Analog and Digital Communication
Lab
Laboratory report submitted for the partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of
Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
by
Student Name: Kartik Awasthi - Roll No.: 23UCC555
Course Coordinator
Dr. Anirudh Agrawal/ Dr. Harish Kumar Kumawat/ Dr. Akash Gupta
Dr. Vaibhav Kumar Gupta/ Dr. Navneet Upadhyay (ECE)
Or
Dr. Gurinder Singh (CCE)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
The LNM Institute of Information Technology, Jaipur
January 2025
Copyright © The LNMIIT 2025
All Rights Reserved
Contents
Chapter Page
1 Experiment No. - 01 ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 AIM ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Apparatus Used.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3.1 Fourier Series ................................................................................................................ 1
1.3.2 Circuit operation ........................................................................................................... 2
[Link] For duty cycle ≤ 50% .................................................................................... 2
[Link] For duty cycle ≥ 50% .................................................................................... 3
1.4 Observations .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4.1 Calculation .................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Observation Table ......................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Result Screenshots ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 14
1.7 Precautions............................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 1
Experiment No. - 01
1.1 AIM
1. To generate periodic rectangular signals of varying duty cycles (10%, 30%, 50%, and 75%).
2. Observe the Fourier domain representation of the above generated periodic signals.
3. Observe the change in spectrum of the signals when passed through an integrator/low-pass R-C
filter.
1.2 Apparatus Used
1. 555 Timer IC 3. Resistors 5. Capacitors 7. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply +5 Volts 4. Digital Storage Oscilloscope 6. Connecting Wires
1.3 Theory
1.3.1 Fourier Series:
Fourier Series: We know that continuous time periodic signals are represented by the Fourier series. The
Fourier series of a signal x(t) with fundamental time period T and fundamental frequency ω0 = 2π/T
is given by following expression:
where the series coefficients are
A sinusoid of frequency kω0 is called the kth harmonic of the sinusoid of fundamental frequency ω0. Signal x(t)
with period T and amplitude 5V is shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Rectangular signal with half duty cycle
Figure/Connection Diagram:
Figure 1.2: 555 Timer IC in Astable mode
We will use a 555 timer IC to generate periodic rectangular signals. For this we connect 555 in astable
mode as shown in Figure 1.2.
1.3.2 Circuit operation
[Link] For duty cycle ≤ 50%
In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified
duty cycle (≤ 50%) with desired time period. Resistor Ra is connected between +V cc and the discharge
pin (pin 7). Resistor Rb is connected between the discharge pin (pin7) and the trigger (pin 2) along with
the threshold pin (pin 6). The capacitor C charges through the path with Ra and the diode and discharges
only through Rb. There are two discharge paths available: i) through Rb, ii) through diode. However,
diode being in the reverse biased condition offers high impedance and hence the discharge path chosen
is Rb. It is because pin 7 has a low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore
provides a path for discharge to the capacitor during off time. The charge and discharge times are given
by t1 = 0.693(Ra)C and t2 = 0.693(Rb)C respectively. The total time period is
T = t1 + t2 = 0.693(Ra + Rb)C (1.3)
and hence the frequency
f = 1/T = 1.44 (Ra + Rb)C (1.4)
If we change the resistance Rb the duty cycle and frequency of the rectangular wave changes.
[Link] For duty cycle ≥ 50%
1.4 Observations
1.4.1 Calculation
1.4.2 Observation Table
Fourier series coefficients
S. D (Duty Ra Rb Ton Toff D1 (Observed B.W.
No. Cycle) D) a0 a1 a2 a3
1 10% 15KΩ 130KΩ 0.1s 0.9s 12.7% 7.8KHz -3.35dB -2.15dB -2.95dB -4.15dB
2 30% 44KΩ 101KΩ 0.3s 0.7s 35.7% - 6.25dB 5.05dB -1.75dB -16.5dB
3 50% 1KΩ 72KΩ 0.5s 0.5s 49.8% - 9.05dB 6.65dB -3.35dB -7.35dB
4 75% 72KΩ 36KΩ 0.75s 0.25s 75.5% 3.8KHz 13dB 3.05dB 251mdB -5.75dB
1.5 Result Screenshots
1.5.1 a.) 10% Duty Cycle
1.5.1 b.) 10% Duty Cycle FFT
1.5.2 a.) 30% Duty Cycle
1.5.2 b.) 30% Duty Cycle FFT
1.5.3 a.) 50% Duty Cycle
1.5.3 b.) 50% Duty Cycle FFT
1.5.4 a.) 75% Duty Cycle
1.5.4 b.) 75% Duty Cycle FFT
1.5.5 a.) 75% Duty Cycle with low pass filter having cutoff frequency of 5Khz ;
R=3KΩ ; C = 0.01uF
1.5.5 b.) 75% Duty Cycle with low pass filter having cutoff frequency of 5Khz ;
R=3KΩ ; C = 0.01uF ; FFT
1.6 Conclusions
The experiment successfully demonstrated the generation of periodic rectangular signals with varying duty cycles
(10%, 30%, 50%, and 75%) using a 555 Timer IC in astable mode. The Fourier domain representation of these
signals was observed, highlighting the spectral components for each duty cycle. The experiment further showcased
the impact of passing these signals through an integrator or low-pass RC filter, effectively demonstrating the
attenuation of higher-order harmonics. The theoretical calculations, along with practical observations, confirmed
the relationship between the duty cycle, frequency, and the Fourier coefficients. This study reinforces the
importance of understanding signal synthesis and spectral analysis in communication systems.
1.7 Precautions
1. Check the connections before switching on the kit.
2. Connections should be done properly.
3. Observation should be taken properly.
