weather reports are a timely and helpful observation to fill in the gap between reporting
stations
 Aircraft in flight are the only means of directly observing
 Cloud tops
 Icing
 Turbulence
 A pilot weather report is usually transmitted as an individual report, but can be appended to a
surface report
 Most of the contractions in a PIREP are self-explanatory
 Example:
 UA /OV OKC 063064/TM 1522/FL080/TP C 172/ TA -04/WV 245040/TB LGT/RM IN
CLR
 Explanation:
 This is a routine pilot weather report
 The location is 64 nautical miles (NM) on the 63° radial from Oklahoma City VOR
 The time of the report is 1522 UTC
 The aircraft altitude is 8,000 feet
 The type of aircraft is a Cessna 172
 The temperature is -4 °C
 The wind is from 245° at 40 knots
 There is light turbulence
 The aircraft is in clear skies
 Aircraft Reports (AIREPs) are similar to PIREPs but can either be reported by the pilot or
generated from sensors onboard the aircraft (automated AIREPs)
 There are two types of AIREPs, routine or position report (ARP) and special (ARS)
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 AIREPs are coded differently than PIREPs

 The PIREP format is a U.S.-only format
 The AIREP format is used worldwide
 Automated AIREPs are common over the United States
 Routine AIREP example with explanation:
 ARP XXX836 2443N 15516W 2229 F350 M43 315/128 TB LGT
 ARP - Routine report
 XXX836 - Aircraft call sign
 2423N 15516W - Location in latitude and longitude, 24 degrees 23 minutes north, 155
degrees 16 minutes west
 F350 - Flight level or altitude, FL350
 M43 - Temperature in Celsius, minus 43 ºC
 315/128 - Wind direction (true) and speed, 315 degrees (true) and 128 kts
 TB LGT - Light turbulence
Radar Summary Chart
 Review the discussion in Lesson 35 with your student
Surface Analysis Chart
 The surface analysis chart is the basic weather chart and is often referred to as a surface weather
map
 The chart is transmitted every 3 hours
 The valid time of the map corresponds to the time of the plotted observations
 A date and time group in universal coordinated time (UTC) informs the user of when the
conditions portrayed on the map were actually occurring

Figure 37-5. – Surface analysis chart.

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 The surface analysis chart displays weather information such as

 Surface wind direction and speed
 Temperature, dew point
 Various other weather data
 It also includes the position of fronts, and areas of high or low pressure
 Each reporting station is depicted on the chart by a small circle
 The weather information pertaining to the station is placed in a standard pattern around this
circle – called a station model
Freezing Level Chart
 Note to Instructor: The old Freezing Level Analysis chart is no longer available from the NWS
 There is a color analysis image with similar function but less detail or the G-AIRMET chart
with similar function though predictive rather than an analysis
 We’ll look at both of the current charts in this section
 This freezing level chart is an analysis of observed freezing levels
 The freezing level is the height above MSL at which the temperature is zero degrees Celsius
 Freezing levels are affected by air mass temperatures
 Colder air masses have lower freezing levels, and warmer air masses have higher freezing
levels
 Freezing levels change with the movement of contrasting cold and warm air masses
 For example, freezing levels tend to lower behind cold fronts and rise ahead of warm fronts

Figure 37-6. – Freezing level chart.

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 Generally, an area has only one freezing level

 Relative to the freezing level, the lower levels have above-freezing temperatures, and the
upper levels have below-freezing temperatures
 During very cold periods, all temperatures over an area may be below freezing and there
would be no freezing level shown
 During colder periods of the year, and with certain weather systems such as fronts, areas may
have more than one freezing level (these are shown on the freezing level G-Airmet but not on the
color coded analysis)
 There would be several layers of air with
alternating above-freezing and below-freezing
temperatures
 A forecast for this will be in a polygon with a
range; clicking on the polygon will indicate that Figure 37-7. – G-AIRMET with multiple freezing levels.
there are multiple freezing levels and show the
same range
Upper Level Charts
 Upper level charts include:
 Constant pressure charts for 500 mb, 300 mb, 250 mb, and 200 mb levels
 High-level significant weather prog
 Forecast winds and temperatures aloft charts for FL180, FL240, FL300, FL340, and FL390
 Observed winds and temperatures aloft charts for FL240 and FL340
 The high-level significant weather prog, the forecast winds and temperatures aloft charts, and the
observed winds and temperatures aloft charts are discussed elsewhere within this lesson
 Constant pressure charts are prepared for selected values of pressure and present weather
information at various altitudes
 Analysis charts do not appear to be available from the NWS but a version of this product
discussed below is available from Flight Service
 The standard charts prepared are the 850 mb, 700 mb, 500 mb, 300 mb, 250 mb, and 200 mb
 Charts with higher pressures present information at lower altitudes and charts with lower
pressures present information at higher altitudes
 Data from select observation stations are plotted around a station circle on each constant
pressure chart
 The circle identifies the station position
 The data plotted on each station are temperature and wind and may include height and
dew point depression (850, 700, and 500 mb charts)
 Constant pressure charts contain analyses of height and wind speeds on the higher charts
 Height and temperature variation analyses are included on the 500 mb and lower charts

