UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CHALLENGES OF INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN BASIC SCHOOLS

OF CAPE COAST METROPOLIS

DOUGLAS YEBOAH

2015
 UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CHALLENGES OF INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN BASIC SCHOOLS

OF CAPE COAST METROPOLIS

BY

DOUGLAS YEBOAH

Dissertation submitted to the College of Distance Education of the University of

Cape Coast, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of Master of

Education Degree in Information Technology

FEBRUARY 2015
 DECLARATION

Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own original research

and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this university or

elsewhere.

Candidate’s Signature:…………………………… Date:……………….……..

Name: Douglas Yeboah

Supervisor’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the dissertation were

supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of dissertation laid

down by the University of Cape Coast.

Supervisor’s Signature:………………………….. Date:………………….

Name: Mr. Palmas Anyagre

ii
 ABSTRACT

The study investigated challenges of integrating information and

communication technology (ICT) in basic schools of the Cape Coast metropolis in

the Central Region of Ghana. The purpose of the study was to find out ICT

resources available for use in Basic schools, ICT resources teachers actually use,

ICT skills teachers have, factors that militate against the use of ICT in teaching

and learning of various subjects, and possible solutions to the challenges of

integrating ICT in teaching and learning of various subjects in Basic schools.

The descriptive survey design was used. Questionnaire was used as the

main instrument for data collection and data obtained were analyzed using

percentages and frequency distributions.

The population of the study comprised all the teachers of public Basic

schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis of the Central Region of Ghana. A sample

size of 242 teachers was selected from 22 schools out of 82 public basic schools.

The random number method of the simple random sampling technique was used

in the sampling procedure.

Among other findings were that, ICT resources available for use in Cape

Coast public basic schools are mainly computers, with very few schools having

television sets. Also, inadequate and unavailable ICT resources, lack and unstable

sources of electricity, and lack of integration skills were mentioned as the

inhibiting factors of ICT integration into the curriculum.

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 Recommendations based on the findings and conclusions were made to

stakeholders of education in Ghana and future researchers. Among the

recommendations was that the government and other stake holders of education in

Ghana should consider providing a variety of Information and Communication

Technologies or resources proportionally to all public basic schools to encourage

more effective teaching and learning.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A creeping plant can by no means grow higher except by the support of a

peg or a tree, likewise this dissertation could not have been a success but for the

assistance and encouragement of many kind hearted individuals. I therefore owe a

great responsibility to express sincere gratitude to all who contributed in diverse

ways to the success of my studies and more importantly completion of this

dissertation.

Firstly, I wish to express a profound gratitude to my supervisor Mr.

Palmas Anyagre for his scholarly support and guidance in seeing me through the

conduct and reporting of this study.

Secondly, I am grateful to Mr. Patrick Biney Emissah of M/A J.H.S., Mr.

Albert Doku of Kakumdo M/A J.H.S., Mr. Dadymus Arthur-Moses of A.M.E.

Zion School, Miss Sefakor-Tay of Efutu M/A J.H.S., Mrs. Esther Adae Nibah of

Nyinasin M/A Basic School, Mr. Godfred Yeboah formerly of Essuekyir M/A

Primary, Mr. Raphael Botse of St. Lawrence Catholic J.H.S. and all the teachers

who assisted in the administration of the questionnaire of this study.

I am again thankful to all the teachers who voluntarily offered to respond

kindly to my questionnaires. But for their honest responses, I would have no data

to analyze and report to complete my study.

Last but not the least, I am most grateful to my all-loving mother, Madam

Francisca Dadzie (Auntie Esi Egyirba) and all my beloved siblings especially Eric

Kojo Ninsin Yeboah and Vida Ekua Akoa Yeboah, all of Akotokyir in Cape

Coast; and Miss Gloria Asare of Obuasi in Ashanti region of Ghana, for their

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emotional support and caring for me in the painful aftermath of a lorry accident I

encountered after one of my night lectures, that enabled me to continuously attend

lectures and proceed with this study to a successful completion. May the

Almighty God Jehovah bless them all!

vi
 DEDICATION

To my wonderful mother, Madam Esi Egyirba and in memory of my late father

Mr. Sebastian Kwabena Aborokwa Yeboah

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DECLARATION ii

ABSTRACT iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

DEDICATION vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

CHAPTER

ONE INTRODUCTION 1

Background to the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 3

Purpose of the Study 3

Research Questions 4

Significance of the Study 5

Delimitation of the Study 5

Limitations of the Study 6

Organisation of the Rest of the Study 6

TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8

Overview 8

ICT in Pedagogy 9

ICT in a Pedagogical Context 10

Behaviourism 12

ICT Supported by Behaviourist Principles 14

viii
 Cognitive Constructivism 17

ICT Supported by Cognitive Principles 19

Social Constructivism 20

ICT Supported by Social Constructivist Principles 22

Using Computers as Catalysts in Teaching 24

Understanding the Integration of ICT into education 27

Integrating ICT into the Curriculum 27

Previous Research on the Integration of ICT into the Curriculum 35

Perceived Challenges of Integrating ICT into the Curriculum 39

ICT Policies 45

Summary 47

THREE METHODOLOGY 48

Research Design 48

Population 50

Sample and Sampling Procedure 50

Instrument 52

Data Collection Procedure 54

Data Analysis 55

FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 56

Overview 56

Description of respondents 56

Research Question 1 59

Research Question 2 62

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 Research Question 3 66

Research Question 4 74

Research Question 5 76

FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 80

Summary 80

Overview of the Study 80

Key Findings 81

Conclusions 82

Recommendations 83

Recommendations for Policy and Practice 83

Suggestions for Further Research 85

REFERENCES 86

APPENDICES 96

A Python Code for Random Number Generation 97

B Questionnaire for Teachers 98

C SPSS Output 103

x
LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Distribution of Sample by Schools 51

2 Distribution of Respondents by Gender 57

3 Distribution of Respondents by Grades Taught 58

4 Years of Teaching Experience 59

5 Highest Qualification 50

6 Availability of ICT Resources 61

7 Frequency of Internet Usage in Teaching 64

8 Frequency of Computer Usage in Teaching 65

9 Frequency of Television Usage in Teaching 66

10 Frequency of Software Usage in Teaching 67

11 Familiarity with Microsoft Word 68

12 Familiarity with Microsoft Excel 69

13 Familiarity with Microsoft PowerPoint 70

14 Familiarity with Microsoft Access 71

15 Familiarity with CorelDraw 71

16 Training Received to Use Computers 72

17 Training Received to Use Computers in teaching 74

18 Challenges in Integrating ICT in Teaching 76

19 Solutions to Challenges in Integrating ICT in Teaching 78

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is developing at a

very fast rate and its impact on socio-economic activities cannot be over-

emphasized. It has been integrated into virtually every arena of life, including

commerce, education, civic activities and governance among others, in developed

countries and has become a critical factor in creating wealth worldwide (Opoku,

2004).

Ghana, a developing country, also recognizes the relevance of Information

and Communication Technology to her socio-economic development. In the light

of this, the Ghana ICT for Accelerated Development (ICT4AD) policy was

formulated with an overall objective to “engineer an ICT-led socio-economic

development process with the potential to transform Ghana into a middle income,

information-rich, knowledge-based and technology driven economy and

society”(Republic of Ghana, 2003, p.8). Among its specific objectives, the

ICT4AD is to “promote an improved educational system within which ICTs are

widely deployed to facilitate the delivery of educational services at all levels”

(Republic of Ghana, 2003, p. 9). It is expected that the introduction of ICT into

the educational system would improve the academic performance of teachers by

encouraging them to improve their ability to use and apply technology in their

1
jobs. It is hoped that teachers’ use of technology in education would improve

educational outcomes and increase technological skills.

In January 2009, the then minister of education Mr. Alex Tettey-Enyo

stated in the forward of a document on ICT in Education Policy (2008), in

Ministry of Education [MOE] (2009) that:

The deployment of ICT into Education will result in the creation of

new possibilities for learners and teachers to engage in new ways

of information acquisition and analysis. ICT will enhance access to

education and improve the quality of education delivery on

equitable basis.

The Government is therefore committed to a comprehensive

programme of rapid deployment and utilization of ICT within the

Education Sector to transform the education system and thereby

improve the lives of our people (p. 4).

The minister’s statement indicates that equitable deployment and effective

utilization of ICT potentially would enhance access and quality of education

delivery thereby improving learner achievement.

In harmony with perception of the prospects of ICT in education, the NDC

Government under the presidency of His Excellency Mr. John Dramani Mahama

from 2013 supplied notebook computers to various Basic and Senior High

Schools in the country and also organized one-week workshops for teachers on

district bases on the use of computers in education, all through the RLG

Communications Inc.

2
 The foregoing discussions emphasize the importance Government of

Ghana and various stake holders attach to integration of ICT in education. It is

therefore pertinent to appraise the status quo in this regard, identifying possible

challenges militating against the efforts of integrating technology in learning and

teaching environments, if any, in order to address them and ensure successful ICT

policy implementation.

Statement of the Problem

Commitment by the Government of Ghana and other stakeholders to

enhance quality of education through ICT integration seems to be very high.

However, in my visits to some schools, I noticed that there were some computers

and other communication technologies such as television in the schools but were

not used in teaching and learning of various subjects other than ICT as a subject.

It is therefore imperative to investigate the challenges that militate against

successful integration of ICT in the teaching and learning of various subjects in

harmony with educational policies and efforts of various stakeholders in this light.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to investigate the possible challenges that

militate against successful integration of ICTs in Ghana’s Basic educational

institutions, specifically, in the Cape Coast Metropolis. The specific research

objectives were to identify:

1. ICT resources available for use in Basic Schools.

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 2. ICT resources teachers actually use in teaching their respective subjects.

3. ICT skills Basic school teachers have.

4. factors that militate against the use of ICTs in teaching and learning of

various subjects.

5. possible solutions to the challenges of integrating ICTs in teaching and

learning of various subjects in Basic schools.

Research Questions

The following research questions were used to assist in the achievement of

the purpose of the study.

1. What ICT resources (software, hardware, etc.) are available for use in

basic schools?

2. What ICT resources do teachers use in teaching their respective subjects?

3. What ICT skills do Basic School teachers have?

4. What factors militate against the use of ICTs in teaching and learning of

various subjects?

5. What are the possible solutions to the challenges of integrating ICTs in

teaching and learning of various subjects in Basic schools?

4
Significance of the Study

The findings of the study will inform policy makers and other stakeholders

of education on challenges faced by teachers of Basic Schools in integrating ICTs

in teaching and learning of various subjects. This will enable appropriate

measures to be instituted to support successful ICT integration.

Again, the study will inform heads of schools, Human Resource

Department officers, circuit supervisors, managers of education units and

directors of education among others on the skills teachers need to successfully

integrate ICTs in teaching their respective subjects. Furthermore, the study will

add to the stock of research materials on ICT integration in education. It will be

useful to researchers seeking information related to ICT integration in schools and

also inform through recommendation other related areas worthy of further

research.

Delimitation of the Study

Many are the teachers in the Cape Coast Metropolis that might be of

relevance to the study. However, the study was delimited to teachers of 22 basic

schools out of a total of 82 public basic schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis.

Again, ICT in education is a broader topic with several aspects. In this

study, however, the main concern was about the challenges teachers of Basic

Schools face that militate against successful integration of ICT in the teaching and

learning of various subjects.

5
Limitations of the Study

One limitation of the study is that the results might not be 100% true

representation of the situations in all the schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis

because only teachers of a sample of schools was used as respondents of the

study. This might affect the generalizability of the findings; it might not be

appropriate to generalize the results to all the Basic schools in the metropolis. The

findings, however, presented a better understanding of general challenges of ICT

integration across the curriculum.

Another limitation in relation to the design is that some participants might

misrepresent the facts in order to present to me a favorable impression or to save

the image of their school. This might distort the true nature of the existing state of

affairs thus affecting the internal validity.

Lastly, a limitation of the measuring instrument – questionnaire – is that

there were low return rate thus not getting the representation of the originally

selected sample.

Organisation of the Study

This study was structured into five main chapters. Chapter one is the

introduction of the study. It describes the background to the study, statement of

the problem and purpose of the study. It also sets out four research questions the

study was expected to answer, significance of the study, delimitation of the study

and limitations of the study. It further explains terms as used in the study which

readers might find difficult to understand, as well as organization of the study.

6
 Chapter two contains an in-depth review of related literature on the topic.

The chapter ends with a summary of the literature.

Chapter three describes the methods used in conducting this research. It

comprises the research design, population of the study, sample size, sampling

procedure, data collection instrument, pilot-testing, administration of instrument

and data analysis plan.

The analyses of the results and findings from the study are discussed in

chapter four. Chapter five contains summary, summary of the main findings,

conclusions drawn from the findings, recommendations of the study and

suggestions for further study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Overview

This chapter discusses the opinions expressed by various authors on the

subject. It examines how ICT in education is implemented through the teacher.

Teachers’ philosophies of education are informed by the learning theories they

hold. Therefore the chapter takes a look at the place of ICT within pedagogy

which will inform how ICT is used within pedagogy. It then discusses the theories

behind the use of ICT in education and the role of the teachers as informed by

learning theory.

Because this study examines the integration of ICT, it is necessary to

discuss the concept of “integration” of ICT. The discussion is extended to the

processes that are believed to take place where ICT is integrated. Previous

research on ICT integration are then reviewed taking notice of teachers’

perceptions of the integration of ICT into the curriculum, with attention to some

challenges faced by teachers in integrating ICT into the curriculum.

Because ICT integration is also guided by policy, the chapter reviewed the

ICT policies of some developed countries and developing countries and then

examined the Ghanaian policy in particular. The chapter ends with a summary of

the review.

8
ICT in Pedagogy

Before examining ICT in pedagogical context, I discuss the concept “ICT”

to assist in determining the position of ICT within pedagogy.

What is ICT?

