28‐01‐2025

ME 230

Mechanical Processing of Materials Outline

• Classification of Forging Process

Forging
• Forging Dies – Design, Grain Flow
Prof. S. S. Pande
• Analysis of Forging Process
Mechanical Engineering Department • Rectangular shapes
• Circular shapes
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Forging Forging Process

● Deformation process in which work is

compressed between two dies
● Components: engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts
● Metals industries use forging to establish
basic form of large parts that are
subsequently machined to final shape and
size
● Forging provides means for aligning grain
flow to obtain desired directional strength

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Classification of Forging Process Types of Forging

Cold vs. hot forging:

● Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant deformation and the need to
reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal
● Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that results from strain hardening
Impact vs. press forging:
● Forge hammer ‐ applies an impact load
● Forge press ‐ applies gradual pressure Open-die forging
Types of Forging Dies:
● Open‐die forging ‐ work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally Flashless (closed die) forging
with minimum constraint
● Impression‐die forging ‐ die contains cavity or impression that is imparted to work part. Metal
flow is constrained so that flash is created
● Flashless forging ‐ workpart is completely constrained in die and No excess flash is created

Impression-die forging 6

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Open and Closed Die Forging Open vs Close Die Forging

● Open die forging:

● Carried out between flat dies
● Parts weighing few lbs ~ 150 tons
● Solid Shafts, spindles/rotors, rings, etc.
● Often carried out in steps
● Wide range of ferrous and non‐ferrous metals
● Closed die forging:
● Carried out between shaped dies
● Parts weighing few ounces ~ 25 tons e.g.
● Crankshafts, connecting rods, aircraft parts etc.
● Most engineering metals: carbon steels, stainless steels, aluminum, bronze, etc

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Upset Forging Basic Features of Forging Die

● Upsetting (or upset forging) is process in which a specific part of a cylindrical

part is increased in diameter and reduced in length
● Bolt Head ● Forging dies are made with harder material such high carbon alloy
● Any shape can be formed by using different dies steel. Typical hardness > 45 Rc

● It can be both open or closed. ● Dies need to be stronger than the highest forging stress applied
during the operation
● To improve the metal flow around the corners during the forging
operation, proper fillet radius must be provided (shown as A in fig)
● It also reduces the die wear and fracture of metals near the corners

● All vertical surfaces are made a little bit tapered for easy removal
of the workpiece from the die (similar to draft allowance in casting
process) (shown in B in fig)
● Certain space around the die edge is provided as the buffer zone to
accommodate the excess material, known as flash (shown in D in
fig)
● Die dimensions should include the shrinkage allowance

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Grain Flow in Forging Forging Defects

● Surface cracking due to tensile stresses

● Grain structure: ● Internal cracking in thick webs

● Large grains are broken up ● Cold shuts due to small radii fillets in die

● Grains are forced to ‘flow’ under the heavy plastic

stress
● The grains are oriented in same direction as the part
geometry
● Compared to processes like casting (no grain flow),
machining (grain flow in machining direction), the
strength of forged parts are higher
● Cold forged parts have higher strength than the hot
forged parts

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Forging (Open-die) Analysis – Rectangular Slab Analysis of Forging – Rectangular Slab

Basic assumptions: 𝑝
● Material is perfectly plastic (no elastic deformation during process)  𝜇𝑝
z
ℎ 𝑑𝑥 y
● Coefficient of friction 𝜇 between the workpiece and the dies is constant
x 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 x
● Length (Depth) of the strip is much more than its width.