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 Contours are lines of constant height, in meters, which are referenced to mean sea level
 Contours are drawn as solid lines and identified by a three or four-digit code located on
each contour
 To determine the contour height value, affix “zero” to the end of the code
 The contour interval is the height difference between analyzed contours and is standard
for each chart
 30 meters for the 850 and 700 mb charts
 60 meters for the 500 mb chart
 120 meters for the 300, 250, and 200 mb charts
 The contour gradient is the distance between analyzed contours
 Contour gradients identify slopes of surfaces that fluctuate in altitude
 Strong gradients are closely spaced contours and identify steep slopes
 Weak gradients are widely spaced contours and identify shallow slopes
 Contour patterns on constant pressure charts can be interpreted the same as isobar
patterns on the surface chart (low height = low pressure area)
 Winds respond to contour patterns and gradients
 Wind directions parallel contours
 In the Northern Hemisphere, winds flow counterclockwise (cyclonically) around lows
and clockwise (anticyclonically) around highs
 Wind speeds are faster with stronger gradients and slower with weaker gradients
 Isotherms are lines of constant temperature.
 Isotherms are drawn as red, dashed lines on the 850, 700, and 500 mb charts
 Isotherm values are identified by a number on each line, prefaced by “+” for above-
freezing values and “-” for below-freezing values
 Isotherms are drawn at 5-degree intervals on each chart
 The zero isotherm separates above-freezing and below-freezing temperatures
 Isotachs are lines of constant wind speed
 Isotachs for speeds above 50 knots are color coded on the 300, 250, and 200 mb charts
 Isotach values are identified by a color key on the left side of the chart
 There are several constant pressure forecast charts available from the NWS using various models
by going to http://mag.ncep.noaa.gov/model-guidance-model-area.php and selecting the model
area (such as NAMER or CONUS) and one of the available models to use
 There is a View Product Description button on many of the pages to explain the information
from the available models or forecast chart
 These forecast charts have replaced the NWS analysis charts

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Significant Weather Prognostic Charts

 Significant weather prognostic charts – called progs – portray forecast weather to assist inflight
planning
 There are low-level and high-level prognostic charts
 The low-level prog is a two panel chart
 The two panels are the 12- and 24-hour progs and portray significant weather from the
surface up to 400 millibars (24,000 feet MSL)
 These charts show conditions as they are forecast to be at the valid time of the chart
 The panels depict forecasts of significant weather
 Ceiling
 Visibility
 Turbulence
 Freezing level
 A legend is placed between or below the panels which explains methods of depicting weather
information on the Significant Weather Prog

Figure 37-8. – U.S. low-level significant weather prog.

 The Surface Prognostics, which were once included on a 4-panel prog, have been separated into
individual product panels available from https://aviationweather.gov/progchart/sfc
 The new surface progs use a simplified color coding, explained on the chart, to show
precipitation type and probability

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 The high-level significant weather prog is a day 1 forecast of significant weather

 Weather information provided pertains to the layer from 25,000 to 60,000 feet (FL250-
FL600)
 The prog covers large portions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
 The area covered by the prog is divided into sections
 Each section covers a part of the forecast area
 Some sections overlap
 The various sections are formatted on polar or Mercator projection background maps and
issued as charts
 Each prog chart is issued four times a day
 The valid times are 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z
 Conditions routinely appearing on the chart are
 Jet streams
 Cumulonimbus clouds
 Turbulence
 Tropopause heights
 Surface fronts
 Other conditions will appear on the chart as pertinent including tropical cyclones,
squall lines, volcanic eruption sites, and sandstorms and dust storms

Figure 37-9. – Top half of North & South America high-level significant weather prog.

 The high-level significant weather prog is used to get an overview of selected flying weather
conditions at and above 25,000 feet
 Much insight can be gained by evaluating jet streams, cumulonimbus clouds, turbulence,
associated surface fronts, significant tropical storm complexes including tropical cyclones,
squall lines, sandstorms, and dust storms

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SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and Convective SIGMETs

 In-Flight Weather Advisories
 In-flight weather advisories are unscheduled forecasts to advise aircraft of the development
of potentially hazardous weather
 There are three types of in-flight weather advisories
 SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Information)
 Convective SIGMET (SIGMET related to thunderstorms)
 AIRMET (Airmen’s Meteorological Information)
 The format of these advisories consists of a heading and text
 The heading identifies the issuing Weather Service Forecast Office (WSFO), type of
advisory, and the valid period
 The text of the advisory contains a message identifier, a flight precautions statement, and
further details if necessary
 A SIGMET is issued to advise pilots of weather considered potentially hazardous to ALL
categories of aircraft, and is valid for the period stated in the advisory
 SIGMETs are based specifically on forecasts of
 Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms
 Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with
thunderstorms
 Dust storms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash lowering surface visibility to below 3 miles
 Volcanic eruption
 Convective SIGMETs are issued for:
 Line of thunderstorms ≥ 60 miles long with thunderstorms affecting ≥ 40% of its length
 Area of active thunderstorms affecting ≥ 3,000 square miles covering ≥ 40% of the area
and exhibiting a very strong radar reflectivity intensity or a significant satellite or lightning
signature
 Embedded or severe thunderstorm(s) expected to occur for more than 30 minutes during the
valid period regardless of the size of the area
 Convective SIGMETs are issued on a scheduled basis, hourly at 55 minutes past the hour and are
valid for 2 hours or until superseded by the next hourly issuance
 A special Convective SIGMET may be issued for:
 Tornado, hail ≥ ¾ inch (at surface), or wind gusts ≥ 50 knots (at surface) are reported
 Indications of rapidly changing conditions not sufficiently described in existing WSTs
 A convective SIGMET implies
 Severe or greater turbulence
 Severe icing
 Low-level wind shear
 An AIRMET is issued to advise pilots of significant weather, but describes conditions at
intensities lower than those which trigger SIGMETs
 AIRMETs are issued on forecast conditions such as IFR conditions, moderate icing and
turbulence, and sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more

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 There are three types of AIRMETs

 Sierra – describes IFR conditions and / or extensive mountain conditions
 Tango – describes moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, and
low-level wind shear
 Zulu – describes moderate icing and provides freezing level heights
 The Graphical-AIRMET (G-AIRMET) is a decision-making tool based on weather “snapshots”
displayed at short time intervals
 G-AIRMET provides more precise, and informative weather hazard depictions than the text
only AIRMET
 G-AIRMETs are issued by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) every 6 hours and updated /
amended as necessary, coincident with the text AIRMET products
 G-AIRMET Snapshots are graphical forecasts of en route weather hazards valid at discrete
times no more than 3 hours apart for a period of up to 12 hours into the future (00, 03, 06, 09
and 12 hours)

Figure 37-10. – G-AIRMET Snapshot with icing selected.