The Qualification and Curriculum Authority in the United Kingdom (UK)

(cited in Kennewell, Parkinson, & Tanner, 2000, p. 1) defines ICT as “the range

of tools and techniques relating to computer-based hardware and software; to

communications including both directed and broadcast; to information sources

such as CDROM and the Internet; and to associated technologies such as robots,

video conferencing and digital TV.” This means ICT is an extension of

Information Technology (IT) that includes hardware, software and Internet

connectivity. Connectivity provides access to the internet, local networking

infrastructure, and videoconferencing and thus provides communication within IT

(Shelly, Cashman, Gunter & Gunter, 2002).

Toomey’s definition elaborates upon the underlying purposes of using

ICT’s in education. He defines ICT as a tool for teaching and learning that

“relates to those technologies that are used for accessing, gathering, manipulating

and presenting or communicating information” (UNESCO, 2003). This means

ICT is a resource or tool that can be used for different purposes in the pedagogical

environment.

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 ICT in a Pedagogical Context

It is important to understand what is meant by pedagogy in order to be

able to locate the place of ICT within the context of the former. Pedagogy is

defined in many ways, but is broadly based on the common understanding that

pedagogy is the science of teaching (Webb & Cox, 2004). According to Webb &

Cox, pedagogy does not remain static over a period of time. Webb and Cox assert

that pedagogical changes are influenced by “growing knowledge that has become

more differentiated and more integrated and that the developments in our

understanding of cognition and metacognition have influenced the

conceptualization of pedagogy” (2004, p. 237). Therefore pedagogy can be

changed to suit the needs of the time. Watkins and Mortimore describe the current

model of pedagogy as:

“Offering an increasingly integrated conceptualisation which

specifies relations between its elements: the teacher, the classroom

or context, content, the view of learning and learning about

learning” (as cited in Webb & Cox, 2004, p. 237).

The first identified element, the teacher, is responsible for organising all

the other elements in order for learning to take place. Cloke and Sharif (as cited in

Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007) view pedagogy as being about teachers’ behaviour in

the classroom. Mumtaz (2000) highlights that the teachers’ behaviour in the

classroom is influenced by the teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge.

Pedagogical content knowledge includes knowing what s/he wants to achieve (the

outcomes of the lesson), knowing the learners’ level of knowledge (learners’

10
knowledge), knowing the subject content (subject matter), organising the subject

matter to fit the learners’ knowledge (lesson planning) and organising the relevant

teaching and learning materials that can be accessible in the learning environment

(affordances) (Mumtaz, 2000).

ICT is one of the resources that can be organised to be accessible in the

learning environment. Therefore in teaching, ICTs are placed under the

affordances (Shulman as cited in Webb & Cox, 2004). Gibson (as cited in

Armstrong et al, 2005) suggests that any tool provides affordance as perceived by

the user. Therefore affordance is the kind of support the tool provides a user in

terms of the user’s perception and belief. Webb and Cox view ICT as a tool that

increases the degree of affordance; however suggest that teachers “need to be able

to identify affordances in any suitable software for exploring and developing the

ideas and skills that are to be taught” (2004, p. 238).

In light of the fact that ICT is a relatively new resource and that most of

the teachers were never exposed to use of ICT in their training (Kearsley, Hunter

& Furlong, 1992), it is useful to reflect upon how this affects the teachers’ role in

the classroom. In doing so, I need to discuss the role of the teacher and the use of

ICT within teaching. Cloke and Sharif argue that: “Teachers’ beliefs and

[learning] theories about teaching are major factors influencing teachers’ use of

ICT in their teaching” (as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007). I therefore discuss

the teachers’ role and the use of ICT with reference to the key learning theories:

behaviourism, cognitive constructivism and social constructivism. Under each

learning theory I discuss how the theorists view knowledge and the role of the

11
teacher. Subsequently, I discuss the role of ICT as underpinned by each learning

theory.

Behaviourism

General Description

This is a theory of learning which emphasizes that learning takes place

when there are observable changes in learners’ behaviour (Orlich, 2000). B.F.

Skinner, the behaviourist, believes that we know because of the world that acts on

us; we “grasp or take in” what the world brings to us (Skinner as cited in Ozman

& Craver, 1986). In elaborating upon the behaviourist approach, Hinchey (1998)

argues that behaviourists believe that knowledge is out there to be found and as

such constitutes factual and verifiable information.

The role of scientist is therefore to discover the “true facts” about the

world and bring them as tied or fixed knowledge to the recipients of knowledge.

The recipients include the teacher who cannot argue against what scientists claim

to be “true” knowledge. In other words the teachers’ understanding of knowledge

is subject to what scientists believe to be true. In turn, teachers view learners as

tabula rasa which suggests the teachers’ role as “passive transmitters of

knowledge” (Elbaz as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007) to learners who cannot

argue against what teachers believe to be “true knowledge”.

Kennewell et al. (2000) view the behaviourist approach as implying a very

limited role for the teacher. The teacher is seen to be the deliverer of instruction or

the transmitter of knowledge that cannot be contested by the learner. Instructivist

teachers begin their lessons by presenting information from lower order tasks to

12
higher order tasks. As the knowledgeable elements in the teaching process, the

teachers “identify the type of discrimination required in particular tasks, and

design a specific sequence to teach the discrimination so that only the teacher’s

interpretation of the information is possible” (Magliaro, Lockee & Bruton, 2005,

p. 44).

Within the behaviourist perspective, the teacher repeatedly presents facts

to the learner. Repeated presentation encourages memorization of facts by

learners (Magliaro et al., 2005). Corno and Snow (as cited in Magliaro et al. 2005,

p. 43) refer to this as “Direct Instruction” (DI) which describes a “range of

instructional models used in face-to- face teaching and learning contexts – all

designed to promote on-task student behaviour by the teachers’ effort to monitor

and control student classroom attention and persistence”.

Over and above teacher control, face-to-face teaching is used to ensure

that learners remain active participants in the teaching and learning process even

if their participation is non-verbal: “It is important to emphasize that student does

not passively absorb knowledge from the world around him but must play an

active role, and also that action is not simply talking. To know is to act

effectively, both verbally and nonverbally” (Skinner as cited in Magliaro, Lockee,

& Burton, 2005, p. 42). It is therefore, within the teacher’s capacity to create an

environment that will trigger learners’ behaviour in the classroom. Because

behaviourists believe in “quantity” of content they believe that the factual

knowledge presented to learners should be timeously measured by teachers.

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 Frequent testing is used as an instrument to measure changes in learners’

behaviour (Kanuka & Anderson as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007). “Teachers

use some form of behaviour modification with a reward system to reinforce

students for displaying appropriate behaviours” (Orlich, 2000, p. 47). The purpose

of using the reward system is to strengthen the occurrence of positive behaviours

(Schunk, 2004).

ICT Supported by Behaviourist Principles

Even before the sophisticated ICT’s came into being, computers were

already being used for teaching. In the 50’s, technology was introduced in

education in the form of teaching machines which were invented by Skinner to

assist teachers with the delivery of instruction during the teaching process. He

believed that the teaching machine would perform the teaching role far better than

teachers (Kennewell et al. as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007). The machines

were programmed so that they

presented the learners with the facts or information that they (learners) had to

acquire. Memorisation of facts was done through drill and practice. After

continuous drill and practice the machine was able to test the learners’ knowledge

and if the learner performed well, the machine would provide the learner with the

next tasks, which acted as a type of reinforcement.

In the 1980s computer based activities were designed to assist the teachers

in the teaching process. Amongst these was Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

which Taylor (1980) termed the ‘tutor mode’. He defines the tutor mode as the

14
process where computers are programmed by experts to act as a “surrogate

teacher” (Reeves & Hedberg, 2003, p. 6) instructing the learner through a

predefined lesson on the computer. Instead of the teacher, the computer

courseware delivers instruction on the assumption that learners will acquire

information as it is repeatedly presented by the instructor (Clark & Mayer, 2003).

In the same way as the teaching machine, the tutor mode used drill and practice to

encourage acquisition of knowledge by the learner. Similar to the role of the

teacher in behaviourism, the tutor mode is able to “provide routines necessary,

such as combining text and graphics, answer judging, and student control

functions” (Alessi & Trollip as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007). Jonassen

(1996) refers to this traditional way of using computers as learning from

computing. He views this process as a process whereby computers present static

knowledge to the learners. Jonassen (1996) believes that learning from computers

plays no role in developing the learners’ cognitive structures.

Hartley (2007) and Magliaro et al. (2005) argue that even though drill-

and-practice programs are aligned with behaviourism, they are most commonly

used to support learners with learning barriers in the classrooms today. Drill-and-

practice programs are designed to develop students’ “specific often quite limited

competencies and abilities” (Reigeluth as cited in Bottino, 2004, p. 555). In

addition to remedial teaching, DI is used in distance teaching where computers

are used as stand-alone to represent the teacher (Hartley, 2007).

With regard to the Web of the 2000s, Lankshear (as cited in Maholwana –

Sotashe, 2007) highlighted that even though the Internet is viewed as

15
transforming teaching and learning by some, for others “the Internet can

seemingly be understood as an elaborate infrastructure for transmitting, receiving

and manipulating information.” Manipulation of information and other related

practices are viewed in a similar vein as possession of knowledge by scientists

(Thagard as cited in Lankshear, 2000). This means the use of the Internet depends

on the user; it can be used to facilitate the traditional teaching approach

underpinned by behaviourist principles.

In short, “the metaphor that prevails [in the use of ICT-based educational

tools in the transmission model] is that of the system as an environment where

knowledge is transmitted in order to be acquired by the user” (Bottino, 2004 p.

556).

Role of the Teacher in Behaviourist Pedagogy

Lajoie and Derry (as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007) “believe that the

teacher, whether human or machine, has roles to play while students are engaged

in learning activities” (1993, p. 294). While Skinner’s intension was to replace

teachers with the machine, Hartley (2007) maintains that instead of replacing the

teacher, “the teacher and the technology work together – one is not pitted against

the other”.

Magliaro et al. (2005) recognize that the teacher remains responsible of choosing

the learning objectives that must be mastered by the students and further selects

appropriate CAI programs which present information from lower level tasks to

higher level tasks.

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 Although the computer is able to provide tutoring to the learners, it is the

teachers’ role to monitor the learners’ progress on tasks (Kennewell et al., 2000).

This means the teacher has to observe the learners’ performance during the

tutoring process. As an instructionist, the focus of the teacher in a CAI classroom

is to encourage learners to acquire knowledge through information delivery

(Hartley, 2007).

Cognitive Constructivism

General Description

In contrast to behaviourism, cognitive constructivist Piaget argues that

“the child acts on the world, with expectations about consequent changes, and,

when these are not met he enters into a state of cognitive conflict or

disequilibrium” (Ravenscroft, 2001, p. 136). Schunk (2004) describes cognitive

development as a process that is dependent on four factors: biological maturation,

experience with the physical environment, experience with the social environment

and equilibration. The effects of the first three depend on the fourth, equilibration.

“Equilibration is the central factor and the motivation force behind cognitive

development. It coordinates the actions of the other three factors and makes

internal mental structures and external environment reality consistent with each

other” (Schunk, 2004, p. 447). This means before new knowledge is constructed,

the new experiences need to conflict the old experiences. Therefore the

constructivists view knowledge as based upon individual constructions that are

17
not tied to any external reality, but rather to one’s interactions with the external

world” (Jonassen as cited in Kanuka & Anderson, 1999, p. 5).

In further elaborating Piaget’s theory, it is noted that it is through the

process of learning that the child becomes socialized, the incidence of egocentric

speech declines, a decline which Piaget regarded as a surface manifestation of

fundamental changes in underlying cognitive schemata. Tudge and Rogoff (1989)

argue that even though Piaget believes in self-discovery or individual learning, he

understands that in order for learning to take place the child should be socialised

in the environment. Although Piaget criticised the adult – child interaction, he

“allowed for possibility that adults may be able to interact with children in a

cooperative fashion” (p. 24). Piaget argues that “it is despite adult authority, and

not because of it, that the child learns. And also it is to the extent that the

intelligent teacher has known to efface him or herself, to become an equal and not

a superior, to discuss and examine, rather than to agree and constrain morally”

(Piaget as cited in Tudge & Rogoff, 1989, p. 24). Therefore in applying cognitive

theory, teachers should consider the role of designing the environment for

conceptual change to take place, not to decide on how learners should create

meaning and understanding of the new concepts provided in the learning

environment. In designing the learning environment the teachers are supposed to

first consider learners’ prior knowledge which serves as a base in the construction

of new knowledge.

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ICT Supported by Cognitive Principles

Inspired by Piaget’s theory, Papert (1980) developed a programming

language which was known as LOGO. The “LOGO was designed to prompt a

purely learner-centered interaction in which the student “told the computer what

to do’ and observed its response” (Ravenscroft, 2001, p. 136). LOGO was

programmed in the computer to act as curriculum innovation program through

which learners were encouraged to learn through self-discovery; allowing them to

develop their own knowledge and understanding without guidance from the

teacher. This means that “learning is progressively considered as being based on

the active exploration and personal construction, rather than the transmission

model” (Bottino, 2004, p. 556).

Taylor (1980) termed this type of program “tool mode”. The “tool relieves

the learner of routine and tedious mechanical tasks” (Hodgkinson-Williams, 2006,

p. 4). In contrast to learning from, when using computers as tools the learner

constructs knowledge. This means learner is no longer learning from the

computer, she or he learns with the computer. Jonassen and Reeves (1996) argue

that software tools do not improve teaching when they are relegated to service of

traditional instructivist pedagogy. Instead Jonassen and Reeves (1996, p. 694)

suggest that software tools should be “employed as cognitive tools to solve

challenging problems, pursue personal learning goals, or accomplish authentic

tasks”.