● Plastic deformation can be considered as plain strain type. 𝑝

● Forging force attains its maximum value at the end of operation

● Thickness of workpiece is ℎ and its width is 2𝑙 while its length (Depth direction) is unity
● Thickness of workpiece is smaller as compared to other dimensions
● An element at a distance of 𝑥 from the origin is considered
● Variation in the stress field along the depth direction is negligible
● If 𝜏 is the frictional force, and 𝑝 and 𝜎 are the principal stresses acting on the element.
● The entire workpiece is in the plastic state during the process
● Three conditions may exists between Die and the work. 𝜎 𝑑𝜎 ℎ 2𝜏𝑑𝑥 𝜎 ℎ 0
ℎ𝑑𝜎 2𝜏𝑑𝑥 0
● Sliding, Sliding‐sticking transition, fully sticking
𝑑𝜎 𝜏 𝑝
2 2𝜇
𝑑𝑥 ℎ ℎ

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Analysis of Forging Analysis of Forging: Sticking vs Sliding Friction Zones

The problem is simplified by assuming as plain strain type (𝜀 0). ● The friction force between the workpiece and the dies is not constant
To make the analysis simpler, 𝑝 and 𝜎 are considered as the principal stresses working on the flat ● Near the free‐ends (𝑥 0; 𝑥 2𝑙 , sliding between the workpiece and dies exists;
workpiece
● However, at certain position (𝑥 𝑥 , in region 0 𝑥 𝑙), there is increased
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝑝 σ2 = (σ1 + σ3 ) /2 Taking Poisson's ration √ = 0.5 for plastic deformation frictional stresses which reaches the maximum value, equal to the shear yield
stress at 𝑥 𝑥 and remains the same in the rest of the zone, 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙 value
Applying von‐Mises yield criteria
● 𝜏 𝜇𝑝 for 0 𝑥 𝑥 (sliding zone)
𝜎 𝑝 2𝐾 ;
● 𝜏 𝐾 for 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙 (sticking zone)
𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝑝 ; 𝐾 shear yield stress
● Transition will occur at 𝑥 𝑥𝑠
𝑑𝜎 𝜏 𝑑𝑝 Sliding zone
2 ● Sliding if 𝜏 𝜏
𝑑𝑥 ℎ 𝑑𝑥 Sticking zone
2𝜏 ● Sticking if 𝜏 𝜏
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑥;
ℎ
y
As 𝜏 𝜇𝑝; x
𝑑𝑝 𝜇
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑝 ℎ

𝑝 𝑒
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Sliding Zone Sticking Zone

For the sticking zone 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙 :

For the sliding (non‐sticking) zone 0 𝑥 𝑥 :
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑥 and 𝜏 𝐾
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑥 and 𝜏 𝜇𝑝
2𝐾
𝑑𝑝 2𝜇 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝐶 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑥 𝑥 ℎ
𝑝 ℎ
2𝐾𝑥
2𝜇𝑥 𝑝 𝐶
ln 𝑝 𝐶 ℎ
ℎ
At 𝑥 𝑥 ,𝑝 𝑝 ; then 𝐶 𝑝
At 𝑥 0, 𝜎 0,
2𝐾
As 𝜎 𝑝 2𝐾, 𝑝 2𝐾 𝜎 , 𝑝 𝑝 𝑥 𝑥
ℎ
At 𝑥 0, 𝑝 2𝐾 𝜎 2𝐾
𝑝 𝑝 𝑥 𝑥
ℎ
Yield criterion (𝜎 ) is the uniaxial tension yield stress (flow stress) ⁄
Now, 𝑝 2𝐾𝑒 (From sliding zone)
𝐶 ln 2𝐾
𝑝 𝟏
𝑒 ⁄ 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒑 𝟐𝑲 𝒆𝟐𝝁𝒙𝒔 ⁄𝒉 𝒙 𝒙𝒔
2𝐾 𝒉
𝒑 𝟐𝑲𝒆𝟐𝝁𝒙⁄𝒉 𝟎 𝒙 𝒙𝒔 or any of the platforms where it can be accessed by others.
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Sliding and Sticking Zone Extents Effect of Friction

