The word ‘Philosophy’ two Greek words – Philo meaning love and Sophia meaning knowledge.

Thus literally speaking, philosophy means love of wisdom

Philosophy is the logical inquiry into the nature of reality- Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
Philosophy is the science of knowledge - Fichte
philosophy begins in wonder- plato

Nature of Philosophy
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held
uncritically
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticising our most deeply held conceptions and
beliefs.
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of langauge and the clarfication of the meaning of words and
concepts.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial/eternal problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.
6. Philosophy is a multi-disciplinary subject; its methodology is logical, analytical, dialectical and
empirical.
7. Philosophers analyzed the mysteries into conceptual and logical propositions so that every one
would understand and clarify it.

Scope of Philosophy
1. The philosophy embraces the whole of reality
2. Philosophy consider a set of problems connected with our thinking. The study of valid thinking
or argument is called logic
3. Study of knowledge is also a related area. It focuses mainly on what it is to know but not what we
know or how we know.
4. the realm of morality. It enables the human mind to distinguish between what is good and what is
bad.
5. Along with the the scientific knowledge of the cosmos, philosophy too looks at it in its radicality.
6. Axiology is the theory of values or ideals. Values are the supreme norms of life.

Branches of philosophy
1. Metaphysics
2. Epistemology
3. Axiology

1. Metaphysics
The term metaphysics was derived from two Greek words
Meta = Beyond, after
Physika = physics
An inquiry into the ‘beyond’ of physics,
It is an inquiry to the nature of the Reality as a whole. Reality can be seen from
different perspectives like art, religion, science and so on. Generality is the highest hall mark of
metaphysics. In that sense metaphysics is a theory of Reality as an inquiry.
for aristotle, the term metaphysics meant ‘first philosophy’
Every action has a casue and an effect
It encompasses every thing that exists
It inquires whether the world is real or an illusion
It is the foundation of philosophy. Without this all knowledge becomes suspect.
what is reality ?
what is mind ?
Am I free?
Is there a supreme being? etc are some metaphysical questions
Two branches of metaphysics are
1. ontology- study of being/ what is the nature of existence?.
2. cosmology- origin and organisation of the world
Theology is also a branch of metaphysics- relationship about the study of the God, human being and
universe.

2. Epistemology
epistem = knowledge
Logos= science
Study of the science of knowledge
In general, epistemology is the branch of philosohy that studies the sources, nature and validity of
knowledge.
Three central questions associated with knowledge are
a What are the sources of knowledge?. - Where does genune knowledge comes from?
b What is the nature of knowledge?. the question of appearance and reality
c Is our knowledge valid?. the question of the test of truth or verification
Those who answered these question can be grouped into two schools rationalism and empiricism
The rationalist hold that human reason alone can discover the basic principles of the universe
The empiricist claim that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense experience and thus our
Knowledge can be acquired a priori or a posteriori
a priori or a posteriori
a priori (prior to) – from the earlier
knowledge is independent of experience
a posteriori (posterior to) from the later
knowledge depends on experience or empirical evidence
Tacit knowledge is the knowledge of an individual which may or may not be expressed or shared.
knowledge communicated non- verbally
explicit knowledge is that which can be communicated to others , in a recorded form or through
any communication channels.
Can be found in text books and encyclopedia. ( libraries & databases)
More formal & reliable
Logic
A branch of epistemology
Greek ‘logos’ – reason
The study of science and reasoning
Methods of reasoning
Inductive reasoning- from particular to general
Deductive reasoning- from general to particular

3. Axiology
Two greek words
axios = worthy
logos = science
Theory of value
Mainly two kinds of value
Ethics- right and good in individual and social conduct.
Aesthetics- beauty and harmony
Philosophy of Research
The application of philosophical methodologies like ontology, epistemology and axiology in
research processes.
• Analysis, interpretations and validation.
• It means Philosophical approach to knowledge
Research is creating new knowledge - Neil armstrong
Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought –
Blaikie