19
Role of the teacher in Constructivist Pedagogy

Although the teacher’s role is more facilitative than concerned with direct

instruction as in the traditional approach, the teacher decides on the lesson

objectives. The choice of appropriate software for the lesson is made by teacher to

ensure active cognitive reorganization (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). This is

guided by the fact that it is the teacher who knows the mature and less mature

learners in his or her classroom (Lajoie & Derry, 1993). It is further argued that

the teacher should always be around the learners during the use of computers as

cognitive tools “since learners can become highly confused and demoralized by

undetected errors” (Anderson et al.) as cited in (Lajoie & Derry, 1993, p. 147). It

is the teachers’ role “to determine when and how the observed knowledge-

construction activity of a particular student deviates from a predetermined set of

solution path” (Lajoie & Derry, 1993, p. 147). In this way the teacher can create

an environment that will encourage and stimulate learners to construct knowledge

using cognitive tools, such as computers.

Social Constructivism

General Description

Parallel to Piaget’s cognitive constructivist theory, is the social

constructivist theory proposed by Lev Vygotsky, which still influences many of

the teaching approaches in the 2000s. Vygotsky and Piaget share the idea that

knowledge is constructed, however they differ on how knowledge is constructed.

Vygotsky viewed learning as an activity that takes place through mediation

20
processes which cannot be facilitated without the use of tools (Bannon, 1997).

The tools include psychological and semiotic tools. The semiotic tools are “both

the tools that facilitate the construction of knowledge and the means that are

internalised to aid future independent problem solving activity” (Palinscar, 1998,

p. 353). Conceptual development takes place during this internalisation process.

Extending Vygotsky’s argument of knowledge, Rorty says knowledge transforms

as the learner continues to participate in different socio-cultural activities. He

defines knowledge as “a consensus of beliefs, a consensus open to continual

negotiation” (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996, p. 178).

Psychological tools are those symbolic artifacts – signs, text, formulae,

graphic organizer – that when internalized help the individuals master their own

natural psychological functions of perception, memory, attention, etc. (Kozulin,

2003 p. 15).

Unlike in behaviourism and cognitive constructivism where the role of the

teacher is viewed to be limited, Vygotsky views the teacher as the key driver of

the teaching and learning process. In the classroom situation the teacher designs

an environment where learning takes place in a form of dialogue with others (i.e.

group learning or collaborative learning). The dialogue continues until the learner

reaches a stage where he/she experiences tensions between scientific experiences

and spontaneous experiences (unsystematic everyday concrete concepts)

(Ravenscroft, 2001). Vygotsky called this a Zone of Proximal Development

(ZPD) p. “The zone of Proximal Development [ZPD] is defined as the distance

between the actual developmental level of the child as determined by independent

21
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through

problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable

peers” (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996 p. 183).

In order for learning to be successful the teacher or capable peers should

support or “scaffold” the learner within his/her ZPD to encourage conceptual

change. Because teachers are in possession of “authentic knowledge of the subject

– that is organised, systematic in reasoning, and because of its more abstract

language, less dependent on contextual reference they can assist in enculturating

the learner with their scientific knowledge and understanding” (Ravenscroft,

2001, p. 141). Therefore in social constructivism “the idea of teaching is

characterised as support within the ZPD” (Kennewell et al., 2000, p. 91), and is

called scaffolding (Kennewell et al., 2000). Social constructivism suggests that

interaction within socio-cultural activities and scaffolding are the key components

that help in knowledge construction.

ICT Supported by Social Constructivist Principles

Social constructivist authors such as Duffy and Cunningham (1996) argue

that computers are grouped under the semiotic mediation tools which Vygotsky

considers to have indirect communicative actions in teaching and learning

processes. These include computer mediation tools such as computer

conferencing and electronic mail (Romiszowski & Mason, 1996).

“Pedagogically, mediation tools are based on cooperative learning precepts”

(Johnson & Johnson as cited in Hodgkinson-Williams, 2006). “ICT does not exist

22
in isolation: it is interwoven with the rest of the tools and participants in the

learning environment” (Lim, 2002, p. 411).

According to Lagos, Nussbaum and Capponi (2005) as cited in

Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007) ICTs “mediators” are used to mediate interactions

between actors in the classroom. Their role is more than just communicating tools

since information is transformed in the process of mediation. Mediators such as

Personal Digital Assistants “act as instruments that support and regulate relations

between actors, and provide:

1. Organization of information

2. A negotiation space

3. Coordination between activity states” (Lagos, Nussbaum & Capponi,

2005, p. 264).

What transpires from Lagos, Nussbaum and Capponi’s arguments on

mediators, is that there are ongoing conversations that take place during the use of

ICT for teaching and learning. This process provides an opportunity for the

development of higher order learning objectives associated with problem-solving

and critical thinking skill (Romiszowski & Mason, 1996).

It is evident then that the concept of “cognitive tool” is also appropriate

for a socio-cultural learning environment. In support of this notion, Azevedo uses

the concept “metacognitive tool” which he describes as “any computer

environment that resides in a specific learning context where peers, tutors [or]

humans may play some role in supporting students’ learning by serving as

external regulating agents” (2005, p. 194). This means computers are used as

23
tools that encourage interaction with others in order to encourage thinking about

thinking.

“Research indicates that cognitive conflicts embedded in a social

interaction are more conducive to cognitive growth than is an individual’s

experience with conflicting viewpoints within his or her own mind” (Lajoie &

Derry, 1993, p. 295). The ZPD emerges when there are conflicting viewpoints

within the learners’ mind. It is through scaffolding that the conflicting ideas

within the learners are developed to the next level of understanding. “Scaffolding

refers to support provided so that the learner can engage in activities that would

otherwise be beyond their abilities” (Sherin, Rieser & Edelson, 2004, p. 391).

According to Sherin et al. (2004) the scaffolding metaphor is extended to

learning artifacts such as computer educational software. This means computers

can provide the learner with necessary support when she or he is stuck

with new concepts. What is implicit in this discussion is that computers act as

“catalysts” in the socio-cultural learning environment.

Using Computers as Catalysts in Teaching

Hawkridge (1990) proposed a catalytic rationale of using computers in

education. In Hawkridge’s view the catalytic rationale is the rationale with most

hidden power. The catalytic rationale aims at changing both the teacher and the

learner (Hawkridge, 1990). More control is given to learners who are expected to

take charge of their learning. Hawkridge argues that in the catalytic rationale

24
“computers will help children move away from rigid curricula, rote learning and

teacher-centred lessons, by giving children more control of their own learning”.

Therefore in this rationale learning is transforming from one that is

teacher-centred to one that is learner-centred. Teachers are expected to change

their roles because of the new role that learners play in their learning. Furthermore

the use of computers as catalysts can help teachers develop skills that are needed

in the changing curriculum. The catalytic rationale seems to be in line with the

use of computers that aims to transform pedagogical practices.

Role of the Teacher in a Social Constructivist Computer Classroom

In a social constructivist computer classroom some of the traditional

teacher’s roles are retained (e.g. class leader, discussion leader). McGhee and

Kozma (2003) identified the following as the roles of the teacher in a computer

classroom underpinned by social constructivist tenets:

1. Instructional designer

2. Collaborator

3. Advisor

4. Team coordinator

5. Monitoring and assessment specialist

In elaborating these roles, I used Lajoie and Derry’s (1993) descriptions of

the role of the tutor in a computer classroom where the use of computers is

underpinned by social constructivist principles.

25
Instructional designer: As is the case with roles of teachers in the classroom

informed by traditional principles and in the classroom underpinned by cognitive

principles, the teacher in the classroom informed by social constructivist

principles first decides on the objectives of his or her lesson. This includes

choosing appropriate ICT resources that support knowledge construction.

Collaborator: Teachers are no longer knowledge transmitters; they act as partners,

co-workers in the learning process.

Advisor: The role of being an advisor is one of the main roles that the teacher

plays when engaging learners in collaborative activities. They argue that the

teacher provides advice when it is needed. This means teachers can support

learners in “carrying out assigned tasks, much like mentor or coach” (p. 294).

Team coordinator: Team coordination is applied by “providing quality control

over peer critiquing and other collaborative activities, ensuring that students learn

what they are expected to learn, and do not mislead one another” (p. 294).

Monitoring and assessment specialist: Teachers monitor learners’ work

throughout the learning process. She or he manages all the activities; she or he

identifies the learners’ problems and selects an appropriate task for the learner.

The teacher decides on the type and time of assessing the learner.

Having considered what the role of the teacher is when using computers as

underpinned by the three principles (behavioural principles, cognitive

constructivism principles and social constructivism principles), it is clear that the

effective integration of ICT remains within the teachers’ competence and sphere

of influence. I examine the concept “integration” in the context of ICT next and

26
then look at the different phases of integrating ICT as proposed by different

authors.

Understanding the “Integration” of ICT into Education

Meaning of the Concept “Integration” in the Context of ICT

The concept of “integration” is understood differently by those who

perceive themselves as “integrating” ICT into the curriculum. In understanding

what it means to integrate ICT into the curriculum it is argued that ICT integration

applies across the curriculum, it is not a separate course as others might think

(Flanagan & Jacobsen, 2003).

At the most elementary level integration of ICT can simply mean using

word processing to type school projects, and at the most sophisticated level,

“integrating” ICT can refer to a simulation that would not be possible without

computer technology. However the definition alone does not clarify what it means

to integrate ICT across the curriculum. Further examination is needed to clarify

how schools can integrate ICT into the curriculum.

Integrating ICT into the Curriculum

Many attempts have been made to clarify what is meant by “integrating

ICT into the curriculum”. This encompasses a range of approaches that different

school teachers use to integrate ICT into their school curricula. According to

Bottino (2004, p. 555) “three models can be singled out as a starting point for

eliciting ideas about crucial issues in ICT based learning systems:

27
 1. The transmission model;

2. The learner centred model;

3. The participative model”.

The transmission model is nothing else but the drill-and-practice programs

that are used to assist learners with development of limited abilities together with

tutorial systems that substitute teachers as transmitters of knowledge. The learner

centred model is based on the interest that learners learn more when given

opportunity to explore and discover concepts on their own. This means

considering active exploration and personal construction of knowledge rather than

acquisition of knowledge. Lastly, the participative model is where learning

activities are organised to take place in a social environment (Bottino, 2004). In

his models, Bottino confirms the relationship between the learning principles and

the use of computers in the classroom.

In elaborating this I discuss the three levels of ICT integration by

McCormick and Scrimshaw that are similar to Bottino’s models of integrating

ICT into the curriculum.

In studying the relationship between ICT and pedagogy McCormick and

Scrimshaw (2001) suggested that ICT integration takes place through three levels

of pedagogical change:

1. improving efficiency and effectiveness

2. extending the reach of teaching and learning with ICT and

3. transforming the concept of the subject with ICT (p. 44-45).

28
 Improving efficiency with the use of ICT helps teachers to improve their

practice by providing the teacher with accurate and efficient tools. These include

use of spreadsheets to plot graphs and word processing for writing compositions.

Extending the reach of teaching and learning with ICT refers to the use of Internet

that enables teachers to extend the resources found in the teaching environment.

This provides opportunity for both the teacher and the learner to search for

worldwide up-to-date information. However, the teacher should monitor the

searching process by educating learners on how to use Internet for them to

research an agreed question.

Transforming conception of the subject with ICT: During this level teachers

support learners to develop a sense of independence through the use of ICT.

Learners are free to explore and interact with all sorts of data on their own. The

teachers’ role is to develop learners’ judgment, skills and their ability to appraise

critically what is of particular importance.

Similar to the three levels by McCormick and Scrimshaw are the three

levels of ICT integration by Bialobzerska and Cohen (2005). Bialobzerska and

Cohen suggested three levels under which ICT can be integrated:

1. Functional practice: Computers are used to assist in tasks that can be done

by other means such as being hand written, which includes use of

spreadsheets and word processing.

2. Integrative practice: Teachers begin to make use of the computer in a way

that could benefit the learner, e.g. when learners are asked to write

compositions using the computer, they use editing tools to check grammar

29
 mistakes, spelling mistakes and more appropriate words. The teacher

expects learners to draft and redraft and by doing so new insight is gained.

3. Transformational practice: This level considers “learning which occurs as

a result of activities and opportunities which do not exist in computer less

environments” (p. 33). This includes the use of communicating tools

whereby learners interact with learners from other countries.

While the authors mentioned above considered the levels of change by

teachers, UNESCO (2003) and Yeun, Law and Wong (2003) move beyond ICT

integration by teachers only to the broader context of ICT integration within a

school environment.

In the study conducted by UNESCO (2003) four stages of ICT integration within

school environment were identified:

1. Emerging,

2. Applying,

3. Infusing and

4. Transforming (p. 19).

Emerging stage: is evident when the school is in possession of few computers that

can be used only by teachers and the administration. During this stage teachers are

learning how to use computers. The purpose of this stage is to familiarise teachers

with ICT literacy skills. Teachers are trained to use variety of tools and

applications. Teachers begin to understand why they have to apply ICTs into their

teaching (UNESCO, 2003). The major aim is to develop teachers in order for

30
them to feel comfortable and at ease with the application programs and confident

in their use (Becta, 2005).

Applying stage: is evident when teachers feel reasonably confident with ICT

applications. They can use application software and communication tool and

browse the Internet confidently. Teachers are ready to implement or apply new

technologies in the teaching of LAs. Teachers decide why, when, where and how

ICT tools will contribute in the objective of the lesson. Teachers should then be

able to choose the appropriate ICT tool that will benefit the learner in

understanding the new concepts of the new lesson. This includes being able to

choose when the whole class or group multimedia presentations will be useful. It

is also important for teachers to understand when and how they will assist learners

to find, compare and analyse information from the Internet or from any other

research source specific to the LA. At this stage not only teachers are applying

ICT’s in teaching, the management, secretaries as well as librarians are beginning

to apply ICTs in administering their tasks (UNESCO, 2003).

Infusing stage: is noticeable when teachers begin to use all what they have learnt

in every aspect of their teaching. ICT is incorporated in lesson preparation and

management. What becomes critical is for teachers to explore the use of ICTs and

to be creative. Through their creativity they are able to stimulate and manage

learning of learners using different learning styles to achieve their goals (ibid).

Transforming stage: is visible when teachers use ICT tools with confidence. They

are able to apply them in their teaching as well as in other aspects of their

teaching. At the stage of transformation, the focus changes from being centred on

31
the teacher. The integration of ICT takes a new phase where the process of

integrating ICT tools is no longer manipulated by the teacher.

