5-Atomic Physics
Atom
All atoms are made of three sub-atomic particles
Protons - these have a positive charge (of +1) they are
found in the nucleus.
Neutrons - these have no charge (are neutral) they are also
found in the nucleus.
Electrons - these have a negative charge (of -1), they orbit
the nucleus.
Subatomic particle Mass Charge Location
Proton 1 +1 Nucleus
Neutron 1 Neutral Nucleus
Electron 1/2000 -1 Outer shell
You will need to learn the terms atomic
(or proton) number, mass (or nucleon)
number, and what they mean:
The bottom number is always
the atomic number, and is the number
of protons in the nucleus.
The top number is always the mass number, and is equal to the mass of the
nucleus. It equals the total number of particles in the nucleus, known as
nucleons.
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Example
an atom of oxygen is represented by O816
is the chemical symbol for oxygen
The atomic number is 8 (the nucleus contains 8 protons )
The mass number is 16 (so it must have 8 neutrons).
Questions
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1. The element sodium (Na) is written in notation as: Na
11
State the number of protons and neutrons in this atom of sodium.
Answer
The bottom number represents the proton number, so there are 11 protons.
The top number of 23 gives the total number of protons and neutrons, so there are
23 - 11 = 12 neutrons.
2. Lead is a metal with the symbol Pb. A common atom of lead has 82 protons
and 125 neutrons. Using standard notation (as shown in question 1), give the
notation for this atom of lead.
Answer
If the atom has 82 protons and 125 neutrons, the total mass is 82 + 125 = 207.
Therefore the notation will be:
207
Pb
82
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Isotopes
Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
Questions
3. The list below shows the notation for some atoms found in a sample of sea
water. It includes 2 isotopes:
1 4 5 2 9 9
H He Li H B Be
1 2 3 1 5 4
a) Define the term 'isotopes'.
b) Identify the two isotopes in the list.
Answer
a) isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
b) We are looking for 2 atoms with the same proton number (the bottom number)
and hence the same symbol.
1 2
The two isotopes are: H and H
1 1
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Alpha scattering experiment
In this experiment, a beam of alpha particles was aimed at a thin sheet of gold foil.
The experiment must be carried out in a vacuum tube to prevent alpha particles
from being stopped by air particles.
Results
1. Most of alpha particles pass straight
through the gold foil, because they do
not pass close to the nucleus
2. Some particles suffer some deflection.
The closer the particles are to the nucleus,
the more they are deflected.
3. Few particles closely approach a gold nucleus so they deflect backwards
Conclusions
From 1, the volume of the nucleus is small as compared to the volume of the
atom; the atom is mostly empty space.
From 2, the atom has a positively charged nucleus.
From 3, the atom has a dense, relatively heavy nucleus; the nucleus carries
most of the atom’s mass.
Radioactivity
1) Stability & radioactivity
Some elements have atoms with unstable nuclei. These unstable nuclei emit high-
energy particles and rays called radiations.
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Radioactive decay
Is the spontaneous random emission of alpha (α), beta (β) particles or gamma (γ)
rays from the nuclei of unstable atoms to become more stable
Random
Means we cannot predict which particular nucleus will decay next, all nuclei have a
constant probability of decay.
Spontaneous
Means that the decay process is unaffected by environmental conditions such as
temperature, pressure,
2) Types of nuclear radiation
Nuclear radiations are sometimes called ionizing radiations. This is because these
radiations interact with neutral atoms of air, which makes atoms gain or lose
electrons, forming ions.