Research philosophy is mainly associated with

a) the realities encountered in research (ontology)
b) Human knowledge (epistemology)
c) Human value (axiology)
Ontology
* deals with nature of reality
* there are objective reality and subjective reality
* objective reality – that really exist- Objectivism
* subjective reality- created in your minds- positivism

Epistemology (Human knowledge)

* consider the research methods
Intuitive knowledge- is based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc.- Research question
Authoritarian knowledge/ explicit knowledge- obtained from texts, encyclopedias etc.- Review of
literature
Logical knowledge is a new knowledge through the application of knowledge - gained from the
analysis of primary literature
Empirical knowledge obtained through experiments- Research results
Axiology
* Judgement about value
* Your value play an important role in all your research process and it ensures credible research
results.
* Your choice of philosophical approach is a reflection of your values
Four major aspects of research philosophy
1. Positivism
2. Interpretivism
3. Realism
4. Pragmatism
1. Positivism- Auguste Comte
* empirical science- Information derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason &
logic forms the exclusive source of all certain knowledge.
* human thought had developed in three stages
1. Theological stage- Everything explained in terms of divine spirits
2. Metaphysical stage- Everything is guided by abstract principles
3. Positive/ scientific stage- Everything should be explained in terms of scientific analysis.
* believed in valid knowledge- a posteriori knowledge
* quantitative approach
* The researcher is an objective analyst
* value neutrality – impartial and overcome bias
* deductive approach
* Observation, experiments, survey etc
Knowledge- by framing hypotheses, testing them by observation and experiment, and reshaping
them in the light of these reveal.
Law of gravity is an example
Principles of Positivism
1. The logic of inquiry is the same across all sciences.
2. The aim of science is to explain, predict and discover.
3. Scientific knowledge is testable, i.e., it is possible to verify research through empirical means.
4. Science is not equal to common sense.
5. Science should remain free of values and should be judged by logic

2. Interpretivism
States that on the basis of the principles it is not easy to understand the social world.
An approach that states it is important to understand or interpret the beliefs, motives and actions of
individuals in order to understand social reality.
Phenomenological approach- understanding the world through directly experiencing the phenomena
Hermeneutics approach- philosophy of interpretations and understanding
An approach aims to understand people- their beliefs and actions from their own point of view.
The purpose of research is understanding and interpreting everyday happenings/ events
The results can’t be generalised and it may vary or depends on situations and individuals
* Qualitative approach
* Subjective
* Value laden
* inductive
* interviews, observations, case studies etc

3. Realism
Realism is the philosophy about the reality of the world around us
Scientific approach to the development of knowledge
* quantitative and qualitative approach
* The researcher is an objective analyst
* Value laden- biased
* inductive and deductive approach

4. Pragmatism- studies judgement about values

*Also known as practical philosophy
*Action is real and ideas are tools
*experience is the central theme
* for a pragmatist, research starts with a problem, and aims to provide practical solutions
*They are not believed in abstract distinctions
* quantitative and qualitative approach
* Inductive method
* Interviews, observations, case studies, surveys etc
*It brings objectivism and subjectivism into the research output- that is facts and values to arrive at
conclusions.
1. Humanist pragmatism- the principle which satisfy the needs and requirements of human
being
2. Biological pragmatism- Capacity of a human being to adjust with the environment
3. Experience pragmatism- Principle is true which can be verified as true
 Ethics

Term “ethics” is derived from Greek word “ethos” - character, habit, customs, behaviour etc.
• Science of habits/character/values
• termed as moral philosophy
1. The ultimate aim of human activity is happiness and it is necessary to acquire the virtue. No man
is deliberately corrupt. All evil activities come from ignorance and the virtue is the kind of
prudence.- teachings of Socrates
2. the highest value/good consists in the perfect imitation of God. But it cannot be fully realised in
this life. He added that justice, temperance and fortitude very well constitute the harmony of human
activities. - teachings of Aristotle
3. Mackenzie- the science of what is right or good in human conduct or a general study of ideal
involved in human life.
4. John Dewey says that the subject matter of ethics is to point out what is right and good in conduct