Teachers cease to be drivers and repositories of ICT related knowledge. Learners

are actively involved in the ICT activities and teachers assist and guide their

learners during the process of constructing knowledge. Collaborative skills are

developed. Learners work as groups in solving real life problems. They also work

with other learning groups from other places using communicating tools by

accessing resources on the Internet. Because of the change in learning style,

teachers change their assessment strategies (UNESCO, 2003).

Using a slightly different conceptual framework, Yuen, Law and Wong

(2003) suggested three models of ICT integration:

1. Technological adoption;

2. Catalytic integration; and

3. Cultural innovation.

Technological adoption model: At this stage the school looks at the adoption of

technological infrastructure, formulating organisational structure and teacher

technical skills. The teachers’ concern is to be able to use computer effectively for

the production of documents that can help them in presentation and evaluation of

their lessons. At this stage the management is actively involved in the facilitation

of technology adoption by teachers. They set targets and timetable for achieving

specific ICT competencies. It is mentioned that at this stage the key element is to

enhance teaching by stimulating learners interests with the use of multimedia in

teaching.

32
 Learners’ involvement is limited (Yuen, Law & Wong, 2003), therefore

technology adoption cannot be classified as a stage implementing effective

integration of ICT, it is still a learning curve for knowledgeable teachers to help

other teachers master computer skill and gain confidence.

Catalytic integration model: At this stage the integration of ICT is an integral part

of both teaching and learning. ICT is integrated across all the LAs. Learners, as

well as teachers explore the use of ICT in the teaching and learning process.

Teachers are able to design activities that are problem based, task based and

underpinned by a social constructivist approach. It is through interacting with

problem based activities that learners get maximum control of their learning.

The integration process is led by the school principal. S/he ensures that all

teachers are able to integrate ICT in their LAs. Teachers work in collaboration to

achieve the outcomes of curriculum innovation.

Cultural innovation model: This model refers to schools where there is no conflict

with infrastructure and teacher development. ICT is treated as part of the school

mission and vision.

There is multiple leadership style, which means that the principal does not bother

much about monitoring the use of ICT as the teachers are free to use ICT

according to their beliefs. This means they integrate ICT into the curriculum when

they feel the use of the tool will benefit the lesson. Teachers do more than just

integrating ICT in their teaching; they develop ICT packages that can be used by

other school teachers. There are no formal teacher development sessions.

33
Teachers empower one another in informal setting through information sharing.

Learners are free to explore the use of ICT in different aspects of learning such as

in extracurricular lessons (Yuen, Law & Wong, 2003).

Looking at Yuen, Law & Wong’s (2003) model, it would seem that their

technological adoption model conflates the emerging and applying phases

suggested by UNESCO (2003). The effectiveness of this approach is obscure

since the phase does not specify how long the training of teachers will take before

they start implementing ICT in their subjects.

While UNESCO’s model specifies that during emerging (the first level of

integrating ICT) the number of computers received may not be enough for

teachers to use them for their teaching ICT, Yuen, Law and Wong’s (2003) first

phases of integrating ICT (Technological adoption) does not specify the number

of computers that may be available at that stage, however it fuses the adoption of

ICT infrastructure together with teachers’ use of computers. From my point of

view, teachers may not be able to use ICT confidently when they are still in the

process of being trained. Hence UNESCO separates the training of teachers from

the use of computers. In my view the separation of teacher training from the use

of computers seeks to ensure that teachers have sufficient time to acquire the

relevant skills that are needed in the integration of ICT.

After technological adoption Yuen, Law and Wong’s model conflates

infusing and transforming levels by UNESCO, where both the teacher and the

learner confidently explore the ICT. Thereafter Yuen, Law and Wong introduced

a new stage where ICT forms the integral part of the school culture. In revisiting

34
UNESCO’ model I found that the last stage of Yuen, Law and Wong is not

considered. I therefore proposed a new model based on UNESCO’s model with

the additional stage where ICT will form the integral part of the school culture,

i.e. innovating stage. Therefore in my view the integration of ICT should take

place in five levels: emerging, applying, infusing, transforming and innovating.

In the light of the above interpretations of “integrating ICT into the

curriculum”, I now examine what the previous research says about the integration

of ICT in as far as teachers are concerned.

Previous Research on the |Integration of ICT into the Curriculum:

Perception of Teachers

It is notable that “teachers’ perception of ICT in education are not only

influenced by the discourse of official document and guidelines, but also their

own experiences of using ICT for personal reasons within social and professional

context in which the profile of access to ICT resources is fast-changing”

(Loveless 2003, p. 315). In addition to that “it is also notable that individuals’

attitudes, confidence levels, cognitive and emotional styles, and social identities

can influence their voluntary participation in the use of ICT” (Hennessy et al. as

cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007).

Perceived benefits of integrating ICT into the curriculum

Before discussing the benefits perceived by teachers in other studies, it is

important to note that the benefits of integrating ICT into the curriculum only

emerge where ICT is used effectively (National Council of Education Technology

35
as cited in Lee, 2002; Selwood & Pilkington, 2005). Becta (2005, p. 26) argues

that the benefits of integrating ICT into the curriculum are achievable by teachers

who are confident and competent in using ICT.

Internet connectivity

Lee reported that the National Council for Educational Technology

(NCET) stated a number of potential benefits, amongst which is access to richer

source materials (Lee, 2002). According to the studies conducted by Granger et

al. (2002), Carnoy (2004) and Becta (2005), teachers are of the view that the

Internet is a useful resource that can provide access to a number of materials

relevant to the curriculum.

In responding to Lankshear, Peters and Knobels’ concern of “recognising

the way academics understand and approach the Internet” (2000, p. 20), Granger

et al. mention that teachers used Internet for browsing readings, to interact with

family and friends, on-the-job discussions, and collaboration with peers and /or

students (2002, p. 483). Internet provides learners an opportunity to participate in

electronic projects that facilitate a constructivist approach in which students work

in teams on the design and building artifacts and complex systems, in a rich

learning environment.

In Carnoy’s (2004) study, teachers from rural areas asserted the benefit of

using email for collaborative teaching:

“ICT system has made priority of connecting rural schools to the

Internet and thereby integrating them more tightly into the larger

educational system, and hooking them up to the outside world.

36
 Many school districts and almost all universities now communicate

internally and externally largely through e-mail” (p. 5).

Even in the SITES Module 1, the use of email was found to be providing teachers

an opportunity to communicate with peers from other schools within and/or

outside the country (Howie et al., 2005, p. 66).

Use of ICT Applications:

The teachers from Howie et al.’s (2005) study indicated having perceived

the integration of ICT as providing an opportunity for using ICT applications.

These include:

1. Simulations of natural or man-made systems

2. Dynamic modelling and graphical modelling of mathematical functions

3. Software for simple manipulation and statistical analysis

4. Word processing /desktop publishing

5. Spreadsheets

6. Software supporting creative works (music /art)

7. An interactive multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM (2005, p. 64).

Juxtaposing the opportunity of using ICT applications in the integration of

ICT, Becta (2005) reported that teachers perceive subject specific software as

playing an integral role in the integration of ICT in their LAs.

Improvement of Administration and Storage Facility

Central to the benefits of using ICT applications is the improvement of

administration for both teachers and school management. For managerial

purposes, teachers use word processing and spreadsheets for designing school

37
timetables, planning and finances. For general purposes word processing is used

for organization of school records, equipment and all clerical work (Selwood &

Pilkington as cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007). “Some schools are using

specially prepared software packages that allow teachers and the school to

measure student gains on tests” (Carnoy, 2005, p. 7) and for administering and

storing student personnel data. This means in some schools computers became a

permanent fixture in the schools offices (Carnoy, 2005, p. 5).

Reducing Teacher Workload

Excessive teacher workload has been a concern in the teaching

profession. The use of ICT applications for administration purposes has the

possibility to reduce teacher workload (Selwood & Pilkington, 2005). However,

this is only possible when teachers have access to adequate computers (Selwood

& Pilkington, 2005) and are able to use ICT effectively (Becta, 2005). Effective

use includes sharing responsibilities with other teachers from other schools within

and outside the country. This reduces preparation time and releases time for

teachers to engage with their learners (Selwood & Pilkington, 2005).

Transforming teaching

In the adoption of new technology, teachers view their roles as changing

(Pearson & Naylor, 2006). Teachers who use ICT most frequently seem to shift

from the paradigm where they act as transmitters of knowledge to a paradigm

where they act as co-constructers of knowledge (Lee, 2002, p. 8) and perceive

ICT as a catalyst in transforming their teaching (Dede as cited in Maholwana-

Sotashe, 2007). In Mumtaz’s (2000, p. 324) study it is highlighted that “teachers

38
perceive that their practices became more students centred; the more extensively

involved teachers were in professional activities, the more likely they were to

have teaching philosophies compatible with constructivist learning theory”.

This means ICT can act as a catalyst that changes teaching-learning

process from that of being teacher-oriented to that of learner-oriented. Learners’

roles change from being passive to being active “partners in developing learning

experiences and generating knowledge, and then collaborative construction of

meaning is enhanced” (Dede, 2000, p. 284). Teachers extend their roles from

worksheet designers to web designers (Dede, 2000).

Development of Skills

In addition to this, ICTs offer the potential for effective group work,

encourages cooperative learning practices, develops learners’ talents and skills in

marketing, sales, public speaking design, administration, entrepreneurship,

writing and editing (Granger et al., 2002, p. 5-6).

Perceived Challenges of Integrating ICT |into the Curriculum

While the effective use of ICT contributes towards a number of benefits in

the integration of ICT, teachers cannot use ICT effectively if there are factors that

hinder their pedagogical practices.

Unavailable Infrastructure

The integration of ICT depends on the availability of infrastructure.

Hardware, software and buildings are the essential components of the

implementation of ICT in the school curriculum. According to Granger et al.

39
(2002) the lack of appropriate up-to-date equipment restrains the integration of

ICT into the curriculum. Williams, Coles, Wilson, Richardson and Tuson (2000)

assert that “access to technology tends to override all other factors in determining

use” (p. 313).

Hardware and Software

Veen argues that “without hardware and software there could not be

any use of information technology at all” (1993, p. 1). In support of this notion

Granger et al. (2002) argue that one of the factors that inhibits the integration of

ICT in schools is lack of appropriate and up-to-date materials. The unavailable

equipment includes the lack of software that fits the subject knowledge (e.g.

History knowledge) and the lack of technical support to ensure that day-to-day

practices take place without being hindered by unreliable equipment (Veen as

cited in Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007).

Buildings

It is without doubt that in any country ICT cannot exist without buildings.

The study by Becta (2005, p. 10) reveals that “buildings restrict the development

of ICT, including the ability to site computers”.

The Lack of Internet Access

Apart from subject specific software, it is Internet connectivity that

has been perceived as hindering the process of ICT integration and includes where

connectivity is not readily available or the Internet access is slow (Becta, 2005).

Teachers who have access to ICT mentioned bandwidth as problem in their access

of Internet (Becta, 2005). In the schools where there is no connectivity, the

40
predominant constraint is the cost of Internet connectivity (Hodgkinson-Williams,

Sieborger & Terzoli, 2007).

Lack of ICT competent teacher and training

Often mentioned by a number of researchers, is the lack of ICT competent

teachers who are able to integrate ICT comfortably with confidence (Hennessy et

al., 2005; Loveless, 2003 & Lee, 2002). Incompetence seems to lead to lack of

confidence. According to Somekh “teachers need to be convinced of the value of

ICT because many teachers tend to perceive themselves to be technologically

incompetent and often feel deskilled and demoralised when they first begin to use

computers in the classroom” (as cited in Lee, 2002, p. 5). Even computer literate

teachers may not be in a position to use computers in their teaching.

The major problem with using ICT in the teaching-learning process is the

complexity of a key aspect of curriculum knowledge in ICT (Webb, 2004, p.

246). This means computer skills alone cannot help teachers with the integration

of ICT in their teaching; further training that entails how computers can be used

together with curriculum knowledge is necessary. The knowledge acquired in

such training can help the teacher to select appropriate representations for

particular task and to be able to identify the problem that learners have with

particular software (Webb, 2002, p. 246).

Insufficient training

Howie et al., (2005) argue that the incompetence of teachers is due to

insufficient training they receive. Even in the event of ICT competent teachers,

41
continuous staff development is necessary to ensure that teachers are coping with

changing technologies (Howie et al., 2005). This means teachers should undergo

some form of training before they are able to integrate ICT effectively in their

teaching. However, there are teachers who resist change and this becomes a

hindering factor in integrating ICT into teaching (Lee, 2002).

Resistance to change and insufficient knowledge possessed by teachers

The teachers who resist change may be technophobics (Becta, 2005) or

may have a different perspective on why ICT are integrated in their teaching, or

may fear the loss of authority (Granger et al., 2002). Mumtaz (2000, p. 320)

referred to this phobia “avoidance” because teachers tend to “distant themselves

from computers or sustain a very low level of interaction”. Insufficient knowledge

possessed by teachers may give rise to the reluctance of using ICT in teaching.

Lee (2002, p. 5) argues that: “for teachers to rethink and restructure teaching and

learning, they must first learn enough about the relevant technologies to apply in

their professional work and to translate them to their students as part of the

integrated learning of the subject matter”. This means that teachers as the key

drivers in the implementation of ICT, should be able to apply new technologies in

their pedagogical practices to allow students to construct knowledge. It is argued

that the resistance to change is due to insufficient knowledge possessed by

teachers, e.g. teachers may lack the skills to use Internet effectively (Lee, 2002).

This resistance to change does not exclude school leadership. According to NCET

(as cited in Mooij & Smeets, p. 2001) the attitude of school leadership is

42
influential in the integration of ICT in the schools. School leaders’ “commitment

and decisions are expected to be relevant to the ICT innovation processes” (Mooij

& Smeets, 2001, p. 266).