Recognition of Critical Weather Situations

 Critical weather comes in many forms:
 Thunderstorms, low visibility, and icing are among the worst
 Crosswinds that exceed the capacity of the airplane are also a great hazard
 When in the air, check with FSS for hazardous weather updates
 Additional hazardous weather information may also be available through equipment installed in
the aircraft or linked through electronic flight bag devices
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Wind Shear Avoidance

 Wind shear can be defined as a sudden, drastic shift in wind speed, direction, or both that may
occur in the horizontal or vertical plane
 Wind shear can subject an aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as abrupt changes
to the horizontal movement of the aircraft
 A tailwind that quickly changes to a headwind causes an increase in airspeed and
performance
 When a headwind changes to a tailwind, the airspeed rapidly decreases and there is a
corresponding decrease in performance
 Wind shear can occur at any altitude
 Low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to the proximity of an aircraft to the
ground
 Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with passing frontal systems, thunderstorms,
and temperature inversions with strong upper level winds (greater than 25 knots)
 The most severe type of low-level wind shear is associated with convective precipitation or rain
from thunderstorms
 One critical type of shear associated with convective precipitation is known as a microburst
 A typical microburst occurs in a space of less than one mile horizontally and within 1,000
feet vertically
 The life span of a microburst is about 15 minutes during which it can produce downdrafts
of up to 6,000 feet per minute
 In a matter of seconds, it can produce a hazardous wind direction change of 45 degrees or
more
 To avoid wind shear stay at least 20 miles form a thunderstorm cell.
 To warn pilots, Low-Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) have been installed at several
airports around the country

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LESSON 40 – CHART REVIEW & EN ROUTE PROCEDURES

Lesson Introduction
 Instrument Charts
 Three organizations or organization types publish IFR charts
 The FAA’s Aeronautical Information Services (FAA charts)
 Commercial chart producers such as Jeppesen (Jepp charts)
• There are major differences between FAA and Jepp charts
• However the information they contain is the same
 The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) produces military charts
 Digital versions of charts are also available through a number of sources
 If your student elects to use an EFB product, he or she must thoroughly understand its
operation and limitations before using it in actual IMC conditions
 IFR charts come in three primary types
 High-altitude en route charts, or jet route charts, cover the sky above 18,000 feet (Class A
airspace)
 Low-altitude en route charts provide information and routes for flights below 18,000 feet
 Terminal procedures publications (approach charts)
 They depict instrument approach and departure procedures for local airports, along with
standard instrument arrival routes (STARs), profile descent charts, charted visual flight
procedures, and airport diagrams
Chart Supplements
 Chart Supplements are a 7-volume booklet series
 They contain data on airports, seaplane bases, heliports, NAVAIDs, communications data,
weather data sources, airspace, special notices, and operational procedures
 Chart Supplements are published every 56 days
 The front section of a Chart Supplement where airports, NAVAIDs, and weather devices are
listed is still known as the Airport / Facility Directory (A/FD) and gives such information as
 Airport and runway lighting, runways available and length, radio frequencies, control tower
operating hours, pilot controlled lighting (PCL) frequencies and mike keying requirements,
runway end identifier lights (REIL) availability, and other necessary information
 There is a key in the front of the book

Figure 40-1. – Portion of a chart supplement.

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VFR / IFR Low Altitude Planning Chart

 For a trip of some distance, consider the large scale planning charts published by the FAA
 The U.S. VFR/IFR Low Altitude Planning Chart has a 1:3,400,000 scale (47 NM per inch)
 It shows VOR airways and mileage, navaids, airports, special use airports, time zones, and
major drainage areas – rivers, lakes, etc.
 Updated annually, this chart includes a directory of airports with their airspace classifications
En Route Low Altitude IFR Chart
 IFR en route low-altitude chart(s) – the instrument equivalent of the sectional chart
 When folded, the cover of the chart displays a map of the U.S. showing the coverage areas
 A list of all the area charts available in the U.S. are shown in the lower left-hand corner of the
map coverage box
 The effective date of the chart is printed on the other side of the folded chart
 The en route charts are revised every 56 days
 Information concerning Military Training Routes (MTRs) is also included on the chart cover
 Scales vary from 1 inch = 5 NM to 1 inch = 20 NM
 When the FAA en route chart is unfolded, the legend is displayed and provides information
concerning
 Airports
 NAVAIDs
 Air traffic services
 Airspace
En Route Chart Symbology
 The legend (or key) explains the chart’s symbology and scale
 If the information cannot be found on the chart, it will most likely be found in the Aeronautical
Information Services Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide
 This publication explains all the chart terms and symbols and has a comprehensive display of
charting symbols organized by chart type
 Review both the legend and the Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide with your student
 Altitudes on the En Route Chart
 Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA)
 The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that ensures acceptable navigational
signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements between those fixes
 May be directional
 Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA)
 The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off-airway
routes, or route segments, which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire
route segment and which ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 25
statute (22 nautical) miles of a VOR
 May be used as minimum IFR altitude for GPS RNAV navigation of the route
 Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA)
 A published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or flight level for an
airspace structure or route segment

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 Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)

