What has IB asked?
2018 – SL – P2
Discuss the cell theory and its limitations. [7]
cell theory:
• a. cell theory is the accepted explanation of life
• b. organisms are composed of «one or more» cells
• c. cells are the basic/fundamental/smallest units of life
• d. cells can only come from pre-existing cells
• e. spontaneous generation of life has been disproven
limitations:
• f. striated muscle cells contain many nuclei «while most eukaryotic cells have one nucleus» OR red blood cells
have no nucleus «while most eukaryotic cells have one nucleus»
• g. giant algae have complex single cell structure OR organisms as large as giant algae would be expected to be
multicellular, but they have only one cell with one nucleus
• h. aseptate fungal hyphae are tube-like structures that contain no cell membranes between the many nuclei
OR slime molds contain many nuclei
• i. viruses have some characteristics of living organisms but are not cells
• j. if all cells come from pre-existing cells, where did the first one come from?
Allow description of Pasteur’s experiments
Do not accept a list of limitations without explanation
Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and
tissues, with drawing of cells
Because of the ease of use and affordability, most biologists use light
microscopes for investigating the structure of cells and tissues.
Electron microscopes have higher magnification and resolution, but are not
practical for school use.
Magnification is how much larger an object
appears compared to its real size
Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and
tissues, with drawing of cells
You can determine the total magnifying power of the light microscope by
multiplying the magnifying power of the ocular by the magnifying power of the
objective lens that you are using
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION = OCULAR
OCULAR
⨉ OBJECTIVE
For example, if the magnifying power of the
ocular is 10 (written 10X) and the
OBJECTIVE magnifying power of an objective is 4 (4X),
the total magnifying power of the
microscope is 40X.
Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and
tissues, with drawing of cells
1. Place a slide on the stage so that it is centered under the
objective lens.
2. Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest power
objective lens is "clicked" into position.
3. While looking at the objective lens and the stage from the
side, turn the coarse focus knob so that the stage moves
upward toward the objectives. Move it as far as it will go
without touching the slide.
4. Look through the eyepiece and adjust the light source and
diaphragm until you attain the maximum, comfortable level
of light.
5. Slowly turn the coarse adjustment so that the stage moves
down (away from the slide). Continue until the image comes
into broad focus. Then turn the fine adjustment knob, as
necessary, for perfect focus.
6. Move the microscope slide until the image is in the center of
the field of view. Then re-adjust the light source or
diaphragm in order to attain the clearest image.
7. Once you have attained a clear image, you should be able to
change to a higher power objective lens with only minimal
use of the fine focus knob. If you cannot focus on your
specimen, repeat the above steps and work from objective
to objective until the higher power objective lens is in place.
Virtual Microscope
Explore the site below. It is simulation on “How to use a light
microscope.”
http://www1.udel.edu/biology/ketcham/microscope/scope.html
Learn About Microscope
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=BIO905
Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope
Drawing Materials: All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white, unlined
paper. Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be corrected.
Positioning: Center drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave plenty of
room for the addition of labels.
Size: Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.
Labels: Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines. The labels should form a vertical list. All
labels should be printed (not cursive).
Technique: Lines are clear and not smudged. Avoid ‘feathery’ pencil lines and gaps. There are
almost no erasures or stray marks on the paper. Color is used carefully to enhance the drawing.
Stippling is used instead of shading.
Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope
Accuracy: Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making “idealized”drawings. Do
not necessarily draw everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for.
Show only as much as necessary for an understanding of the structure – a small section shown
in detail will often suffice. It is time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce
accurately the entire contents of a microscopic field. When drawing low power plans do not
draw individual cells. Show only the distribution of tissues. When making high power drawings,
draw only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of walls, membranes, etc.
Title: The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under (for
example, phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is informative,
centered, and larger than other text. The title should always include the scientific name (which
is italicized or underlined).
Eyepiece Graticules & Stage Micrometers
● An eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer are used to measure the size of the object when viewed under a microscope
● The type of microscope and magnification used can vary signficantly so the eyepiece graticule needs to be calibrated each time when measuring objects
● The calibration is done using a stage micrometer, this is a slide with a very accurate known scale in micrometres (µm)
● The eyepiece graticule is a disc placed in the eyepiece with 100 divisions, this has no scale
● To know what the graticule divisions equal at each magnification the eyepiece graticule is calibrated to the stage micrometer at each magnification
Using stage micrometer & eyepiece graticule
● In the diagram, the stage micrometer has three lines each 100 µm (0.1 mm) apart
● Each 100 µm division has 40 eyepiece graticule divisions
● 40 graticule divisions = 100 µm
1 graticule division = number of micrometres ÷ number of graticule division
● 1 graticule division = 100 ÷ 40 = 2.5 µm this is the magnification factor
● The calibrated eyepiece graticule can be used to measure the length of the object
● The number of graticule divisions can then be multiplied by the magnification factor:
graticule divisions x magnification factor = measurement (µm)
Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope
Scale: Include how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size and a labeled scale
bar that indicates estimated size. To determine magnification, use the equation:
Drawing Magnification = Measured size of drawing
Size of specimen
Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope
Title includes the scientific name,
which is good. However, it should
include the fact that this is a single
cell from the Elodea leaf as viewed
under a 400X microscope.
☑ Materials
☑
Positioning
☑ Size
Scale line and drawing magnification are
☑ Labels
correct, however it should be made clear
that the 400X is the drawing
☑ Accuracy
magnification, not the microscope lens ☑ Technique
magnification.