The Availability and Accessibility of Unfiltered or Uncensored Information

This is also viewed as inhibiting the integration of ICT. Because the

Internet is unable to control who accesses what, when and where, it allows all

kinds of information to be accessed by students as argued by Kerr:

“The Net’s beauty is that it is uncontrolled, it’s information by

anyone, for anyone. There is a racist stuff, bigoted, hate-group

stuff, filled with paranoia; bomb recipes; hot to engage in various

kinds of crimes, electronic and otherwise; scams and swindles” (as

cited in Oppenheimer, 1997, p. 15)

Technical Support

One of the important aspects to consider in integrating ICT in schools’

curricula is that computers require maintenance. This cannot be done by every

teacher. Carnoy (2004) found out that “even if teachers are familiar with ICT,

additional technical support is needed to make ICT a tool for curricular change in

the teaching-learning process” (p. 9). He further recommends the appointment of

full time technicians who will monitor and fix serious technical problems.

43
Insufficient Funding

ICT and its components demand financial support. According to Howell,

Lundall and Patrick (2000) the cost of ICTs in schools includes teacher training,

additional advisory and technical staff, hardware, software, telecommunications

infrastructure (e.g. phone lines) and content development. Mooij and Smeets

(2001) argue that in order to achieve ICT goals the national authorities should

make financial means available to schools.

Lack of Appropriate ICT Policies:

The effectiveness of ICT integration needs guidelines on how the process

will be followed from national down to school level. The reluctance of schools in

designing their own policies is the most frequently mentioned inhibiting factor

around the ICT policies. Teachers argue that it is impossible to integrate ICT

when the school time-table does not integrate ICT access. Hennessy et al. argue

that the fact that teachers have “little say in designing and implementing

development plan for using ICT within their schools” (2007, p. 157) is hindering

the use of ICT in teachers’ practices since they are “highly politicized and do not

attend to the culture of classroom practice and the pivotal role of the teacher in

effecting change” (Olson as cited in Hennessy et al., 2007, p. 157).

In response to the above “lack of appropriate ICT policies” I examine the

ICT policies from developed countries to developing countries.

44
ICT Policies

Worldwide countries have developed policies for ICT integration into the

curriculum. In UK the integration of ICT aims at supporting innovation in schools

for improving effectiveness of schools and teachers in particular, by using ICT to

reduce the burdens placed on teachers and to modernise delivery (UK Connecting

Schools and Networking People, 2002). The Canadian ICT policy “expects that

the introduction of ICT in schools will improve the academic performance equity

among students and ultimately, students’ ability to use and apply technology and

software in the jobs” (Corbett & Willms, 2002, p. 9).

In Africa, there are number of countries that are using computers in

specific non-governmental organisation (NGO) educational projects

(Hodgkinson-Williams, 2005, p. 1), however “the development of well elaborated

national policies on ICT education seems to be in the making” (Howie, Muller &

Paterson, 2005). In Southern African region ICT policies that seem to exist are

very few, and even those that exist are vague to interpret and make little reference

to how ICT implementation is to take place (Howie, Muller & Paterson, 2005, p.

4).

In Ghana, the ICT policy for all sectors of the economy including

education is termed ICT4AD (ICT for Accelerated Development).

“As part of the mission of the policy ‘to transform the educational

system to provide the requisite educational, and training services

and environment capable of producing the right types of skills and

human resources required for developing and driving Ghana’s

45
 information and knowledge-based economy and society’, the

Government is committed to a comprehensive programme of rapid

deployment, utilization and exploitation of ICTs within the

educational system from primary schools upwards”. (Republic of

Ghana, 2003, p.37)

The mission statement of the ICT4AD emphasizes the utilization and

exploitation of ICTs within the educational system from Primary schools through

the tertiary levels. This is a clear indication that the Government of Ghana is

committed to encouraging practical use of ICTs at all levels of the Ghanaian

educational system to improve teaching and learning.

Additionally, one of the policy objectives of the ICT4AD is “to facilitate

the deployment, utilization and exploitation of ICTs within the educational system

to improve on educational access and delivery and to support teaching and

learning from primary school upwards” (Republic of Ghana, 2003, p38). This

policy objective indicates the government’s awareness of potential of the

integration of ICTs in the curriculum to improve delivery and support teaching

and learning even at the primary school level.

46
 Summary

The integration of ICT into the curriculum is underpinned by various

explicit and implicit theories. Many countries have already made attempts to

integrate ICT into the curriculum. The research studies conducted in these

countries have established to some extent how teachers perceived the integration

of ICT into the curriculum. According to teachers’ perceptions, the integration of

ICT has both benefits and challenges.

Different models are proposed on how to integrate ICT into the

curriculum. According to the proposed models, the integration of ICT requires not

only computer literate teachers, but teachers with computer knowledge that can

help them choose appropriate educational software and to be able to assist

learners with the use of software without wasting teaching time. In the event of

insufficient ICT knowledge, the integration of ICT poses a challenge to teachers.

In addition to this, it is noted that insufficient computer hardware is one of the

major stumbling blocks in integrating ICT into the curriculum.

47
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter presents the design of this study as well as description of the

population, sample and sampling procedure. It further describes the research

instrument used for data collection. It is followed by description of the data

collection procedures, data analysis plan and the validity of the study.

Research Design

The study was to explore challenges faced by teachers in integrating ICT

in teaching various subjects in Basic schools. The descriptive methodology was

used. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2010, p. 182) this type of research

involves “identifying characteristics of an observed phenomenon” and

“examining a situation as it is”. The descriptive methodology has varied

approaches such as observation studies, correlation research and survey research.

Among the various approaches to descriptive methodology approaches,

survey research was used in this study because it was found more suitable. Gay

(1992) holds the view that descriptive survey is very useful when investigating

educational problems. Osuala (1991) also points out that descriptive surveys are

practical to the researcher and identify present conditions and at the same time

point to the present needs. He believes that descriptive survey is regarded by

48
social scientists as the best especially where large populations are involved.

Osuala also notes that descriptive survey is widely used in educational research

since data gathered through descriptive survey present field conditions. According

to Best and Khan, cited in Amadahe (2002), descriptive research concerns itself

with conditions or relations that exist. These include practices, attitudes and

opinions that are held. Amadahe (2002) argued that in descriptive research, there

is accurate description of activities and this goes beyond mere fact-finding.

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2010, p.187), “survey research involves

acquiring information about one or more groups of people – perhaps about their

characteristics, opinions, attitudes or previous experiences – by asking them

questions and tabulating their answers”, with the ultimate goal of generalizing to a

larger population.

This design was chosen because it has the merit of gathering various

responses from a wide range of people. It also enables one to have a clear picture

of events and people’s behavior on the basis of data collected for a particular

period of time. In addition, in-depth follow-up questions can be asked and items

that were not clear could be explained using descriptive survey design.

Furthermore, descriptive survey helps to present the true state of affairs of a given

situation after data have been collected from a number of people who respond to

the same set of questions about a given situation (Gay, 1992). This approach is

more suitable for this research because it was intended to acquire information

about teachers of Basic Schools concerning their challenges of integrating ICT

49
into the curriculum. The information obtained was analyzed using frequency

tables.

Population

The target population of the study was all the teachers of public Basic

Schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis of approximately 1,476 teachers. They

comprised both males and females, professional and non-professional teachers,

holders of certificates, Diplomas, First degrees and Master’s degrees, as well as

working experiences of a range up to 60 years. Since the target population was

very large, a sample was used for the study.

Sample and Sampling Procedure

The sample of the study consisted of 242 teachers of public Basic Schools

comprising 114 males and 128 females, all selected from 22 out of 82 public

Basic schools. Again, the sample consisted of 6 Primary school teachers – 1

teacher from each of primary school classes, and 5 Junior High School teachers,

from each of the 22 Basic schools selected.

The sample size was found to be appropriate on the basis of Alreck and

Settle (1985) who indicated that a sample size of 10% of a population is enough

to obtain adequate confidence. In addition, Nwana (1993, pp.72) supports this

when he states that “… if the population … is many hundreds, a 20% sample or

more will do”. The sample of schools was 26.8% of the total of 82 public basic

50
schools and the sample of teachers was 16.4% of the population of approximately

1,476 teachers.

The sampling technique used to select the sample of 22 basic schools from

the 82 public basic schools was simple random sampling, specifically, using the

random numbers method. All public Basic schools were listed alphabetically and

a computer program written in Python programming language was used to

generate a sequence of random numbers in the range from 1 to 82 (The program

code in appendix A ). The first 22 distinct numbers generated by the computer

program that corresponded to 26.83% of the listed public basic schools were

selected and their respective corresponding schools were listed out of the

population schools. The 11 teachers (six from primary and five from Junior High

School) were then selected as representative of each of the 22 schools. Table 1

shows the sample size distributed by schools.

Table 1: Distribution of Sample by Schools

Name of School Number of Teachers Percentage (%)

A.M.E. Zion ‘D’ 11 4.5

Abura Ahmadiyya ‘B’ 11 4.5

Abura St. Lawrence Cath. Sch. 11 4.5

Amamoma Presby 11 4.5

Amanful Catholic 11 4.5

Ansapatu St. Peters Anglican 11 4.5

Antem M/A 11 4.5

51
Table 1: Distribution of Sample by Schools (Continued)

Name of School Number of Teachers Percentage (%)

Apewosika M/A 11 4.5

Ayifua St. Mary’s Anglican Sch. 11 4.5

Christ Church Anglican 11 4.5

Ebubonko M/A 11 4.5

Efutu M/A 11 4.5

Ekon M/A 11 4.5

Esuekyir M/A 11 4.5

Imam Khomeinn 11 4.5

Kakumdo M/A 11 4.5

Kubease M/A 11 4.5

Kwaprow M/A 11 4.5

Nkanfoa Catholic Sch. 11 4.5

Nyinasin M/A 11 4.5

St. Andrews Anglican Sch. 11 4.5

St. Augustine’s Practice 11 4.5

Total 242 100

Instruments

The questionnaire was used as a means of collecting data. Questionnaire is

a useful and widely used instrument for collecting survey information, providing

structured and often numerical data in various scales of measurement such as

52
nominal and ordinal. Also, it is useful for the collection of data without the

presence of the researcher, and it is often comparatively straight forward to

analyze (Cohen et al., 2005). Questionnaire is a very effective instrument for

acquiring factual information about practices and conditions of which the

respondents are presumed to have knowledge and enquiring into the opinions and

attitudes of the subject. Further, questionnaire was deemed appropriate for this

study because the respondents were all literate in English language.

The questionnaire consisted of mainly closed-ended and a few open-ended

questions. Closed-ended questions restrict the respondents to options given.

Coding is made easier with the use of closed-ended questions. The merits of the

closed-ended questions explain why they were used. A few open-ended questions

were included due to the advantage of allowing respondents to provide additional

information as a supplement to those solicited by the close-ended questions.

The questionnaire was developed with guidelines from my supervisor and

related studies on Challenges faced by Secondary School Teachers in Integrating

ICT into the Curriculum, a master’s thesis submitted to the Rhodes University

(Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007). Relevant information from the literature reviewed

also aided in the design of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into

five sections.

The first section of the questionnaire centered on the demographic

information about the respondents. The second section focused on the availability

of ICT resources in the school. The third section tried to elicit respondents’ views

on the utilization of the available ICT resources of the school in teaching of

53
various subjects. The fourth section sought to solicit data on the skills of teachers

in using ICT resources especially computers and software in general and

specifically for teaching various subjects. Finally, the fifth section of the

questionnaire sought for information on the challenges of integrating ICT in

teaching various subjects.

Data Collection Procedure

Pilot-testing was carried out before the main data was collected. A pilot-

test is a small scale replica and a rehearsal of the main study. Pilot-testing helps to

test the effectiveness of the study organization. It also helps to test the suitability

of the research methods and design. Through pilot-testing, the researcher

familiarizes with the research environment. A successful pilot-testing enables the

researcher to discover possible weakness, inadequacies and ambiguities in the

research instruments so that they can be corrected before the actual data collection

takes place. Pilot-testing though an essential element of a good study design, does

not guarantee success in the main study since some problems may not become

obvious until the larger scale study is conducted. It does, however, increase the

likelihood of success.

The pilot-testing of the study was carried out at Nyinasin M/A Junior High

School of the Cape Coast Metropolis on the 13th of May, 2014. The Nyinasin

M/A Junior High School shares some commonalities with all the Basic schools in

the Cape Coast Metropolis in terms of teacher population and qualifications, as

well as infrastructural facilities, hence the selection of that school for the pilot-

testing.

54
 The main data collection activity was carried out a week after the pilot

testing – from 19th to 30th of May 2014. During the first week of the period, I

travelled to all the 22 schools to distribute the questionnaire. Because schools

were still having lessons, I was permitted by the respective head teachers to see a

teacher or two in each school and leave the questionnaires. I took advantage to

explain the purposes of the study and discussed the questionnaire with the

teachers I was allowed to see and left them copies of the questionnaire to be

administered to the other selected teachers. We scheduled appointments for

collection of the questionnaires in the following week and also exchanged cell

phone numbers to enable communication concerning completion of the

questionnaires.

During the second week of the data collection period, I called the teachers

who agreed to assist in administering the questionnaires to confirm the

completion of the latter. When the questionnaires were completed, I travelled to

the respective schools for collection and gave twelve or thirteen designer pens,

one for each respondent and another for each head teacher depending on number

of head teachers in a school, as a form of appreciation. I finished collection of the

completed questionnaire on Friday, 30th May 2014.

Data Analysis

The data obtained from the completed questionnaires were grouped, coded

and analyzed using frequency tables generated in Statistical Package for the

55
Social Sciences version 16 (SPSS V.16). The generated outputs of the data

analysis are shown in the appendices.

56
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Overview

This chapter presents the analysis and discussion of the results obtained

from the data collected in response to the research questions. The results are

presented and discussed under the following topics: description of respondents,

ICT resources (software, hardware, etc.) available for use in basic schools, ICT

resources teachers use in teaching their respective subjects, ICT skills Basic

School teachers have, factors that militate against the use of ICTs in teaching and

learning of various subjects, and possible solutions to the challenges of integrating

ICTs in teaching and learning of various subjects in Basic schools, as guided by

the research questions of this study.

