Inductive effect

Inductive effect is displacement of an electron along the carbon chain due to the presence of an electron withdrawing
or electron releasing group.

• Its effect is permanent. Inductive effects are transmitted along the chain. Inductive effects result from
differences in electronegativities.
• Inductive effect weakens steadily with increasing distance from the substitution (electron withdrawing or
electron donating) group and is actually negligible after three carbon atoms.
• There are two types of inductive effect i.e. – I effect and +I effect.

• Negative Inductive effect (- I Effect)

• When the substituent attached to the end of the carbon chain is electron withdrawing (X), the effect is called
negative induction effects (– I effect).

•
• -I effect decreases with distance, as one goes away from groups (electron attracting).
• C1(δ+) > C2(δδ+) > C3 (δδδ+) and other third carbon charge is negligible.

•
• Negative inductive effect (-I effect) of different functional groups in decreasing order:
• NO2 > F > COOH > Cl > Br > I > OH > C6 H5

• Positive inductive effect (+I effect)

• When the substituent attached to the end of the carbon chain is electron donating, the effect is called positive
inductive effect (+I effect).
• This is due to electron releasing of the group, it develops a negative charge on the chain.
• Positive inductive effect (+I effect) also decreases as we go away from substitution group (electron releasing
nature)
•
 Acidic and Basic Nature due to Inductive effects

Negative inductive effect (-I effect): Due to electron withdrawing nature of the group, electron density decreases.
Thus, basic nature is decreased and acidic nature is increased.

Positive inductive effects (+I effect): Due to electron releasing of the group electron density is increased.
Thus, basic nature is also increased and naturally acidic nature is decreased.

-I effect +I effect
Acidic Nature Increase Decrease
Basic Nature Decrease Increase

Difference Positive and Negative Inductive effects

+I effect -I effect
Is due to the electron releasing group. Is due to electron accepting groups.
Electronegativity is less than Hydrogen. Electronegativity is greater than Hydrogen.
Groups showing +I effect, disperses partial
Group showing –I effect disperses positive charge on the C-chain .
negative charge on the C-chain.

Effects of Inductive effects

Following are some effects:

• Induction effect stabilised carbocation and carbanion.

• Induction effect stabilises free radicals.
• Effects of acidic and basic nature of acids and bases

Following are some important points:

• The phenomenon of inductive effect helps in clarifying the mechanism of many reactions and many other
facts.
• Because of the Inductive effect polar compounds have high melting point, boiling point and dipole moment.
• Inductive effect operates via sigma(σ) bonded electrons.
• Inductive effect is distance dependent effect. As distance increases, its effect decreases. Inductive effects can
be neglected after the third carbon.
• Inductive effect has a destabilising effect.

Resonance

Definition – The resonance effect can be defined as a chemical phenomenon that is observed in the characteristic
compounds having double bonds in the organic compounds. The organic compounds contain these double bonds in
the structures and usually have the overlapping of the p-orbitals on the two adjacent sides of carbon atoms.

The withdrawal effect or releasing effect of electrons attributed to a particular substituent through the delocalization of
π or pi-electrons that can be seen by drawing various canonical structures is called a resonance effect or mesomeric
effect. M or R symbols are used to represent the resonance effect.
 ➢ The above figure shows the different resonance structures of different compounds with resonance effects.
➢ The concept of resonance effect tells about the polarity induced in a molecule by the reaction between a lone
pair of electron and a pi bond. It also occurs by the interaction of 2 pi bonds in the adjacent atoms.
➢ Resonance in simple is the molecules with multiple Lewis structures.
➢ Resonance in chemistry helps in understanding the stability of a compound along with the energy states.

Types Of Resonance Effects

There are two types of Resonance effects namely positive resonance effect and negative resonance effect.

1. Positive Resonance Effect- Positive resonance effect occurs when the groups release electrons to the other
molecules by the process of delocalization. The groups are usually denoted by +R or +M. In this process, the
molecular electron density increases. For example: -OH, -SH, -OR,-SR.
 2. Negative Resonance Effect- Negative resonance effect occurs when the groups withdraw the electrons from
other molecules by the process of delocalization. The groups are usually denoted by -R or -M. In this process,
the molecular electron density is said to decrease. For example: -NO2, C=O, -COOH, C≡N.

Stability Estimation Rules for Resonance Structures-

• Resonance structures with complete valence shells on all atoms are usually more stable. This signifies that the
majority of atoms have a complete octet.
• Structures with fewer formal charges are more stable.
• Stable structures will always have a negative charge on the more electronegative atom. The placement of a
negative charge distinguishes the two resonance structures.
• Structures having a positive charge on the least electronegative atom are more stable.
• Structures with the least amount of formal charge separation value are more stable. The two structures below
are identical save for the relative placements of the positive and negative charges.
• Equivalent resonance types are identical in terms of stability.
Application of Resonance
• As resonance structures enable electrons to extend their wavelengths and thus lower their energy, they act
as a stabilising force in molecules. This is why, in the absence of resonance, benzene (C6H6) has a lower
heat of production than organic chemists would predict.
• Nitrobenzene is used in the pharmaceutical sector to manufacture the painkiller acetaminophen, or
paracetamol. Nitrobenzene is also used to hide disagreeable scents in shoe and floor polishes, leather
dressings, and paint solvents.

Hyperconjugation
Hyperconjugation effect is a permanent effect in which localization of σ electrons of C-H bond of an alkyl
group directly attached to an atom of the unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared p orbital takes
place.

From the above figure, we observe that one of the three C-H bonds of the methyl group can align in the plane
of the empty p orbital and the electrons constituting the C-H bond in a plane with this p orbital can then be
delocalized into the empty p orbital.
Applications of Hyperconjugation
1) Hyperconjugation stabilizes the carbocation as it helps in the dispersal of positive charges. Thus, we can say
that the greater the number of alkyl groups attached to a positively charged carbon atom, the greater is the
 hyperconjugation interaction and stabilization of the carbonation. The relative stability on the basis of
hyperconjugation is given as,

Electromeric effect
The electromeric effect is a temporary effect, mainly experienced in the presence of an attacking reagent in
the vicinity of an organic compound having multiple bonds(a double or triple bond). In this effect, the
complete transfer of a shared pair of π-electrons to one of the atoms joined by multiple bonds on the demand
of an attacking reagent takes place. The effect ceases as soon as the attacking reagent is removed from the
domain of the reaction. The electromeric effect is mainly categorized into two categories.

a)Positive Electromeric Effect (+E effect):

The positive electromeric effect is defined as the transfer of π−electrons of the multiple bonds to the atom
with which the reagent gets attached.

b)Negative Electromeric Effect (–E effect):

The negative electromeric effect is defined as the transfer of π−electrons of the multiple bonds to the atom
with which the reagent does not get attached.