The three types are
Alpha (α) particle
Beta (β) particles
Gamma (γ) radiation
a) Alpha particles (α)
It is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom (a helium atom without its orbiting
electrons, it’s not a helium atom). Alpha particles make frequent collisions with gas
molecules along their paths, causing intense ionization. Accordingly, they have
strong ionizing
Here’s its nuclear equation
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Note that
The mass number reduced by 4 and the atomic number reduced by 2
For example
b) Beta particles (β)
A beta particle is a very fast moving electron that is ejected by a decaying nucleus,
This means that the atomic number increases by 1, while the mass number stays
the same. Beta particles are smaller & carry less charge so they interact less
frequently with matter in their paths. This is why they have weak ionizing
Here’s its nuclear equation
For example
Note that
the mass number stay the same while the atomic number increase by 1
C) Gamma rays (γ)
Gamma rays is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus of an unstable
atom so they have a very weak ionizing
Neutron decay
Some isotopes lose neutrons when they decay , A neutron has a mass of 1 and no
1
charge, it is therefore written as:
n
0
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Again, the decay of an isotope is then quite easy to work out. For example, if
Beryllium-13 decays by emitting a neutron:
13 1 12
Be → n + Be
4 0 4
Penetrating power
The penetrating power of alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays varies greatly.
Alpha particles can be blocked by a few pieces of paper. Beta particles pass through
paper but are stopped by aluminum foil. Gamma rays are the most difficult to stop
and require concrete, lead, or other heavy shielding to block them
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Questions
1. A student is researching the nature of alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Which of these three:
a) Has the largest mass?
b) Has no charge?
c) Will only pass a few centimeters through air?
Answer
a) Alpha particles have the largest mass.
b) Gamma radiation has no charge.
c) Alpha can only pass through a few cm of air.
2. A radioactive isotope is thought to be a beta emitter, with no alpha or
gamma being emitted. Describe an experiment to prove this result.
Answer
You need a Geiger counter to use as a detector.
First, place paper / tissue in front of the source. If alpha radiation is present, the
detected count rate will drop significantly. If there is no drop, the radiation is beta or
gamma.
Second, place a thin aluminum sheet or two in front of the source. If the count rate
drops, the source is a beta emitter. Gamma rays will not be significantly affected by
the aluminum barrier.
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3. An alpha particle is given the letter α
a) State the mass number and atomic number 239 __ __
of an alpha particle. Pu → U + α
b) Complete the missing numbers in the alpha 94 __ __
decay equation below, for the isotope
plutonium 239:
Answer
a) Alpha particles have a mass of 4 and an atomic number of 2.
b) The missing numbers are shown here
239 235 4
Pu → U + α
94 92 2
4. During beta decay, the mass of the nucleus remains constant, whilst the
atomic number increases by 1.
a) Explain the change in the nucleus that causes
90 __ __
this result.
Sr → β + Y
b) Stronium-90 (Sr) is a radioactive isotope
38 __ __
('radioisotope') that decays by emitting a beta
particle. The resulting nucleus is an isotope of yttrium (Y). Complete the
missing numbers in the beta decay equation shown below:
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Answer
a) During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron, causing an
increase in the nuclear proton number of +1 but no change in mass. (The electron is
ejected from the nucleus).
b) The missing numbers - shown i
90 0 90
Sr → β + Y
38 -1 39
a) Deflection in electric fields
Electric field lines represent the direction of an electric field which is from the
positive plate to the negative plate. The positively charged alpha particles are
attracted to the negative plate while the negatively charged beta particles are
attracted to the positive plate.
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b) Deflection in magnetic fields
Alpha & beta particles are deflected in directions given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Keep in mind that negative charges traveling to the right counts as a conventional
current to the left
Radiation and half-life
The half-life time of a radioactive sample is the time taken for half the nuclei present
in this sample to decay
(The time taken for the activity of a radioactive sample to decrease to its half)
The half-life is unaffected by temperature or pressure but each radioactive
element has its own definite half-life.
The decay curve
The activity of a sample is the average number of decaying
atoms per unit time. If the activity of a sample is measured at
different times, a decay curve against time can be plotted.
The decay curve of a sample starting with an activity of 200
radiations per hour is shown.
The curve shows that the activity falls by the same fraction in
successive equal intervals of time.