Description of Respondents

Table 2 presents distribution of the sample of the study by gender.

Table 2: Distribution of Respondents by Gender

Gender No. of Teachers Valid Percentage (%)

Male 114 47.1

Female 128 52.9

Total 242 100

Among the two hundred and forty-two (242) respondents, 114 (47.1%)

were males while 128 (52.9%) were females. This is an indication that the number

57
of males in the sample was slightly more than that of females. Specifically, the

males were 14 (5.8%) more than the females.

Table 3 presents the distribution of the respondents by the grades they

taught.

Table 3: Distribution of Respondents by Grades Taught

Grade No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

B.S. 1 22 9.1

B.S. 2 22 9.1

B.S. 3 22 9.1

B.S. 4 22 9.1

B.S. 5 22 9.1

B.S. 6 22 9.1

J.H.S. 110 45.5

Total 242 100

It is observed in Table 3 that 22 (9.1%) of the respondents taught in each

of Primary School classes (One through Six) being a total of 132 (54.5%) while

the remaining 110 (45.5%) taught in Junior High School. This indicates that the

teachers were selected from all the Basic school classes therefore they were

representative of the various categories of teachers at the Basic school level.

Table 4 presents distribution of respondents by the number of years of

teaching experience.

58
Table 4: Years of Teaching Experience

Range of Years No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

0-5 86 35.5

6-10 80 33.1

11-15 42 17.4

16-20 12 5.0

Above 20 22 9.1

Total 242 100.0

Table 4 indicates that out of the 242 respondents, 86 (35.5%) had taught

for up to 5 years, 80 (33.1%) had teaching experience of 6 to10 years, 42 (17.4%)

had 11 to 15 years of teaching experience, 12 (5%) had taught for 16-20 years and

finally, 22 (9.1%) respondents had had more than twenty years of teaching

experience. This is an indication that the sample was representative of teachers of

all categories of working experience in terms of number of years. However, Table

4 also shows that most of the respondents had had teaching experience of up to

five years, followed by those with experience from six to ten years and the least

category of teachers had had teaching experience of sixteen to twenty years.

Table 5 shows distribution of respondents by highest qualifications.

59
Table 5: Highest Qualification

Qualification No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Certificate 0 0

Diploma 114 47.1

First Degree 114 47.1

Master’s Degree 10 4.1

Missing values 4 1.7

Total 242 100.0

It is shown in Table 5 that none of the respondents possessed a Certificate

as a highest qualification. Most of the respondents (47.1%) possessed Diploma,

likewise First Degree. Ten respondents representing 4.1% had Master’s Degree

but four (1.7%) teachers did not respond at all. Table 5 is an indication that the

respondents are representative of teachers of most common qualifications at the

Basic school level being Diploma, First Degree and Master’s Degree.

Analysis of Main Data

Research Question One:

What ICT Resources (software, hardware, etc.) are Available for use in Basic

Schools?

Research question one was meant to find out what ICT resources were

available for use in Basic Schools. To answer this question, the respondents were

asked to indicate which ICT resources were available for use in their schools in

60
response to item 8 on the questionnaire and their responses were summarized in

Table 6.

Table 6: Availability of ICT Resources

Resource Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Internet: Yes 6 2.6

No 229 97.4

Total 235 100

Computers Yes 230 96.6

No 8 3.4

Total 238 100

Television Yes 50 21

No 188 79

Total 238 100

Software for Teaching Yes 7 3

No 228 97

Total 235 100

As shown in Table 6, out of the total of 242 respondents, seven did not

respond. Only six (2.6%) responded affirmatively that they had internet access in

61
their schools. Surprisingly, as many as 229 (97.4%) respondents responded that

internet access was not available in their school. This finding showed that most of

the Basic schools did not have internet access. Though the percentages differ, this

is in harmony with that of a similar study conducted in South Africa which found

that only 25% of the teachers from a sample of schools confirmed availability of

internet access in their schools, in other words as many as 75% confirmed their

schools did not have internet access (Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007, p. 89).

Again, when asked to indicate whether computers were available in their

schools, Table 6 shows that 230 (96.6%) respondents indicated that computers

were available in their schools. Only eight (3.4%) teachers however responded

that their schools did not have computers. This result is an indication that at the

time of the study most of the Basic schools in the Cape Coast metropolis had

computers. However, response to a follow up question, item 11 on the

questionnaire, asked to find out about the number of computers available to a

class in a lesson indicated that most of the schools had very few numbers of

computers. The numbers of computers indicated ranged from one to 30 with 200

teachers indicating availability of one to 10 computers. This is a clear indication

that though most of the schools had computers, their numbers were clearly

insufficient as shown in appendix C (SPSS OUTPUT).

Once again, out of the total of 238 teachers who responded to the question

on availability of television in schools, Table 5 shows that 50 teachers

representing 21.7% of the teachers affirmed that their schools had television sets

while 188 teachers representing 79% indicated that television sets were not

62
available in their schools. This also shows that most of the Basic schools did not

have television sets that could be integrated in teaching.

Lastly, in response to the question on availability of software for teaching

in the sample schools, Table 6 shows that out of 235 teachers who responded,

only seven (7) representing 3% confirmed that software for teaching were

available in their schools. Two hundred and twenty-eight respondents

representing 97% however indicated that such software was not available in their

schools. In response to a follow-up question to name, if any, available software

for teaching and learning, the three percent respondents mentioned Microsoft

Word, Microsoft PowerPoint and Mavis Beacon Teaching Typing. None of the

respondents ever mentioned learning software in the form of tutorials, drills or

even games. This is a clear indication that either most of the schools simply do

not have such software or they do not know about them.

To sum up, the results in Table 6 reveal that computers are the only ICT

resources that are available for use in most of the Basic Schools in the Cape Coast

metropolis. Next to computers is television which is also available in some of the

Basic schools.

Research Question 2

What ICT resources do teachers use in teaching their respective subjects?

The purpose of research question 2 was to find out which ICT resources

teachers actually used in teaching their respective subjects. Table 7 shows the

responses of teachers when asked to indicate the frequency with which they used

internet (or worldwide web) in teaching their respective subjects.

63
Table 7: Frequency of Internet Usage in Teaching

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 202 86.7

Rarely 29 12.4

Often 2 0.9

Total 233 100

As indicated in Table 7, 202 teachers, representing 86.7% of the

respondents answered that they did not use internet at all in teaching their

respective subjects. Twenty-nine teachers representing 12.4% of the respondents

answered that they rarely used internet in their teaching. Only two teachers

representing 0.9% answered that they often used internet in teaching their

respective subjects. This result is a clear indication that the internet (or worldwide

web) as a tool with all its invaluable advantages for supporting teaching and

learning was not being used by most teachers of public basic schools in the Cape

Coast Metropolis.

Similar to the frequency of internet usage in teaching and learning at the

basic school level in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Table 8 presents the frequency of

computer usage in teaching various subjects.

64
Table 8: Frequency of Computer Usage in Teaching

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 167 71.1

Rarely 68 28.9

Often 0 0

Total 235 100

Table 8 shows that as many as 167 teachers representing 71.1% answered

the question on how often they used computers in teaching their respective

subjects that they did not use computers at all. 68 teachers representing 28.9%

responded that they rarely used computers in teaching their respective subjects.

None of the teachers showed that he or she used computer often in his or her

lesson. This is a clear indication that though the government of Ghana had

supplied a number of laptop computers to various schools, most of the schools did

not use the computers in the teaching of various subjects other than I.C. T. as a

subject. This result confirms that of a similar study conducted in South Africa

which found that only 32%, 27% and 21% of three different categories of teachers

respectively were more likely to use computers for teaching and learning purposes

(Maholwana-Sotashe, 2007, p. 93).

65
 Table 9 presents the responses to the item 12 of the questionnaire that

probed into how often teachers used television in teaching their respective

subjects.

Table 9: Frequency of Television Usage in Teaching

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 210 92.5

Rarely 14 6.2

Often 3 1.3

Total 227 100

From Table 9, as many as Two hundred and ten (210) teachers

representing 92.5% responded that they did not use television at all in teaching

their subjects. Only fourteen teachers representing 6.2% answered that they rarely

used television in teaching their subjects while finally, three teachers representing

1.3% responded that they used television often in teaching their subjects. The

results of this table are clear indication that most teachers did not use television in

teaching their respective subjects.

When teachers were asked how often they used software in teaching their

respective subjects, their responses were as shown in Table 10.

66
Table 10: Frequency of Software Usage in Teaching

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 180 83.3

Rarely 36 16.7

Often 0 0

Total 216 100

The data in Table 10 show that 180 teachers representing 83.3%

responded that they did not use software in teaching at all. Thirty-six teachers

representing 16.7% also responded that they rarely used software in teaching their

respective subjects. None of the respondents affirmed using software often in

teaching his or her respective subjects. Again, it could be deduced from the results

of Table 10 that most of the teachers did not use software in teaching their

respective subjects, and even the few who did, rarely did so.

In answering the research question 2, analyses of the results of Tables 7, 8,

9 and 10 revealed that generally speaking, teachers virtually did not use any ICT

resources in teaching their respective subjects.

Research Question 3

What ICT Skills do Basic School Teachers Have?

The purpose of research question 3 was to find out the kind of skills Basic

school teachers have in using ICT tools especially computers. To answer this

question, teachers were asked to indicate how conversant they were with the use

67
of some common computer applications. Familiarity with the use of such

applications would mean teachers had basic skills of using computers such as

typing, drawing, navigating through documents and preparation of slides among

others which would all be necessary in integrating ICT in teaching various

subjects. Table 11 shows responses of teachers to item 15 of the questionnaire

when asked how conversant they were with the use of Microsoft Word.

Table 11: Familiarity with Microsoft Word

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 24 10.4

Very little 70 30.4

Very well 136 59.1

Total 230 100

As shown in Table 11, only twenty-four (24) teachers representing 10.4%

of the total respondents of 230 indicated that they were not conversant at all with

the use of MS Word, while 70 teachers representing 30.4% responded that they

were very little conversant with MS Word and 136 teachers representing 59.1%

affirmed that they were very well conversant with Microsoft Word. The results of

Table 11 are an indication that most of the teachers of the sample schools were

somehow skilled in using Microsoft Word application. This finding is in

agreement with that of Maholwana-Sotashe (2007, p. 86) who noted in a similar

68
study that “MS Word was the most frequently mentioned software” when teachers

were asked to mention which software they used very often.

Table 12 also confirms that most of the teachers were skilled in the use of

Microsoft Excel.

Table 12: Familiarity with Microsoft Excel

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 46 20.5

Very little 118 52.7

Very well 60 26.8

Total 224 100

As shown in Table 12, though 46 teachers representing 20.5% indicated

that they were not at all conversant with the use of Microsoft Excel, as much as

52.7% affirmed being very little conversant and 26.8% also responded being very

well conversant with the use of Microsoft Excel. In effect, as much as 79.5% had

skills in using MS Excel which implies they were somehow capable of using the

application in teaching if they needed.

The number of teachers who were conversant with the use of Microsoft

PowerPoint reduced compared to those of Microsoft Word and Excel as revealed

in Table 13.

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Table 13: Familiarity with Microsoft PowerPoint

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 82 37.6

Very little 78 35.8

Very well 58 26.6

Total 218 100

As shown in Table 13, 82 respondents representing 37.6% were not conversant at

all with the use of MS PowerPoint. However 78 teachers representing 35.8%

responded being very little conversant while 58 representing 26.6% responded

that they were very well conversant with using Microsoft PowerPoint. To sum up,

Table 13 shows that many teachers were familiar with the use of Microsoft

PowerPoint and that implies that about 62.4% of the teachers were capable of

using the application in their lesson delivery if they wanted to, with some

assistance to those with very little familiarity.

Table 14 shows teachers’ responses on their familiarity with the use of

Microsoft Access.

70
Table 14: Familiarity with Microsoft Access

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 94 46.5

Very little 84 41.6

Very well 24 11.9

Total 202 100

The results in Table 14 show that close to half of the teachers (46.5%) were not

conversant at all with using Microsoft Access application while only 11.9% being

very well conversant. This implies that many teachers did not have either the

skills or knowledge to use the application should there be a need to use it in their

teaching.

In Table 15, it is clear that most of the Basic school teachers were not

familiar with the use of CorelDraw application at all.

Table 15: Familiarity with CorelDraw

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Not at all 122 58.1

Very little 54 25.7

Very well 34 16.2

Total 210 100

71
 From Table 15, as many as 58.1% did not have the knowledge and or

skills to use the application even if CorelDraw could be used to better achieve

their instructional objectives, probably through designing attractive and

appropriate instructional materials.

The foregoing analyses and discussion of the results in Tables 11 through

15 give a clear indication that though there were differences in the skill levels of

the teachers in using those popular applications, in all, most of them had some

familiarity with using applications such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel and

Microsoft PowerPoint all of which could be integrated in teaching various

subjects at the Basic school level. Again, use of the named computer application

software come with other basic ICT skills that are applicable in using other

technologies and applications such as surfing the web for information, using

educational software and playing educationally relevant videos all of which could

be relevant skills in integrating ICT into teaching various subjects.

Once again, Table 16 provides information on the sources of training the

respondent teachers indicated that they had, or otherwise, some form of training to

use computers from in response to item 16 of the questionnaire.

Table 16: Training Received to Use Computers

Source Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

G.E.S Yes 174 75.7

No 56 24.3

Total 230 100

72
Table 16: Training Received to Use Computers (Continued)

Source Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

School of teaching Yes 50 25.5

No 146 74.5

Total 196 100

Personal effort Yes 178 87.3

No 26 12.7

Total 204 100

Family and friends Yes 136 61.8

No 84 38.2

Total 220 100

University/College Yes 152 76

Course No 48 24

Total 200 100

As shown in Table 16, 75.7%, 87.3%, 61.8% and 76% of the respondents

being majority in each case agreed to have had training from Ghana Education

Service (GES), personal effort, family and friends, and University/College course

respectively while only 25.5% agreed to have had training to use computers from

the schools they taught. It could be deduced from Table 16 that most of the

teachers had had some form of training, irrespective of the source, to use

73
computers in general, a clear indication of their possession of basic skills to use

computers in general.