Meaning
Philosophical study of the human acts from the point of their moral value (goodness and badness) in
relations to man’s ultimate end
• Philosophical study of morality
• The science of what is right or good in human conduct
• Set of standards or rules that guide human behavior and his actions.
• Part of philosophy dealing with moral conduct, duty and judgement
• the study of the values and guidelines by which we live
• Ethics is also theoretical and practical
• Ethics is a normative science
• to help individuals gain some practical knowledge about self and about different ethical
issues
• To establish a series of norms and criteria for judging human acts
Aims of ethics
Development of character
Knowledge of ideals, values and virtues
Responsibility and Duty
Social problems
Maintaining Law, Justice and Order
Ultimate end - ‘summum bonum’(best possible life/highest good)

Branches of ethics
1. Meta ethics
2. Normative ethics
3. Moral ethics
4. Applied ethics
1. Meta ethics or analytical ethics
* deals with the origin and meaning of ethical concepts, status of ethical properties, attitudes and
judgements.
* It is a highly abstractive way of thinking about ethics.
* focuses on what is morality
* It tries to analyse the underlying principles of ethical values
* It does not consider whether an action is good or bad, right or wrong. Rather it questions – What
is the meaning, nature, function of ethical terms like right, wrong, good and bad?
2. Normative ethics or Prescriptive ethics
* deals with a set of ‘norms’ or ‘considerations’ how one should act.
* Thus it is the study of ‘ethical action’ and set out the rightness and wrongness of the action.
* It is also called prescriptive ethics because it rests on the principle which determine whether an
action is right or wrong.
* The golden rule- “ doing to other as we want them to do to us”
* focuses on what is morals or moral behaviour of the people
* tries to arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct.
3. Applied ethics
* This is the study of applying ethical theories developed by various philosophers in our everyday
life.
* This branch of ethics is most important for professionals in different walks of life including
doctors, teachers, administrators, rulers and so on.
* The 6 key domain areas are
1. Decision ethics- to make ethical decision making process easy and simple.
2. Professional ethics – for maintaining good professionalism.
3. Clinical ethics- good clinical practices
4. Business ethics – good business practices
5. Organisational ethics- ethics within and among organisations- and
6. Social ethics
4. Moral ethics/ descriptive ethics
* a study of human behaviour as a consequence of beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or
bad.
* Morals are the study of what is thought to be right and what is generally done by a group, society
or a culture.

Why unethical behaviour in research?

1. Funding opportunities
2. Increasing demand
3. Advancement in technology
4. Competition in academic field
5. Prestige & Recognition
Moral Philosophy

Moral consciousness is the consciousness of right and wrong; good and bad.
It involves three factors
1. Cognitive or intellectual- Moral judgement
2. Affective or emotional- Moral sentiment
3. Conative or volitional- Moral obligation
Meaning
* A judgement of right and wrong, good and bad is commonly termed as moral judgement.
* It also involves evaluation of voluntary and habitual action regarding rightness and wrongness or
goodness and badness.
Mackenzie “it is not merely to state the nature of some object, but to compare it with a standard and
to pronounce it to be good or evil, right or wrong. So it is normative”

Contents of moral judgements

a) A subject which will judge
b) an object whose action will be judged
c) a standard in conformity to which the action of the subject will be judged and
d) a power of judging the action as required.
How moral judgement is done?.
Moral judgments are considered to be right or wrong with the reference to the moral standard, and
on the basis of the standard, moral judgement is given.
If the voluntary actions have conformity with the standard or the ideal, then the moral judgement
will express it as the right action.
If the action has conflict with the standard or norms then the moral judgement will express it as the
wrong action.
So moral judgement involves comparison of voluntary acts with the moral standard.

Nature and character of social judgement

• Moral judgement is active in nature
• Moral judgement is a judgement of values.
• A judgement of value is a judgement of “ what ought to be”. But a judgement of facts is
“What is”
• Moral judgement is a critical judgement where as judgement of facts is descriptive
• Moral judgement is social in character
• obligatory in character