 The lowest altitude at which an airway intersection can be determined
 Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA)
 The lowest allowed altitude at certain fixes an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the
direction of a higher MEA
 Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude (OROCA)
 Computed similarly to the Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF) found on Visual
charts except that it provides an additional vertical buffer of 1,000’ in designated
nonmountainous areas and a 2,000’ vertical buffer in designated mountainous areas
within the US
 Only found on low altitude charts
Air Traffic Service (ATS) Route System
 ATS Route System contains specified routes designed for channeling the flow of traffic as
necessary for the provision of air traffic services
 The term ATS Route is a generic term that includes VOR Federal Airways, colored Federal
Airways, Jet Routes, and RNAV Routes
 The term ATS Route does not replace these more familiar route names, but serves only as an
overall title when listing the types of routes that comprise the United States route structure
Intersections and Changeover Points
 Intersection may be defined as the point at which two VOR radial position lines cross on a route,
usually intersecting at a good angle for positive indication of position, resulting in a VOR/VOR
fix
 It is also a point defined by any combination of courses, radials, or bearings of two or more
navigational aids
 All intersections have an alphabetical or alphanumeric designation
 Near major airports, the intersection designation code typically consists of three letters
followed by the runway number
 Most other intersection designations consist of five-letter combinations chosen for their
mnemonic value
 When flying on a VOR airway, pilots normally change frequencies midway between VORs
 If the navigation signals cannot be received from one of the VORs at the midpoint of the
route, a Changeover Point (COP) is depicted and shows the distance in NM to each VOR
 Changeover points divide an airway or route segment to ensure continuous reception of
navigation signals at the prescribed minimum en route IFR altitude
 COPs ensure that other aircraft, operating within the same portion of an airway or route
segment, receive consistent azimuth signals from the same navigation facilities regardless of
the direction of flight
 Where signal coverage from two VORs overlaps at the MEA, the changeover point normally
is designated at the midpoint
 Where radio frequency interference or other navigation signal problems exist, the COP is
placed at the optimum location

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ATS Route Course Changes

 On some ATS route courses you may come to a point where the route changes direction
 This point will be identified by an intersection or waypoint
 Turn to the new heading when flying over this position
 Course change may be a fly-over or fly-by waypoint as identified on the chart
Flight Deck Management
 Thorough preflight planning and good flight deck management are necessary for a safe, efficient,
and pleasant flight
 Organize the charts in proper sequence according to their order of use
 Charts that will not be used should be put away so they don’t contribute to the cabin clutter
 Fold the charts so that only the part used is in view
 Place the chart, along with the flight plan, on a kneeboard or a clipboard to keep them from being
lost on the floor
 Pencil and note pad should also be kept close and secured
 Keep an IFR plotter and a flight computer within easy reach
 Don’t use the top of the instrument panel as a storage place
 After using an item put it back where it belongs so it can be found when needed
 EFBs simplify chart organization and calculations but introduce additional management issues
Position Reporting Requirements
 A position report is required by all flights over each designated compulsory reporting point along
the route being flown
 Flying a direct route, report over each reporting point used in the flight plan to define the route of
flight
 When informed by ATC that your aircraft is in Radar Contact, discontinue position reports over
designated reporting points
 Once the controller has established radar contact with you, this fact will not be repeated when
you are handed off to another controller
 Resume normal position reporting when ATC advises radar contact lost or radar contact
terminated
Additional Reporting Requirements
 Pilots encountering weather conditions which have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions
which have been forecast, are expected to forward a report of such weather to ATC

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 The following reports must be made at all times while in Radar Contact:
 When vacating any previously assigned altitude or flight level for a newly assigned altitude
or flight level
 When an altitude change will be made if operating on a clearance specifying VFR-on-top
 When unable to climb or descend at a rate of at least 500 feet per minute
 When an approach has been missed (Request clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternate
airport, another approach, etc.)
 Change in the average true airspeed (at cruising altitude) when it varies by 5% or 10 knots
(whichever is greater) from that filed in the flight plan
 The time and altitude or flight level upon reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared
 When leaving any assigned holding fix or point
 Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR, TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver
capability, GPS anomalies while using installed IFR-certified GPS/GNSS receivers,
complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability, impairment of air/ground communications
capability, or loss of other equipment installed in the aircraft that may, in the judgment of the
PIC, impair safety and/or the ability to operate under IFR
 Report should include aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree to which the
capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the nature and extent
of assistance desired from ATC
 Any information relating to the safety of flight
 The following reports must be made at all times while Not in Radar Contact:
 When leaving final approach fix inbound on final approach (nonprecision approach) or when
leaving the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound on final approach
(precision approach)
 A corrected estimate at anytime it becomes apparent that an estimate as previously submitted
is in error in excess of 3 minutes
Loss of Communications Procedures (IMC and VMC)
 When such an outage occurs, the pilot should, try to listen to the affected frequency while
attempting to comply with the following recommended communications procedures:
 If two-way communications cannot be established with the ATC after changing frequencies,
a pilot should attempt to contact the transferring controller for the assignment of an
alternative frequency or other instructions
 Try to contact ATC on another frequency, preferably that of the next responsible sector when
practicable, and ask for instructions
 Try to contact any other ATC facility, if feasible, for instructions
 If communications cannot be reestablished by either method, the pilot is expected to request
communications instructions from the FSS appropriate to the route of flight
 When confronted by a situation not covered in the regulation, pilots are expected to exercise
good judgment in whatever action they elect to take
 14 CFR Section 91.3(b) authorizes a pilot to deviate from any rule in Subparts A and B to the
extent required to meet an emergency
 If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encountered after the failure,
continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable

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 If the failure occurs in IFR conditions, continue the flight according to the following:
 Route
 By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received
 If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route,
or airway specified in the vector clearance
 In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected
in a further clearance
 In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance by the route filed in the flight plan
 Altitude
 At the highest of the following altitudes or flight levels for the route segment being
flown:
 The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance received
 The minimum altitude for IFR operations
 The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance
 If you received an expect further clearance containing a higher altitude to expect at a
specified time or fix, maintain the highest of the following altitudes until that time or fix:
 The last assigned altitude
 The minimum altitude or flight level for IFR operations
 Leave Clearance Limit
 When the clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins, arrive as close as
possible to the expect further clearance time, if one has been received
 If one has not been received, arrive as close as possible to the ETA as calculated from
the filed or amended ETE
 If the clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit
at the expect further clearance time, if one has been received
 If none has been received, upon arrival at the clearance limit, proceed to the fix from
which the approach begins and start your descent as close as possible to the ETA,
calculated from the filed or amended ETE
 Transponder Operation during Two-way Communications Failure
 If you lose two-way radio communication, set your transponder on Code 7600
 Note: Understand that you may not be in an area of radar coverage

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LESSON 41 – IFR CROSS-COUNTRY PLANNING

Charts & Publications
 IFR En Route Charts
 The objective of IFR en route flight is to navigate within the lateral NAS at an altitude
consistent with the ATC clearance
 For safe IFR flying, the pilot must know the data available on the instrument charts
 The FAA’s Aeronautical Information Services maintains the database and produces the
charts for the U.S. government
 En route high-altitude charts provide aeronautical information for en route IFR navigation at or
above 18,000 feet MSL
 Information includes
 RNAV routes (Q routes over contiguous US)
 Jet routes
 Identification and frequencies of radio aids
 Selected airports
 Distances
 Time zones
 Special use airspace
 Other related information
 Established routes from 18,000 feet MSL to FL450 use NAVAIDs not more than 260 NM
apart
 Scales vary from 1 inch = 45 NM to 1 inch = 18 NM
 The charts are revised every 56 days
 IFR en route low-altitude chart(s)
 See Lesson 40 – Chart Review & En Route Procedures for explanation
Weather Briefing
 First get a good overall picture of the weather – the big picture
 There are three kinds of briefings
 Standard
 Outlook
 Abbreviated
 A standard briefing covers the full route and is recommended for any cross-country flight
 It follows a basic format
 Adverse conditions
 Synopsis
 Current conditions
 Forecast conditions – both en route and destination
 If departure is more than two hours away, briefers are not required to provide current
conditions unless requested
 Make a point to ask for it
 An outlook briefing is best if departure is more than six hours away
 This covers the forecast conditions for the route of flight
 An outlook briefing does not contain current conditions – Ask for them in order to start
monitoring weather trends

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 An abbreviated briefing is appropriate when seeking updated information after having

already received a standard briefing
 Tell the briefer what information is on hand and what is needed
 Observations and forecasts
 Weather briefings contain observations as well as forecasts
 A weather map based on observations is referred to as an “analysis”
 Actual weather reports, based on observations, are found in
 Radar summary charts
 Weather depiction charts (no longer available from NWS, available from FSS only)
 Ceiling and visibility analysis charts
 Pilot reports (PIREPS) are an invaluable source of actual conditions
 Make them when flying and ask for them during the briefing
 The weather may change greatly by flight time
 Forecast charts and other weather products are based on informed guesswork
 The word “forecast” is often a part of the name
 Graphical forecasts for aviation
 Terminal aerodrome forecast
 “Prog” charts are based on forecasts published with a valid time indicating when the
conditions are expected to happen
 Convective outlooks predict where significant weather is most likely to occur
 Online Weather Resources
 There are many online weather resources
 https://www.1800wxbrief.com/, Leidos Flight Services, is an FAA supported online service
available to pilots
 Provides free access to more weather information than is available in a standard
telephone briefing, including downloadable color weather charts
 Uses same three briefing formats as FSS on the telephone
 Reports of hazardous weather are available from FSS and other computerized weather
services in the form of
 Airmets (WAs)
 Sigmets (WSs)
 Convective sigmets (WSTs)
 Center weather advisories (CWAs)
 Urgent pilot reports (UUAs)
 Severe weather watch bulletins (WWWs)
 Online, this information is often presented in graphical form, making it much easier to
see how the weather is affecting the route of flight
NOTAMs
 NOTAMs are disseminated via the National NOTAM System
 Pilots can access NOTAM information via FSS or online via NOTAM Search at
https://notams.aim.faa.gov/notamSearch/
 The Notices To Airmen Publication (NTAP) is no longer published
 Domestic Notices and International Notices are found in the External Links section of the
Federal NOTAM System (FNS) NOTAM Search System.

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 NOTAMs are classified as follows