Item 17 of the questionnaire asked teachers to indicate the source of

training they had had to use computers in teaching their respective subjects, if

any. Their responses were summarized as shown in Table 17.

Table 17: Training Received to Use Computers in teaching

Source Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

G.E.S Yes 146 62.9

No 86 37.1

Total 232 100

School of teaching Yes 26 11.6

No 198 88.4

Total 224 100

Personal effort Yes 118 52.2

No 108 47.8

Total 226 100

Family and friends Yes 72 31.3

No 158 68.7

Total 230 100

74
Table 17: Training Received to Use Computers in teaching (continued)

Source Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

University/College Yes 86 38.4

Course No 138 61.6

Total 224 100

The results in Table 17 show clearly that greater numbers of the teachers

(62.9% and 52.2%) agreed that they had had training from the Ghana Education

Service (GES) and through personal effort respectively to use computers in

teaching their respective subjects. However, regarding the schools they taught,

family and friends, and university/college courses, greater numbers of teachers

(88.4%, 68.7% and 61.6% respectively) disagreed to have had any training to use

computers in teaching their respective subjects. It can be concluded from the

results of Table 17 that majority of the teachers had some skills and knowledge

acquired from GES training and personal studies about how to use computers in

teaching their respective subjects.

Research Question 4

What factors militate against the use of ICTs in teaching and learning of

various subjects?

The purpose of research question 4 was to find out the possible challenges

or difficulties teachers encountered that prevented them from integrating ICT in

teaching their respective subjects. To answer the research question 4, teachers

75
were asked to state such challenges in an answer to item 18 of the questionnaire.

The item 18 was an open-ended question and responses of the teachers were

summarized as in Table 18.

Table 18: Challenges in Integrating ICT in Teaching

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Inaccessibility of ICT resources 6 2.5

Insufficient ICT resources 12 5.0

Insufficient number of computers 85 35.1

Insufficient number of computers and power outages 3 1.2

Lack of integration skills 8 3.3

No ICT laboratory 4 1.7

No practical skills 4 1.7

No projector 2 0.8

Unavailable computers and source of electricity 2 0.8

Unavailable computers and power outages 6 2.5

Unavailable resources 46 19

Unavailable resources and lack of practical skills 2 0.8

Unavailable source of electricity 2 0.8

Unstable electricity 2 0.8

Missing values 58 24

Total 242 100

76
 It can be concluded from the Table 18 that inadequate and unavailable

resources, lack and unstable source of electricity and lack of integration skills

among others were the major challenges that prevented the teachers from teaching

their respective subjects with I.C. T. tools. The challenges of Basic school

teachers as found in the results of Table 18 were similar to those of Primary

school teachers in the Khomas Region of Namibia. In a similar study submitted to

the University of Namibia in 2012, Nuuyoma found that inability to operate ICT

facilities, lack of resources, burglary, lack of motivation from the school

management, lack of parental involvement and overcrowded classrooms were

among the challenges teachers faced in attempts to integrate ICT in the teaching

of reading and writing (Nuuyoma, 2012, ).

Research Question 5

What are possible solutions to the challenges of integrating ICTs in teaching

and learning of various subjects in Basic schools?

Research question 5 sought to identify some possible solutions to the

challenges Basic school teachers of the Cape Coast Metropolis encountered that

prevented them from integrating ICT in teaching their respective subjects. In

order to answer the research question 5, item 19 of the questionnaire asked

teachers to suggest how their challenges could be addressed. In response to item

19 of the questionnaire, the teachers’ suggestions were summarized as shown in

Table 19.

77
Table 19: Solutions to Challenges in Integrating ICT in Teaching

Response No. of Teachers Percentage (%)

Provision of more computers, posting of

well-trained ICT teachers 6 2.5

Establishment of ICT laboratory 10 4.1

Involvement of skilled persons 6 2.5

Provision of electricity to schools 2 0.8

Provision of enough computers,

setting up ICT laboratory 2 0.8

Provision of enough ICT resources 44 18.2

Provision of enough ICT resources and training 2 0.8

Provision of more computers and internet access 6 2.5

Provision of practical training 4 1.7

Provision of projectors 4 1.7

Provision of sufficient computers to schools 88 34.4

Missing values 68 28.1

Total 242 100

As shown in Table 19, the summary of teachers’ suggestions to the

solutions of challenges in ICT integration included provision of sufficient

computers and other ICT resources such as internet access in schools,

establishment of ICT laboratories in schools, posting of well-trained ICT teachers

78
to schools, involvement of skilled persons, provision of electricity and provision

of practical training to teachers of various schools.

79
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents a summary of the findings of the study as well as

conclusions drawn from the findings. Based on the findings and conclusions

drawn from the study, recommendations are also made to guide educational

practitioners and stakeholders.

Overview of the Study

The study investigated the challenges that militate against the successful

integration of ICT in the teaching of various subjects in Basic schools of the Cape

Coast Metropolis in the Central Region of Ghana. The purpose of the study was to

find out ICT resources available for use in Basic schools, ICT resources teachers

actually use, ICT skills teachers have, factors that militate against the use of ICT

in teaching and learning of various subjects, and possible solutions to the

challenges of integrating ICT in teaching and learning of various subjects in Basic

schools.

To achieve the purpose of the study, the descriptive survey design was

used for the study. Questionnaire was used as the main instrument for data

collection to obtain information on the status quo of the phenomenon. I designed

the questionnaire with the assistance of my supervisor.

The population of the study comprised all the teachers of public Basic

schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis of the Central Region of Ghana. A sample

80
size of 242 teachers of the accessible population was selected from 22 schools out

of 82 public basic schools. The random number method of the simple random

sampling technique was used in the sampling procedure.

The questionnaires were administered through volunteer teachers who

offered to assist in each of the selected schools. I explained the purpose of the

questionnaires and how they should be answered to the volunteer teachers and a

date for collection was scheduled before they were left to administer the

questionnaires. The main data collection took two working weeks from 19th to

30th May, 2014 and the data obtained from the questionnaires were coded and

analyzed using the SPSS version 16. Again, frequencies and percentages of the

descriptive statistics method were used in the presentation and discussion of the

result obtained from the questionnaires in response to the research questions.

Key Findings

A number of findings emerged from the study. The main ones were as

follows;

1. The ICT resources available for use in Cape Coast public basic schools are

mainly computers, with very few schools having television sets.

2. Computers are the main ICT resources that some teachers use in teaching

their lessons.

3. Many teachers have skills in using Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel

while few have skills in using Microsoft PowerPoint. Most of the teachers

81
 skilled in ICT usage acquired their skills through GES workshops,

personal studies, family and friends, and university or college courses.

4. Inadequate and unavailable ICT resources, lack and unstable sources of

electricity and lack of integration skills were mentioned as the inhibiting

factors of ICT integration into the curriculum.

5. Provision of sufficient numbers of computers and other ICT resources,

setting up ICT laboratories in schools, involvement of skilled persons,

provision of electricity and practical training to teachers were suggested

solutions to ICT integration challenges.

Conclusions

On the basis of the key findings, it could be concluded that since teachers

in the Cape Coast Metropolis Basic schools did not have requisite skills in

integrating ICT in their teaching, it could be deduced that both pre-service and in-

service teacher training programmes likewise lacked ICT integration components

which would otherwise equip teachers to use ICT in teaching their respective

subjects.

82
Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions of the research, I recommend the

following for consideration:

Recommendations for Policy and Practice

1. The government and other stake holders of the education in Ghana should

consider providing variety of Information and Communication

Technologies or resources proportionally to all public basic schools to

encourage more effective teaching and learning. This is necessary because

different technologies are more effective in different lesson situations than

others, but in the case of Cape Coast Metropolis public basic schools, it

was found that computers were main ICT resources available which would

not encourage diversity in ICT resource usage.

2. Teachers should find and use variety of ICT resources besides computers

that can be more effective in attaining different lesson objectives and with

learners of different learning styles to enhance effective teaching and

learning.

3. Teachers who do not have practical skills in ICT usage should seek some

training to enable them competently and confidently use them in teaching

their respective subjects.

4. Teacher training programs in universities and colleges should consider

including courses that involve practical methods of integrating ICT in the

teaching of various subjects to equip pre-service teachers with necessary

83
 skills to enable them effectively integrate ICT in their lessons after their

training.

5. The Ghana Education Service in collaboration with the Ministry of

Education should organize in-service training on strategies of integrating

ICT into the curriculum as well as emerging e-learning technologies and

methodologies for all teachers to equip them with relevant skills or train

their representatives as facilitators to organize similar workshops in

schools or circuit centers for other teachers intermittently.

6. Sources of electricity should be provided in all basic schools and their

stable supply ensured to enable teachers use ICT resources whenever their

lessons require them.

7. The stake holders in education such as government institutions, Non-

Governmental Organizations (N.G.O.s), parent associations among others

should collaborate to set up ICT laboratories and equip them with

sufficient modern technologies to encourage ICT integration in all basic

schools.

Suggestions for Further Research

Future researchers should expand the scope of a similar study to include

school management and their institutional policies on ICT integration into the

curriculum.

84
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APPENDICES

95
 APPENDIX A

PYTHON CODE FOR RANDOM NUMBER GENERATION

import random

firstnum=raw_input('Enter first integer number: ');

secnum=raw_input('Enter second integer number: ');

num1=int(firstnum)

num2=int(secnum)

i=num1

def myNum(a,b):

num=[Link](a,b);

print num;

while i <= num2:

myNum(num1, num2)

i+=1

96
 APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS

CHALLENGES OF INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN BASIC SCHOOLS

OF CAPE COAST METROPOLIS

Questionnaire: Teacher’s views

The purpose of this research is purely academic, and utmost confidentiality is

assured. I must be most grateful if you could kindly respond to these questions as

honestly as possible. For confidentiality sake, please DO NOT write your name

on the questionnaire.

A. Demographic data

1. Name of school.........................................……………………………………...

2. Grade(s) taught.........……………………………………………...

3a. Are you a subject teacher? Yes [ ] No [ ]

3b. If yes, please specify subject(s)……………….………..……………………..

4a. Years of teaching experience (Please tick)

0-5 [ ] 6-10 [ ] 11-15 [ ] 16-20 [ ] Above 20 [ ]

5. Highest qualification (Please tick)

Certificate [ ] Diploma [ ] First Degree [ ] Master’s Degree [ ]

Other (specify) ……………………………………………………………….

6. Gender (Please tick) Male [ ] Female [ ]

7. How many learners do you teach in a period? ………………………

97
B. Availability of Resources

8. Which of these ICT resources are available in your school? (Please tick)

Internet access [ ]

Computers [ ]

Television [ ]

Software for teaching [ ]

9. What other ICT resources are available in your school? (Please

specify)……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

10. If there are any software for teaching in your school, please name them

……………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………..

11. If there are computers, how many does your class have access to in a

period/lesson? …………………………………

C. Resource Utilization

12. How often do you use ICT resources in teaching your subject(s)?

(Please tick below)

ICT RESOURCE FREQUENCY OF USAGE IN TEACHING

Not at all Rarely Often Most Often Always
Internet
Computer
Television
Software
Other (specify)

98
13. If you don’t use any/ some of the ICT resources in teaching, why?

………………..…………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………

D. ICT Skills

14. How often do you use computers for other purposes?

Not at all [ ] Sometimes [ ] Frequently [ ]

15. If you use computers, which software are you conversant with? (Please tick)

Not at all Very little Very Well

Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint
Microsoft Access
CorelDraw
Other (specify)

………………………………………………………………….……………

16. What training have you received to use computers? (Please tick)

Yes No
None at all
Some training arranged by the Ghana Education Service
Some training arranged by the school
Through my own studies
From family and friends
Course in University/Collage program

Other (Specify) ………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………….

99
17. What specific training have you received to use computers in teaching your

subject? (Please tick)

Yes No
None at all
Some training arranged by the Ghana Education Service
Some training arranged by the school
Through my own studies
From family and friends
Course in University/Collage program

Please specify title of training (if any)

……………………………………………………………………………………..

E. Integration Challenges

18. What challenges or difficulties have you encountered in the process of

integrating ICT in your teaching?............................................................................

………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………...............

19. How can these challenges or difficulties be addressed?......................................

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

20. Is there a computer specialist in your school? Yes [ ] No [ ]

21. To what extent does he/she support you in using computers in your subject

area?

Not at all [ ] To some extent [ ] To a great extent [ ]

22. What level of interest do your learners show in using computers?

No interest [ ] Some interest [ ] A great deal of interest [ ]

100
23. Which grade/level do you find most eager to use computers?

(Please specify)…………………..