⌧ Title
⌧ Scale
Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope
Title includes the the fact that this
is a single cell from the Elodea leaf
but does not include the scientific
As noted by the
name or that the cell was viewed
teacher, this is
under a 400X microscope.
not an accurate
drawing.
Scale line is labelled correctly, however
the drawing magnification calculation is
not rounded and clearly distinct from the
microscope lens magnification.
☑ Materials
As noted by the teacher, labels ☑
should be drawn in one direction
with straight, horizontal lines.
Positioning
Technique is sloppy,
with incomplete
Labels should form a vertical list. ☑ Size
and/or overlapping
lines ⌧ Labels
⌧ Accuracy
⌧ Technique
⌧ Title
⌧ Scale
Drawing cell structures as seen with the light microscope
Title includes the scientific name,
but it needs to be underlined or
italicized. The title should also
include the fact that this is a single
cell from the Elodea leaf as viewed ☑ Materials
under a 400X microscope.
☑
Scale line and drawing magnification
are correct, however it should be Positioning
made clear that the 400X is the
drawing magnification, not the ☑ Size
microscope lens magnification.
☑ Labels
☑ Accuracy
☑ Technique
⌧ Title
⌧ Scale
Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of
structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs
A micrograph is a photograph taken through a microscope to show
a magnified image of an item.
A light microscope micrograph of a
plant stem cross section.
A SEM micrograph of a plant stem A TEM micrograph of a plant cell
cross section.
The invention of the electron microscope led to greater understanding of cell structure
(1.2.NOS). Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes
(1.2.U4) so the micrographs they produce will also have higher resolution.
Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of
structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs
Paramecium size
We draw structures much larger than the size we see
in real life (so
small you can’t
them when viewed under a microscope. The image
see it)
produced in the microscope is much smaller than
what is shown in a drawing.
Paramecium as viewed in the 0.3 mm
microscope at 400X total magnification.
If field of view is 0.5 mm, we can Paramecium drawing is showing the
estimate that the Paramecium is about organism even larger than it was
0.3 mm magnified by the microscope.
Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of
structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs
Drawing magnification indicates how many times larger the
drawing is compared to life size. To determine drawing magnification
compared to life size, you must first add a scale bar to indicate the
estimated (or measured) size of the sample. Use a ruler and measure the
length of the scale line
added next to your drawing.
Then, use this equation:
Drawing Magnification = Measured size of drawing
Size of specimen
Since you are calculating The life size of the sample, often
magnification from an estimate, HINT: Be sure the size of the line and the sample are estimated by figuring out how
you must round your answer to in the same unit of measurement. If not, convert much of a known field of view the
one significant digit. first before calculating drawing magnification! sample takes up.
Practice Problem #1
Here is a drawing of a
200 μm cell viewed
under the microscope
at high power.
Calculate the
magnification of the
drawing.
Drawing Magnification = Measured size of drawing
Size of specimen
1. First convert mm to μm, so that your measurements are in the same unit.
54 mm ⨉ 1000 = 54,000 μm
2. Then use the formula to calculate the drawing magnification
Drawing magnification = 54,000 μm ÷ 200 μm = 270X
3. Finally, round your drawing magnification to one significant digit.
270X → 300 X
Practice Problem #2 Use the diagrams to
answer the following
questions:
1. What is the
estimated size of
the cell?
2. What is the
drawing
magnification?
What is the estimated size of the cell?
1. First determine the size of the field of view using the higher power
magnification.
The FOV can be measured at lower power to be about 3.5mm
(3.5mm ⨉ 40X) ÷ 1000X = 0.14 mm
2. Then estimate the size of the cell in the field of view.
The cell is about ⅔ of the FOV.
⅔ ⨉ 0.14mm = 0.09 mm
What is the drawing
magnification?
1. Measure the size of the drawing.
9.8 cm - 2.2 cm = 7.6 cm
2. Convert cm to mm, so that your measurements are in the same unit.
7.6 cm ⨉ 10 = 76 mm
3. Then use the formula to calculate the drawing magnification.
Drawing magnification = 76 mm ÷ 0.09 mm = 844X
4. Finally, round your drawing magnification to one significant digit.
844X → 800X
Given the magnification of a micrograph
or drawing, use a formula to calculate the
actual size of a specimen.
If you know the magnification of an image, you can determine the size
of the specimen. Use a ruler and measure the length of
the scale line added next to the
image.
Size of specimen = Measured size of drawing
Drawing magnification
The size of the specimen as it exists in
real life. Round your answer to one
significant digit. HINT: The size of the specimen will be in the same
unit of measurement that you used to measure the
line. Use millimeters for easiest conversions to μm.
Practice Problem #3
Here is an
amoeba drawn
at 200X life
size. What is
the actual size
of the amoeba?
1. Measure the size of the drawing.
18.1 cm - 1.0 cm = 17.1 cm
1. Convert cm to mm, so that your
answer is in a reasonable unit for a
single celled organism.
17.1 cm ⨉ 10 = 171 mm
3. Then use the formula to calculate the size of the specimen.
Size of specimen = 176 mm ÷ 200X = 0.88 mm
4. Finally, round your specimen size estimation to one significant digit.
0.88 mm → 0.9 mm [you may convert mm to μm by multiplying by 1000 ∴ 900
μm]
