Chapter 1
Identical particles and motion
reversal symmetry
The angular momentum algebra is given by
[Ji , Jj ] = iijk Jk (1.1)
In order to find a representation, we define ladder operators
J± = Jx ± iJy (1.2)
They satisfy the following commutation relation
[J+ , J− ] = 2Jz , [Jz , J± ] = ±J± (1.3)
The states of a representation is denoted by the eigenvalue of the operators J 2 , Jz
|j, m〉 : J 2 |j, m〉 = 2 j(j + 1)|j, m〉 , Jz |j, m〉 = m|j, m〉 (1.4)
j, and m can only have tfollowing values
2j ∈ Z+ , m ∈ (j, j − 1, · · · , −j + 1, −j) (1.5)
We choose |j, m〉 to be normalized
〈j, m|j ′ , m′ 〉 = δjj ′ δmm′ (1.6)
then the action of the ladder operator is given by
J+ |j, m〉 = (j − m)(j + m + 1)|j, m + 1〉 (1.7)
This implies that |j, j〉 is annihilated by J+ .
Similarly, the action of lowering operator is given by
J− |j, m〉 = (j + m)(j − m + 1)|j, m − 1〉 (1.8)
Now we want to find the consequence on angular momentum representation. Let’s assume
T |j, m〉 = αm′ |j, m′ 〉 (1.9)
We act with Jz on both side
Jz T |j, m〉 = T T −1 Jz T |j, m〉 = −T Jz |j, m〉 = −m T |j, m〉 (1.10)
1
This implies m′ = −m. Now we act with J+ on both side. The LHS gives
J+ T |j, m〉 = T T −1 J+ T |j, m〉 = −T J− |j, m〉 = − (j + m)(j − m + 1) T |j, m − 1〉
= − (j + m)(j − m + 1) α−m+1 |j, −m + 1〉 (1.11)
The RHS gives
α−m J+ |j, −m〉 = (j + m)(j − m + 1)α−m |j, −m + 1〉 (1.12)
Comparing both sides we get
− α−m+1 = α−m (1.13)
There are at least two choices for αm
1. Sakurai
αm = (−1)m = (i)2m (1.14)
2. There is another choice
αm = (−1)j−m (1.15)
Note that this is a better choice in the following sense: T is a anti-linear operator and
(−1)j−m is always a real number and hence T commutes with (−1)j−m .
Action of T 2 on half-integer representation
∗
T 2 |j, m〉 = T α−m |j, −m〉 = α−m αm |j, m〉 (1.16)
For both choices of phase it is possible to show that
(α−m )∗ αm = (−1)2j (1.17)
This equation can be summarized as
T 2 = (−1)2j (1.18)
So, T 2 has a projective representation on half-integer representation.
T 2 = −1 has an important consequence: Kramers theorem. If a vector space admits an
action of an anti-linear, anti-unitary operation which squares to −1, the vector space must be
even-dimensional. In physics, it means that fermionic systems with TRS have even degeneracy
for every energy.
More exercises from this chapter
1. Consider a model with three identical bosons in a three-state system with energies 0, ∆
and 2∆. If the total energy of the model is a) ∆, b) 2∆, then find the wave function of
the model.
2. Repeat the previous with three identical fermions.
3. Consider a model with two identical bosons and two identical fermions. The particles are
distributed in a two-state model with energy levels 0 and ∆.
If the total energy of the model is ∆, find the wave function of the model.
If the total energy of the model is 2∆, find the wave function of the model.
If the total energy of the model is 4∆, find the wave function of the model.
4. Write down the equation of motion of a two-dimensional oscillator in the Heisenberg pic-
ture. Solve the e.o.m subjected to appropriate boundary conditions.
5. Consider the motion of a charged particle in the presence of the electromagnetic field.
Write down the Lagrangian and show that it has motion-reversal symmetry.
6. Consider a three-dimensional model with the following Hamiltonian
2
− ∇ · ∇ + V (x) (1.19)
2m
Check whether time-reversal is a symmetry of the model or not.
7. Consider a model where the Hamiltonian is given by
· σ
B (1.20)
where σs are the Pauli matrices. Check whether time-reversal is a symmetry of the model
or not.
8. For angular momentum states with J 2 eigenvalue 2 & 15/4. Find the matrix form of J1 ,
J2 & J3 . In the first case, Ji s will be 3 × 3 matrices and in the second case, Ji will be 4 × 4
matrices.
Find also the action of time-reversal operator on the states.
9. Find the action of reflection along y
(J1 , J2 , J3 ) −→ (−J1 , J2 , −J3 ) (1.21)
on the angular momentum states |j, m〉 (m = j, j − 1, · · · , −j).