At 𝑥 𝑥 ,𝜏 𝜇𝑝 𝐾,
⁄
so 𝜇2𝐾𝑒 𝐾 Pure Sliding Zone Pure Sticking zone
⁄
𝑒
𝒉 𝟏
∴ 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒙𝒔 𝟐𝝁
𝒍𝒏 𝟐𝝁 (here h is the final thickness)
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙
F𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒑 𝟐𝑲 𝟐𝝁
𝟏 𝒍𝒏 𝟐𝝁 𝒉
; for 𝒙𝒔 𝒙 𝒍

Total forging force per unit length of the workpiece:

𝐹 2 𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑝 𝑑𝑥
⁄ ⁄
Where 𝑝 2𝐾𝑒 and 𝑝 2𝐾 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥
● Increase in friction increases forging pressure
K Shear yield stress = 0.577𝜎

𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are the die pressures applicable in sliding (non-stick) and stick
zone
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Forging a Circular Disk Forging of Circular Disk

As there is cylindrical symmetry in the disc: 𝜎 𝜎

Considering the radial equilibrium of the element:
𝑑𝜃
𝜎 𝑑𝜎 ℎ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝜎 ℎ𝑟𝑑𝜃 2𝜎 ℎ𝑑𝑟 sin 2𝜏𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟 0
2
Neglecting higher terms and using 𝜎 𝜎
ℎ𝑑𝜎 2𝜏𝑑𝑟 0
𝜎 , 𝜎 and – 𝑝 are taken as principal stresses
Using the von-Mises yield criterion:
𝜎 𝑝 3𝐾 (𝐾 shear yield stress – constant)
𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝑝
ℎ𝑑𝑝 2𝜏𝑑𝑟 0
● Circular disc has a thickness of ℎ and a radius 𝑅 Beyond a certain radius (𝑟𝑠) sliding takes place at the interface to allow the radial expansion of
● An element of the disc, subtending an angle of 𝑑 at the centre between radius 𝑟 and the workpiece
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 is considered Stick and sliding zone also exists in this case
𝜏 𝜇𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 𝑅
𝜏 𝐾 0 𝑟 𝑟
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Forging of Circular Disk Forging of Circular Disk

𝑑𝑝 2𝜇 The expression for the pressure (𝑝) in the non‐sticking (𝑟 𝑟 𝑅) and the sticking zones
𝑑𝑟 0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑅
𝑝 ℎ (0 𝑟 𝑟 ) can be written as:
2𝐾
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑟 0 0 𝑟 𝑟
ℎ 𝑝 𝐾 3𝑒 for 𝑟 𝑟 𝑅
Integrating the above terms:
𝑝 𝐶𝑒 ⁄
𝑟 𝑟 𝑅
𝑝 𝑅 𝑟 1 ln 𝜇 3 for 0 𝑟 𝑟

𝑝 𝐶 𝑟 0 𝑟 𝑟

As the periphery of the disc is free, at 𝑟 𝑅, 𝜎 0 The total forging force will be:
𝜎 𝑝 3𝐾 … 𝑝 3𝐾 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 𝑅
𝐹 2𝜋 𝑝 𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑝 𝑟𝑑𝑟
⁄
Hence, 𝐶 3𝐾 𝑒

At 𝑟 𝑟 ,𝑝
2𝐾 𝑅 𝑟 𝐾𝑟 𝑒 2𝜇𝑟
𝐹 2𝜋 𝑟 1 ln 𝜇 3 3𝐾 ℎ 1
3𝐾 𝑒 𝑟 𝑅 ln ℎ 2 3 2𝜇 4𝜇 ℎ

Now at 𝑟 𝑟 ; Using 𝑝 𝐶 𝑟 0 𝑟 𝑟
2𝑅 1
𝐶 𝐾 1 ln 𝜇 3
ℎ 𝜇

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Example

A circular disc of aluminium of radius 150 mm and thickness 100 mm is reduced to a

thickness of 60 mm by open die forging. If the coefficient of friction between the job and
dies is 0.4, what will be the maximum forging force? Average yield stress of Aluminium in
tension 275 MPa.

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