 NOTAM (D) (domestic NOTAM) – information is disseminated for all navigational facilities
that are part of the NAS, all public use aerodromes, seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the
Chart Supplement
 Information includes such data as taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near or
crossing runways, and airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach criteria,
such as VASI.
 Pointer NOTAMs – a type of NOTAM (D) that is used to highlight or point out another
NOTAM or additional aeronautical information, to assist users in cross-referencing
important information that may not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier
 NOTAM (FDC) (flight data center NOTAM) – regulatory in nature, transmitted by USNOF
and given system wide dissemination
 They are issued to establish restrictions to flight or to amend charts or published
instrument approach procedures (IAPs)
 Domestic NOTAMs use common keywords to classify the individual NOTAM
 NOTAMs are essential to the safety of flight, as well as supplemental data affecting the other
operational publications listed
Determination of an Alternate
 No person may operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it carries enough fuel to (91.167)
 Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing
 Fly from that airport to the alternate airport, if required
 Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed
 Each person filing an IFR flight plan must include, among other things, an alternate airport
unless certain criteria are met (91.169)
 Instrument approach available
 Reports and forecasts indicate that the ceiling will be 2,000 feet above the airport elevation
and the visibility will be 3 miles, for at least one hour before one hour after the estimated
time of arrival
 IFR alternate airport weather minima (91.169)
 No person may include an alternate airport in an IFR flight plan unless the weather there at
time of arrival is expected to have ceiling and visibility above the following weather minima
 For a published instrument approach, unless otherwise specified
 For a precision approach procedure, ceiling 600 feet and visibility 2 statute miles
 For a nonprecision or APV approach procedure, ceiling 800 feet and visibility 2
statute miles
 For an airport without a published instrument approach, the ceiling and visibility minima are
those allowing descent from the MEA, approach, and landing under basic VFR
Preferred IFR Routes
 Preferred IFR routes are established between major terminals to guide pilots in planning their
routes of flight, minimizing route changes, and aiding in the orderly management of air traffic on
federal airways
 Low and high altitude preferred routes are listed in the Chart Supplements
 Reference the departure and arrival airports to determine if a preferred route exists
 Airway instructions will be listed for the route
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DPs / STARs
 Instrument Departure Procedures (DP)
 See Lesson 22 – Terminal Procedures for explanation
 Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STARs)
 See Lesson 22 – Terminal Procedures for explanation
Takeoff Minimums
 Takeoff minimums and (obstacle) departure procedures can be found in Section “L” of the
instrument approach charts published by the FAA
 Listed in alphabetical order by city and state, they give information regarding the applicable
runways, turn directions, and, altitude
 In the absence of listed minima, the civil aviation user, with two engines or less, has a
minimum of one statute mile and with more than two engines, one-half statute mile
 Takeoff minimums apply to operations under Parts 121, 125, 129, and 135
Cruising Altitudes
 In controlled airspace, under IFR, maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC (91.179)
 If ATC assigns “VFR conditions on-top,” maintain an altitude or flight level as prescribed by
91.159
 In uncontrolled airspace, under IFR, maintain an appropriate altitude as follows
 Below 18,000 feet MSL on a magnetic course of 0° through 179°, any odd thousand foot
MSL altitude and on a magnetic course of 180° through 359°, any even thousand foot MSL
altitude
 At or above 18,000 feet MSL, but below flight level 290, on a magnetic course of 0° through
179°, any odd flight level and on a magnetic course of 180° through 359°, any even flight
level
 At flight level 290 and above in airspace designated as Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM) airspace on a magnetic course of 0° through 179°, any odd flight level, at
2,000-foot intervals beginning at and including flight level 290 and on a magnetic course of
180° through 359°, any even flight level, at 2,000-foot intervals beginning at and including
flight level 300
 At flight level 290 and above in non-RVSM airspace on a magnetic course of 0° through
179°, any flight level, at 4,000-foot intervals, beginning at and including flight level 290
and on a magnetic course of 180° through 359°, any flight level, at 4,000-foot intervals,
beginning at and including flight level 310
Aircraft Performance
 Review AFM/POH of the appropriate aircraft with your student
Flight Plan Filing
 No person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person has filed
an IFR flight plan
 Review the proper method for filling out an IFR flight plan form with the student
 Flight plans may be submitted to the nearest AFSS or air traffic control tower (ATCT) either
 In person (becoming more difficult)  By computer or tablet (multiple services)
 By telephone (1-800-WX-BRIEF)  By radio if no other means are available
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 Pilots should file IFR flight plans at

least 30 minutes prior to estimated time
of departure to preclude possible delay
in receiving a departure clearance from
ATC
 IFR flight plans may be filed from the
air under various conditions, including
 A flight outside of controlled
airspace before proceeding into IFR
conditions in controlled airspace
 A VFR flight expecting IFR
weather conditions en route in
controlled airspace
 When filing from the air, the flight plan may be Figure 41-1. – IFR flight plan (top half).
filed with the nearest AFSS or directly with the ARTCC
 A pilot who files with the AFSS submits the information normally entered during preflight
filing, except for “point of departure,” together with present position and altitude
 AFSS then relays this information to the ARTCC
 The ARTCC will then clear the pilot from the present position or from a specified
navigation fix
 A pilot who files direct with the ARTCC reports present position and altitude, and submits
only the flight plan information normally relayed from the AFSS to the ARTCC
 Be aware that traffic saturation frequently prevents ARTCC personnel from accepting
flight plans by radio and the pilot will be advised to contact the nearest AFSS to file the
flight plan
Flight Deck Management
 Review the discussion in Lesson 40 with your student
Aeronautical Decision Making & Judgment
 ADM is a systematic approach to determine the best course of action in response to a given set of
circumstances
 Steps to minimize error:
 Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight
 Learning behavior modification techniques
 Learning how to recognize and cope with stress
 Developing risk assessment skills
 Using all resources
 Evaluating the effectiveness of one’s ADM skills
 It is usually not a single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of events triggered by a
number of factors sometimes referred to as the error chain
 Breaking one link in the chain normally is all that is necessary to change the outcome of the
sequence of events

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 In the decision making process, the following aspects are of importance:

 Define the problem
 Choose a course of action
 Implement the decision and evaluate the outcome
 The Perceive–Process–Perform (3P) Model for ADM offers a simple, practical, and systematic
approach that can be used during all phases of flight
 Perceive the given set of circumstances for a flight
 Process by evaluating their impact on flight safety
 Perform by implementing the best course of action
 The DECIDE Model:
 Detect – The decision maker detects the fact that change has occurred
 Estimate – Estimates the need to counter or react to the change
 Choose – Chooses a desirable outcome for the flight
 Identify – Identifies the action which could successfully control the change
 Do – Takes the necessary action
 Evaluate – Evaluates the effects of his or her action countering the change
 Hazardous attitudes and antidotes.
 Anti-authority (“Don’t tell me!”) - Follow the rules; they are usually right
 Impulsivity (“Do something quickly!”) - Not so fast…think first
 Invulnerability (“It won’t happen to me!”) - It could happen to me
 Macho (“I can do it!”) - Taking chances is foolish
 Resignation (“What’s the use?”) - I’m not helpless. I can make a difference
Crew Resource Management
 Crew Resource Management (CRM) can be defined as a management system which makes
optimum use of all available resources – equipment, procedures and people – to promote safety
and enhance the efficiency of flight operations
 CRM training encompasses a wide range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes including
communications, situational awareness, problem solving, decision making, and teamwork
 Single-pilot resource management (SRM) is the ability for the crew or pilot to manage all
resources effectively to ensure the outcome of the flight is successful.
 SRM integrates the following:
 Situational Awareness
 A logical analysis of a situation based on the machine, external support, environment, and
the pilot
 Knowing what’s going on
 Flight Deck Resource and Automation Management
 Focuses on communication skills, task allocation, decision-making, and automation
 Task Management
 The ability to handle all phases of the operation by properly prioritizing tasks
 Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) and Risk Management
 As described in the prior section on ADM
 Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)
 Occurs when an airworthy aircraft is flown, under the control of a qualified pilot, into
terrain with inadequate awareness on the part of the pilot of the impending collision
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Rating TCO – Stage III What You Should Know

LESSON 46 – END OF STAGE REVIEW

Instrument Pilot Knowledge Test
 Ensure that the student is prepared for the knowledge test and passes the exam with an
appropriate score
 Review any items missed by the student on the test
Weather Information
 Ensure that the student understands weather information as appropriate for an instrument pilot
 Additional information may be found in Lessons 34, 35, 37, and 41
Cross-Country Flight Planning
 Ensure that the student understands cross-country flight planning as appropriate for the
instrument pilot
 Additional information may be found in Lesson 41
Aircraft Systems Related to IFR Flight
 Ensure that the student understands aircraft systems as appropriate for the instrument pilot
 Additional information may be found in Lessons 1, 2, 6, 10, 13, 15, 28, and 31 (9A optional)
Aircraft Flight / Navigation Equipment
 Ensure that the student understands navigation equipment as appropriate for the instrument pilot
 Additional information may be found in Lessons 6, 10, 13, 28, and 31 (9A optional)
Instrument Flight Deck Check
 Ensure that the student understands the appropriate flight deck check for the instrument pilot
 Refer to the AFM/POH of your airplane for detailed information regarding the checks noted
below
 Before engine start:
 Ensure that required inspections have been completed
 During the walk around inspection check the condition of all antennas and check the pitot
tube and static port(s) for any obstructions including covers to be removed
 Check the Chart Supplements and all NOTAMs for the condition and frequencies of all
navigation aids to be used during the flight
 Organize charts for the departure, en route, destination, and alternate airports
 Ensure that all radio equipment is turned off
 Verify that the suction gauge has the appropriate reading
 Ensure that the airspeed indicator has the proper reading
 Set the altimeter to the current altimeter setting and check that the pointers indicate the
elevation of the airport
 Check that the vertical speed indicator has a zero indication
 Ensure that the heading indicator is uncaged, if applicable
 Ensure that the miniature airplane of the turn coordinator is level and that the ball is
approximately centered (level terrain)
 Verify that the magnetic compass is full of fluid and that the correction card is in place
 Set the correct time on the clock

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage III

 Ensure that the engine instruments have the proper readings

 Verify that deicing and anti-icing equipment are available and have the appropriate fluid
levels, if applicable
 Ensure that the alternate static source valve can be opened and is fully closed
 Turn on the master switch and listen to the electric gyro(s) as they spin up
 After engine start:
 Turn the pitot tube heater on momentarily and watch for an ammeter deflection
 Check the power source for the gyro instruments
 Check that the compass card moves freely and is accurate
 Set the heading indicator to the compass heading after the gyro spins up
 Within approximately 5 minutes, the horizon bar on the attitude indicator should erect to the
horizontal position and remain at the correct position for the attitude of the airplane
 Ensure that the altitude indicated on the altimeter is within 75 feet of the airport elevation
when the set to the current altimeter setting
 Check that the vertical speed indicator has a zero indication
 If not, have it adjusted or use the ground indication as zero while in flight
 Ensure that the carburetor heat is functional and in the off position, if applicable
 Verify that the radio equipment is operating properly and set as desired
 Ensure that deicing and anti-icing equipment is operational
 During taxi and takeoff:
 The turn coordinator should show proper turn indications during taxi turns and be level while
straight
 The ball should move freely and in the direction opposite the turn
 The heading indicator should turn during taxi turns with minimal precession
 Recheck the heading before takeoff and ensure that it agrees with the runway heading
 Ensure that the attitude indicator remains level during straight taxiing and does not tip more
than 5° during turns
 Adjust the miniature airplane to a level flight attitude
 During and after engine shut down:
 Note any abnormal instrument indications
 Listen for grinding or other unusual noises as the gyros spin down
 Postflight:
 Recheck the antennas and pitot-static sources while tying down the airplane
 Document the failure or malfunction of any equipment or part of the aircraft and ensure that
it is fixed as required (or that the appropriate parties are notified)
FARs Related to IFR Flight & Pilot Qualifications
 Ensure that the student understands the FARs related to an IFR flight and pilot qualifications for
IFR operations.
 Additional information may be found in Lesson 17

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Appendix

APPENDIX A – ENDORSEMENT GUIDE FOR INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTORS

Instrument Rating – Aeronautical Knowledge Test
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has received the required training of FAR
§61.65 and I have determined that he/she is prepared for the instrument rating-airplane knowledge test.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________
Instrument Rating – Flight Proficiency / Practical Test
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has received the required training of FAR
§61.65. I have determined that he/she has received and logged training time within 2 calendar months
preceding the month of application in preparation for the practical test, has demonstrated satisfactory
knowledge of the subject areas in which he/she was deficient on the airman knowledge test; and that
he/she is prepared for the instrument rating-airplane practical test.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________
Instrument Proficiency Check
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has satisfactorily completed the
instrument proficiency check of far §61.57 in a ________________________ (aircraft make & model)
on this date.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________
Flight Review
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has satisfactorily completed the flight
review of FAR §61.56 in a ________________________ (aircraft make & model) on this date.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________
PIC in a Complex Airplane
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has received the required training of FAR
§61.31(e) in a _____________________ (aircraft make & model). I have determined that he/she is
proficient in the operation and systems of a complex airplane.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________
PIC in a High Performance Airplane
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has received the required training of FAR
§61.31(f) in a _____________________ (aircraft make & model). I have determined that he/she is
proficient in the operation and systems of a high performance airplane.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________
PIC in a Pressurized Aircraft Capable of High Altitude Operations
I certify that Mr./Ms. _______________________________ has received the required training of far
§61.31(g) in a _____________________ (make & model of pressurized aircraft). I have determined
that he/she is proficient in the operation and systems of a pressurized aircraft.
Date _________________ CFI __________________________________
CFI No. ___________________________ Exp. _______________

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage I

OPTIONAL LESSON 9A – NDB FUNDAMENTALS

NDB Principles of Operation
 The nondirectional beacon (NDB) is a ground-based radio transmitter
 The ADF needle points to the NDB ground station to determine
 Relative bearing (RB)
 The number of degrees measured clockwise between the heading of the aircraft and the
direction from which the bearing is taken
 Magnetic bearing (MB)
 The direction to or from a radio transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north
NDB Transmitter
 NDB transmitters are used for several purposes
 As a nonprecision approach to some airports
 To execute a holding pattern
 For en route navigation
 Track inbound or outbound
 Intercept a bearing
 Plot a position
 Low power versions of NDB transmitters can be co-located
with an instrument landing system marker beacons, in which
case they are called Compass Locators
 The accuracy of the NDB signal is limited by polarization changes
and other atmospheric effects Figure 9A-1. – Sporty’s (PWF) NDB.
 The NDB is designed to provide navigational service over a
specified radial distance from the facility
 Its power ranges from 10 W to 1000 W – typically 25 W – depending on the need
 The service volume is considered to be a cylindrical volume of airspace, centered on the NDB,
with no upper altitude limit
 Night-effect (the tendency for the low NDB
frequency to bounce) can occur because an NDB
radiates both a groundwave and a skywave
 Could receive a distant station not the desired
one
 Skywave field strength is subject to changes in
the ionosphere
 These changes occur as a function of
 Time of day
 Time of year
 Phase of the solar cycle
 At night, the reflective property of the
ionosphere increases resulting in a skywave
field strength that can be substantially larger
than during the day Figure 9A-2. – Ground, space, and sky wave propagation.
 In other words, the station can be received when farther away at night

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Instrument
Rating TCO – Stage I What You Should Know

ADF
 ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is a radio receiver with its companion ADF dial, that allows
the pilot to fly to or away from an NDB
 Tune and identify just like VOR
 To monitor the frequency, keep the volume turned down low in the background
Types of NDBs & Service Volumes
 Refer to the table below for discussion NDB types and service volumes:
NDB Service Volumes
Class Distance (Radius)
Compass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
* Service ranges of individual facilities may be less than 50 nautical miles
(NM). Restrictions to service volumes are first published as a Notice to
Airmen and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID in the Chart
Supplement.
Figure 9A-3. – NDB service volumes.

NDB Errors and Irregularities

 Poor procedure operation
 Not knowing how the system works
 Improper initial setup
 Improper initial orientation
 Failure to identify the station after tuning in a frequency
 It is easy to dial in the wrong station, see the ADF needle swing and settle on a position, and
believe the correct NDB is being received
 An ADF radio receiver is susceptible to interference, especially from lightning
 The needle on the ADF’s dial may point to the lightning discharge rather than to the station
 If the pilot keeps the ADF needle centered on the 0º mark (12 o’clock position), the aircraft will
home to the NDB, on a curved path, when a straight track is desired
 Overcontrolling track corrections close to the station (chasing the needle)
 The closer to the station, the more sensitive the ADF receiver becomes
 Failure to ensure that the directional gyro agrees with the magnetic compass
 Check prior to using the ADF for tracking and every 15 minutes thereafter
 Failure to turn the aircraft more than the degrees necessary to intercept
 Trying to track the course before intercepting the bearing
 The opposite error occurs when the pilot continues to fly the intercept angle after it is time to
turn and start tracking

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Sporty’s Complete Flight Training Course Instrument Rating TCO – Stage I

NDB Tuning, Identifying, and Monitoring

 Tuning and identifying the station is important for safe navigation using the NDB system
 Most ADF systems do not have a flagging system if the NDB fails during use
 Continue to monitor the NDB identifier at a low volume level to ensure the NDB is
transmitting throughout its use
 Review the appropriate procedures for the equipment installed in the training aircraft
NDB Orientation Position and Station Passage
 The ADF needle points to the station
 The RB indicated is the angular relationship between the aircraft heading and the station
 The RB must be related to aircraft heading to determine direction to or from the station
Intercepting NDB Bearings
 Refer to the figures below to review intercepting bearings with the student
Tracking NDB Bearings / Wind Correction Techniques
 Tracking uses a heading that will maintain the desired track to or from the station regardless of
crosswind conditions
 Interpretation of the heading indicator and needle is necessary to maintain a constant MB to
or from the station
 The formula for magnetic bearing is: MH + RB = MB to the station
 Use the figures below to discuss tracking with the student

Figure 9A-4. – ADF tracking inbound. Figure 9A-5. – ADF interception and tracking outbound.

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