The half-life time of this sample is 1 hr.
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Questions
1. Radioactive radon gas can be found in caves in high concentrations. The
isotope has a half-life of 3.8 days.
a) Explain the term 'half-life'.
b) If the total mass of radon gas found in a cave is found to be 4 grams,
calculate the quantity that should remain after 7.6 days. (Assume no
more radon gas enters the cave).
Answer
a) The half-life of a substance is defined as the time it takes for...
half the nuclei to decay, or
the count rate / activity to fall to half the original value
b) After 3.8 days, the mass will have halved, from 4 g to 2 g.
After 7.6 days (a further 3.8 days), it will have halved again down to 1 gram.
2. An isotope used in engineering has a half-life of approximately 10 years and
an activity of 800 kBq.
If the dangerous isotope is buried for 30 years, what will be the activity after
this period?
Answer
For this we will use a table of results to show our working out, halving the activity
each half-life:
number of half-lifes 0 1 2 3
Time (yrs) 0 10 20 30
Activity (kBq) 800 400 200 100
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From this table we can see that after 30 years, the activity is 100 kBq.
3. A medical sample of technetium-99m has an activity of 20 000 Bq. It has a
half-life of 6.0 hours. What will the activity of the sample be after 24 hours?
Answer
Using a table again gives these results
number of half-lifes 0 1 2 3 4
Time (hours) 0 6 12 18 24
Activity (Bq) 20 000 10 000 5 000 2 500 1 250
From the table we can see that after 24 hrs, the activity is 1250 Bq
Detection of Radiation By
1-photographic film
Become blacked when subject to radioactivity, the darker the film the greater the
radiation dose
2-Geiger-Muller (GM) tube
The main detector used now which is connected to a count rate meter giving reading
in counts per unit time (minute or second)
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Background radiation
A GM tube will record some count rate even in the absence of a source. This count
rate is due to the ionizing radiation which is always present from the surroundings.
It is called background radiation and should be subtracted from the counts
recorded when a source is present to give the true count rate due to the source.
Sources of background radiation
1. Radon gases in the air
2. Some rocks in the Earth’s crust or in building material
3. Radioisotopes used in certain medical procedures.
4. Cosmic rays from outer space.
5. Emissions from nuclear power stations.
Used of radioactivity
1. Gamma rays are used to kill bacteria specially in sterilizing medical equipment
and in preserving food.
2. Alpha particles are used in smoke alarm for smoke detection. Alpha particles
have high ionization effect and therefore they ionize the air molecules in between
the two metal plates allowing the current to pass through. When smoke enters
between the plates, some of the alpha particles are absorbed causing less ionization
to take place. This means a smaller than normal current flows so the alarm switches
on.
3. Beta particles are used to monitor the thickness of the paper or metal sheets in
manufacturing factory. Some of the radioactivity is absorbed by the foil and some
passes through to the detector. The thicker the foil, the fewer radio activities passes
through it to the detector. The amount of radioactivity arriving at the detector is
monitored by the computer. The thickness of the foil is controlled by the gap
between the rollers.
4. Carbon-14 is used to find the age of living organism or plants. This method is
called radioactive carbon dating. There's a small amount of radioactive carbon-14 in
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all living organisms. When they die no new carbon 14 is taken in by the dead
organism. The carbon-14 it contained at the time of death decays over a long period
of time. By measuring the amount of carbon-14 left in dead organic material the
approximate time since it died can be worked out
5. Uranium -238 which eventually decays into lead is used to find the age of
igneous rock
6. In radiotherapy the high doses of gamma radiation are used to kill the cancer
cells
7. Find leaks or blockages in underground pipes.
Safety precautions
1. Always use the radioactive symbol where there is a radioactive substance stored
2. Always be stored in a lead-lined container;
3. Be handled only with tongs
4. Never be pointed at anyone
5. Never be put in pockets
6. Only checked by looking at them in a mirror.
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