24. Which gender do you find more cooperative when using computers?

Boys [ ] Girls [ ]

101
 APPENDIX C

SPSS OUTPUT

Frequency Tables
Name of school

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid A.M.E. ZION D 11 4.5 4.5 4.5

Abura Ahmadiyya 'B' 11 4.5 4.5 9.1

Abura St. Lawrence Cath. Sch. 11 4.5 4.5 13.6

Amamoma Presby 11 4.5 4.5 18.2

Amanful Catholic 11 4.5 4.5 22.7

Ansapatu St. Peters Anglican 11 4.5 4.5 27.3

Antem M/A 11 4.5 4.5 31.8

Apewosika M/A 11 4.5 4.5 36.4

Ayifua St Mary's Anglican Sch 11 4.5 4.5 40.9

Christ Church Anglican 11 4.5 4.5 45.5

Ebubonko M/A 11 4.5 4.5 50.0

Efutu M/A Basic 11 4.5 4.5 54.5

Ekon M/A Basic Sch. 11 4.5 4.5 59.1

Esuekyir M/A Basic 11 4.5 4.5 63.6

Imam Khomeinn 11 4.5 4.5 68.2

Kakumdo M/A 11 4.5 4.5 72.7

Kubease M/A Basic Sch 11 4.5 4.5 77.3

Kwaprow M/A Basic 11 4.5 4.5 81.8

Nkanfoa Catholic Sch. 11 4.5 4.5 86.4

Nyinasin M/A Basic 11 4.5 4.5 90.9

St. Andrews Anglican Sch. 11 4.5 4.5 95.5

St. Augustines Practice 11 4.5 4.5 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

102
 Grades Taught

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid B.S. 1 22 9.1 9.1 9.1

B.S. 2 22 9.1 9.1 18.2

B.S. 3 22 9.1 9.1 27.3

B.S. 4 22 9.1 9.1 36.4

B.S. 5 22 9.1 9.1 45.5

B.S. 6 22 9.1 9.1 54.5

J.H.S. 110 45.5 45.5 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

Years of Teaching Experience

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 0-5 86 35.5 35.5 35.5

6-10 80 33.1 33.1 68.6

11-15 42 17.4 17.4 86.0

16-20 12 5.0 5.0 90.9

Above 20 22 9.1 9.1 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

Highest Qualification

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Diploma 114 47.1 47.9 47.9

First Degree 114 47.1 47.9 95.8

Masters Degree 10 4.1 4.2 100.0

Total 238 98.3 100.0

Missing System 4 1.7

Total 242 100.0

103
 Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Male 114 47.1 47.1 47.1

Female 128 52.9 52.9 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

Availability of internet

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 6 2.5 2.6 2.6

No 229 94.6 97.4 100.0

Total 235 97.1 100.0

Missing System 7 2.9

Total 242 100.0

Availability of computers

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 230 95.0 96.6 96.6

No 8 3.3 3.4 100.0

Total 238 98.3 100.0

Missing System 4 1.7

Total 242 100.0

Availability of television

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 50 20.7 21.0 21.0

No 188 77.7 79.0 100.0

Total 238 98.3 100.0

Missing System 4 1.7

104
 Availability of television

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 50 20.7 21.0 21.0

No 188 77.7 79.0 100.0

Total 238 98.3 100.0

Missing System 4 1.7

Total 242 100.0

Availability of software for teaching

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 7 2.9 3.0 3.0

No 228 94.2 97.0 100.0

Total 235 97.1 100.0

Missing System 7 2.9

Total 242 100.0

Number of Computers accessible to a class in lesson

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 0 34 14.0 14.0 14.0

1 80 33.1 33.1 47.1

10 22 9.1 9.1 56.2

2 6 2.5 2.5 58.7

20 4 1.7 1.7 60.3

25 2 .8 .8 61.2

3 6 2.5 2.5 63.6

30 2 .8 .8 64.5

4 14 5.8 5.8 70.2

5 18 7.4 7.4 77.7

6 38 15.7 15.7 93.4

7 12 5.0 5.0 98.3

8 4 1.7 1.7 100.0

105
 Number of Computers accessible to a class in lesson

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 0 34 14.0 14.0 14.0

1 80 33.1 33.1 47.1

10 22 9.1 9.1 56.2

2 6 2.5 2.5 58.7

20 4 1.7 1.7 60.3

25 2 .8 .8 61.2

3 6 2.5 2.5 63.6

30 2 .8 .8 64.5

4 14 5.8 5.8 70.2

5 18 7.4 7.4 77.7

6 38 15.7 15.7 93.4

7 12 5.0 5.0 98.3

8 4 1.7 1.7 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

Frequency of Internet Usage in Teaching

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 202 83.5 86.7 86.7

Rarely 29 12.0 12.4 99.1

Often 2 .8 .9 100.0

Total 233 96.3 100.0

Missing System 9 3.7

Total 242 100.0

106
 Frequency of Computer usage in Teaching

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 167 69.0 71.1 71.1

Rarely 68 28.1 28.9 100.0

Total 235 97.1 100.0

Missing System 7 2.9

Total 242 100.0

Frequency of Television usage in Teaching

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 210 86.8 92.5 92.5

Rarely 14 5.8 6.2 98.7

Often 3 1.2 1.3 100.0

Total 227 93.8 100.0

Missing System 15 6.2

Total 242 100.0

Frequency of Software usage in Teaching

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 180 74.4 83.3 83.3

Rarely 36 14.9 16.7 100.0

Total 216 89.3 100.0

Missing System 26 10.7

Total 242 100.0

107
 Use of other ICT resources for teaching.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 28 11.6 100.0 100.0

Missing System 214 88.4

Total 242 100.0

If you don't use any/some of the ICT resources in teaching, why?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 110 45.5 45.5 45.5

inadequate 20 8.3 8.3 53.7

lack of expertise 2 .8 .8 54.5

no ICT lab 6 2.5 2.5 57.0

unavailable 100 41.3 41.3 98.3

unavailable, insufficient knowledge 2 .8 .8 99.2

unavailable, no source of electricity in

2 .8 .8 100.0
classrooms

Total 242 100.0 100.0

108
 How often do you use computers for other purposes?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 40 16.5 18.5 18.5

Sometimes 132 54.5 61.1 79.6

Frequently 44 18.2 20.4 100.0

Total 216 89.3 100.0

Missing System 26 10.7

Total 242 100.0

Conversant with Microsoft Word

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 24 9.9 10.4 10.4

Very little 70 28.9 30.4 40.9

Very well 136 56.2 59.1 100.0

Total 230 95.0 100.0

Missing System 12 5.0

Total 242 100.0

Conversant with Microsoft Excel

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 46 19.0 20.5 20.5

Very little 118 48.8 52.7 73.2

Very well 60 24.8 26.8 100.0

Total 224 92.6 100.0

Missing System 18 7.4

Total 242 100.0

109
 Conversant with Microsoft Powerpoint

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 82 33.9 37.6 37.6

Very little 78 32.2 35.8 73.4

Very well 58 24.0 26.6 100.0

Total 218 90.1 100.0

Missing System 24 9.9

Total 242 100.0

Conversant with Microsoft Access

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 94 38.8 46.5 46.5

Very little 84 34.7 41.6 88.1

Very well 24 9.9 11.9 100.0

Total 202 83.5 100.0

Missing System 40 16.5

Total 242 100.0

Conversant with CorelDraw

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 122 50.4 58.1 58.1

Very little 54 22.3 25.7 83.8

Very well 34 14.0 16.2 100.0

Total 210 86.8 100.0

Missing System 32 13.2

Total 242 100.0

110
 Received computer training from G.E.S

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 174 71.9 75.7 75.7

Disagree 56 23.1 24.3 100.0

Total 230 95.0 100.0

Missing System 12 5.0

Total 242 100.0

Received computer training from school you teach

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 50 20.7 25.5 25.5

Disagree 146 60.3 74.5 100.0

Total 196 81.0 100.0

Missing System 46 19.0

Total 242 100.0

Received computer training from personal effort

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 178 73.6 87.3 87.3

Disagree 26 10.7 12.7 100.0

Total 204 84.3 100.0

Missing System 38 15.7

Total 242 100.0

Received computer training from family and friends

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 136 56.2 61.8 61.8

Disagree 84 34.7 38.2 100.0

Total 220 90.9 100.0

Missing System 22 9.1

111
 Received computer training from family and friends

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 136 56.2 61.8 61.8

Disagree 84 34.7 38.2 100.0

Total 220 90.9 100.0

Missing System 22 9.1

Total 242 100.0

Received computer trainig from University/College course

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 152 62.8 76.0 76.0

Disagree 48 19.8 24.0 100.0

Total 200 82.6 100.0

Missing System 42 17.4

Total 242 100.0

Received training to use computers in teaching from GES

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 146 60.3 62.9 62.9

Disagree 86 35.5 37.1 100.0

Total 232 95.9 100.0

Missing System 10 4.1

Total 242 100.0

112
 Received training to use computers in teaching from school you teach.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 26 10.7 11.6 11.6

Disagree 198 81.8 88.4 100.0

Total 224 92.6 100.0

Missing System 18 7.4

Total 242 100.0

Received training to use computers in teaching from personal effort.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 118 48.8 52.2 52.2

Disagree 108 44.6 47.8 100.0

Total 226 93.4 100.0

Missing System 16 6.6

Total 242 100.0

Received training to use computers in teaching from family and friends

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 72 29.8 31.3 31.3

Disagree 158 65.3 68.7 100.0

Total 230 95.0 100.0

Missing System 12 5.0

Total 242 100.0

113
 Received training to use computers in teaching from University or College course.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agree 86 35.5 38.4 38.4

Disagree 138 57.0 61.6 100.0

Total 224 92.6 100.0

Missing System 18 7.4

Total 242 100.0

Title of training on computer usage in teaching

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 202 83.5 83.5 83.5

Autocad 4 1.7 1.7 85.1

Introduction to ICT 2 .8 .8 86.0

Multimedia in Education 6 2.5 2.5 88.4

RLG Training 28 11.6 11.6 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

114
 What challenges or difficulties have you encountered in the process of integrating ICT in your teaching?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 58 24.0 24.0 24.0

inaccess to ICT resources 6 2.5 2.5 26.4

Insufficient ICT resources 12 5.0 5.0 31.4

Insufficient number of computers 85 35.1 35.1 66.5

insufficient number of computers and

3 1.2 1.2 67.8
power outages

lack of integration skills 8 3.3 3.3 71.1

no ICT lab 4 1.7 1.7 72.7

no practical skills 4 1.7 1.7 74.4

no projector 2 .8 .8 75.2

unavailable computers and source of

2 .8 .8 76.0
electricity

unavailable computers, power outages 6 2.5 2.5 78.5

Unavailable resources 46 19.0 19.0 97.5

unavailable resources and lack of

2 .8 .8 98.3
pracical skills

unavailable source of electricity 2 .8 .8 99.2

unstable electricity 2 .8 .8 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

115
 How can these challenges or difficulties be addressed?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 68 28.1 28.1 28.1

Provision of more computers, posting of

6 2.5 2.5 30.6
well trained ICT teachers

Establishment of ICT laboratory 10 4.1 4.1 34.7

involvement of skilled persons 6 2.5 2.5 37.2

Provision of electricity to schools 2 .8 .8 38.0

Provision of enough computers, setting

2 .8 .8 38.8
up ICT laboratory

Provision of enough ICT resources 44 18.2 18.2 57.0

Provision of ICT resources and training 2 .8 .8 57.9

Provision of more computers and internet

6 2.5 2.5 60.3
access

Provision of practical training 4 1.7 1.7 62.0

Provision of projectors 4 1.7 1.7 63.6

Provision of sufficient computers to

88 36.4 36.4 100.0
schools

Total 242 100.0 100.0

Is there a computer specialist in your school?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 106 43.8 50.0 50.0

No 106 43.8 50.0 100.0

Total 212 87.6 100.0

Missing System 30 12.4

Total 242 100.0

116
 To what extent does he/she support you in using computers in your subject area?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Not at all 106 43.8 50.0 50.0

To some extent 78 32.2 36.8 86.8

To a great extent 28 11.6 13.2 100.0

Total 212 87.6 100.0

Missing System 30 12.4

Total 242 100.0

What level of interest do your learners show in using computers?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid No interest 2 .8 .9 .9

Some interest 78 32.2 35.1 36.0

Agreat deal of interest 142 58.7 64.0 100.0

Total 222 91.7 100.0

Missing System 20 8.3

Total 242 100.0

What grade/level do you find most eager to use computers?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 80 33.1 33.1 33.1

All the levels 21 8.7 8.7 41.7

J.H.S. 39 16.1 16.1 57.9

Lower primary 40 16.5 16.5 74.4

Primary 22 9.1 9.1 83.5

Upper primary 40 16.5 16.5 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

117
 Which gender do you find more cooperative when using computers?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Boys 164 67.8 86.3 86.3

Girls 26 10.7 13.7 100.0

Total 190 78.5 100.0

Missing System 52 21.5

Total 242 100.0

118
 How many learners do you teach in a period?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 10 4.1 4.1 4.1

18 4 1.7 1.7 5.8

26 2 .8 .8 6.6

27 2 .8 .8 7.4

28 6 2.5 2.5 9.9

30 20 8.3 8.3 18.2

31 10 4.1 4.1 22.3

32 10 4.1 4.1 26.4

33 10 4.1 4.1 30.6

34 18 7.4 7.4 38.0

35 16 6.6 6.6 44.6

37 24 9.9 9.9 54.5

39 6 2.5 2.5 57.0

40 16 6.6 6.6 63.6

41 2 .8 .8 64.5

42 16 6.6 6.6 71.1

43 2 .8 .8 71.9

44 4 1.7 1.7 73.6

45 16 6.6 6.6 80.2

46 8 3.3 3.3 83.5

48 4 1.7 1.7 85.1

50 4 1.7 1.7 86.8

52 4 1.7 1.7 88.4

54 6 2.5 2.5 90.9

55 6 2.5 2.5 93.4

57 2 .8 .8 94.2

58 6 2.5 2.5 96.7

65 8 3.3 3.3 100.0

119
 How many learners do you teach in a period?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 10 4.1 4.1 4.1

18 4 1.7 1.7 5.8

26 2 .8 .8 6.6

27 2 .8 .8 7.4

28 6 2.5 2.5 9.9

30 20 8.3 8.3 18.2

31 10 4.1 4.1 22.3

32 10 4.1 4.1 26.4

33 10 4.1 4.1 30.6

34 18 7.4 7.4 38.0

35 16 6.6 6.6 44.6

37 24 9.9 9.9 54.5

39 6 2.5 2.5 57.0

40 16 6.6 6.6 63.6

41 2 .8 .8 64.5

42 16 6.6 6.6 71.1

43 2 .8 .8 71.9

44 4 1.7 1.7 73.6

45 16 6.6 6.6 80.2

46 8 3.3 3.3 83.5

48 4 1.7 1.7 85.1

50 4 1.7 1.7 86.8

52 4 1.7 1.7 88.4

54 6 2.5 2.5 90.9

55 6 2.5 2.5 93.4

57 2 .8 .8 94.2

58 6 2.5 2.5 96.7

65 8 3.3 3.3 100.0

Total 242 100.0 100.0

120
121