Expanded Notes for KTU GXEST203 (2024 Scheme)
Prepared by ChatGPT
Module 1: Computer Hardware
1. CPU and Memory
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer where all the processing happens.
- **ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)**: This component performs all the arithmetic and logical
operations.
For example, it performs calculations like addition and subtraction, and logical operations like
AND, OR, NOT.
- **Control Unit (CU)**: Directs operations in the CPU. It decodes instructions from the program
and sends signals to other parts of the system.
- **Registers**: Small storage locations within the CPU that hold data temporarily during
processing.
Examples of registers include the Accumulator (ACC), Program Counter (PC), and Instruction
Register (IR).
- **Memory Hierarchy**: The arrangement of different types of memory in a computer.
1. **Registers**: Fastest and located within the CPU, storing immediate data.
2. **Cache**: A small, high-speed storage area that holds frequently accessed data for quicker
access.
3. **RAM (Random Access Memory)**: Volatile memory where data and programs in use are
stored temporarily.
4. **Virtual Memory**: A memory management technique that creates the illusion of a larger main
memory by using part of the storage (HDD/SSD) as additional RAM.
Example: A modern computer may have 4GB of RAM, 256MB of Cache, and several GBs of
Virtual Memory, allowing the CPU to handle more processes simultaneously.
2. **Motherboard**: The primary circuit board that connects all components, such as CPU, RAM,
and storage devices. It contains several slots for connecting peripherals, and interfaces like USB
and HDMI.
- **Form Factor**: Refers to the size and layout of the motherboard. Examples: ATX, micro-ATX.
- **Chipset**: Coordinates communication between the CPU, memory, and other peripherals.
3. **Computer Peripherals**
- **I/O Devices**: Input and Output devices such as Keyboard (input), Mouse (input), Monitor
(output), and Printer (output).
Example: A printer receives instructions from the computer, processes the data, and outputs a
hard copy.
- **Storage Devices**:
- **HDDs (Hard Disk Drives)**: Magnetic storage devices used for long-term data storage. They
offer large storage capacities but have slower read/write speeds compared to SSDs.
- **SSDs (Solid-State Drives)**: Flash-based storage devices that offer faster data access
speeds and increased durability due to the absence of moving parts.
- **Optical Drives**: Devices like CD/DVD drives that use lasers to read and write data on optical
disks.
Example: SSDs are commonly used for operating systems and frequently accessed programs,
while HDDs are used for long-term storage.
4. **I/O Communication and Device Management**: Devices communicate with the computer
system using interfaces such as USB, HDMI, and Bluetooth.
- **Device Drivers**: Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware
peripherals.
- **Interrupts**: Signals sent by peripherals to notify the CPU of an event that requires attention.
Example: When a keyboard key is pressed, it generates an interrupt, notifying the CPU to process
the input.
5. **Firmware and Boot Process**: Firmware is permanent software stored in the hardware that
provides low-level control of the system.
- **BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)**: The firmware responsible for initializing the hardware
during startup.
- **Boot Process**: The sequence that occurs when the computer is powered on.
1. **POST (Power-On Self Test)**: The computer runs tests to check if essential hardware like
CPU, memory, and storage devices are functioning.
2. **Bootloader**: Loads the operating system into memory.
3. **Operating System Loads**: The OS takes control, and the user can start interacting with the
computer.
